ANSI/HPS N43.

17-2009

American National Standard

Radiation Safety for Personnel

Security Screening Systems
Using X-Ray or Gamma Radiation

Approved: August 2009

American National Standards Institute, Inc.

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Health Physics Society

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ii
The Health Physics Society N43.17 Standards Subcommittee responsible for the development of
N43.17-2002 had the following members: Frank Cerra (chair), Martin Annis, Edgar Bailey, Terry Brayer,
Larry Cothran, Daniel Kassiday, Andy Kotowski, Roy Lindquist, William Passetti, Richard Schueller,
Timothy Scroggins, Gerald Smith, Steve Smith, Richard Whitman, Pamela Zaresk.

The N43.17 Subcommittee responsible for the current revision had the following members:

Frank Cerra, Co-Chair, National Institute of Standards and Technology

Daniel Kassiday, Co-Chair, Food and Drug Administration
Martin Annis, Annistech
Paul Bergstrom, National Institute of Standards and Technology
Jack Burroughs, L-3 Security & Detection
Linda Bray, SAIC
Randy Broadright, Valley Forge Composite Technologies
Joe DeCicco, Nuclear Regulatory Commission
John Ely, Federal Bureau of Prisons
Renee Fizer, Maryland Radiological Health Program
Tony Frudakis, Valley Forge Composite Technologies
Dave Hamel, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Jim Hancock, U.S. Secret Service
Gerard Hanley, Spectrum San Diego, Inc.
Doreen Hill, Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Larry Hudson, National Institute of Standards and Technology
Siraj Khan, DHS Customs and Border Protection
Craig Jones, U.S. Army CHPPM
Roy Lindquist, Consultant
Barry Masters, DHS Transportation Security Laboratory
Luke McCormick, DHS Customs and Border Protection
Jeff Schubert, American Science & Engineering, Inc.
Richard Schueller, American Science & Engineering, Inc.
Jill Segraves, Transportation Security Administration
Steve Seltzer, National Institute of Standards and Technology
Jerel Smith, Rapiscan Systems, Inc.
Steve Smith, Spectrum San Diego, Inc.
Daniel Strom, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory
Fran Szrom, U.S. Army CHPPM
Steve Tilden, DHS Customs and Border Protection
Amit Verma, Rapiscan Systems, Inc.
Rick Whitman, DHS Customs and Border Protection
Doug Wicks, Secure Path, Inc.
J. Nick Walker, Food and Drug Administration
Michael Wilson, Braun International USA, LLC

iii
This standard was consensus balloted and approved in February 2009 by the ANSI Accredited
Standards Committee, N43, on Equipment for Non-Medical Radiation Applications. At the time of
balloting, the HPS N43 Committee had the following membership:

Chair Gordon M. Lodde

Vice Chair William Morris
ABB Industrial Systems Inc. John R. Dukes
American Conf. of Governmental Industrial Hygienists Gordon M. Lodde
American Iron and Steel Institute Anthony LaMastra
American Society for Nondestructive Testing, Inc. K. Dieter Markert
American Society for Testing and Materials Marvin M. Turkanis
Canadian Nuclear Safety Commission Slobodan Jovanovic
Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors Mike Henry
Alternate: Bart Lago
Health Physics Society Sander Perle
Alternate: Bill Harris
Los Alamos National Laboratory Scott Walker
National Council on Radiation Protection & Measurements Susan Langhorst
National Institute of Standards and Technology James Clark
Alternate: David Brown
Underwriters' Laboratories, Inc. Peter Boden
Alternate: David Dini
U.S. Dept of the Air Force - Office of the Surgeon General Ramachandra Bhat
U.S. Dept of the Army - Office of the Surgeon General Frances Szrom
U.S. Army Material Command Gregory R. Komp
U.S. Department of Energy Peter O'Connell
Alternate Joel Rabovsky
U.S. Dept. of Health & Human Serv., Public Health Service Daniel Kassiday
U.S. Department of Homeland Security Siraj M. Khan
U.S. Department of the Navy Brendan K. Glennon
Alternates: William Morris
Steve Doremus
U. S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission John Jankovich
Individual Members: John Taschner
David Lee
Scott Schwahn

iv
Contents
Foreword . ........................................................................................................................................................ vii
1.0 Scope ...............................................................................................................................................1
2.0 Definitions .........................................................................................................................................1
3.0 General Considerations.....................................................................................................................4
4.0 Federal, State, and Local Regulations ...............................................................................................4
5.0 System Categories and Classes........................................................................................................5
5.1 Categories .................................................................................................................................5
5.1.1 Category 1: General-use Systems .......................................................................................5
5.1.2 Category 2: Limited-use Systems ........................................................................................5
5.2 Classes......................................................................................................................................5
5.2.1 Class A: Full-body Scanners ...............................................................................................5
5.2.2 Class B: Partial-body Scanners ...........................................................................................5
6.0 Dose Limitation .................................................................................................................................5
6.1 Dose to Scanned Individuals ......................................................................................................6
6.1.1 Dose Limitation for General-use Systems ............................................................................6
6.1.2 Dose Limitation for Limited-use Systems .............................................................................7
6.1.3 Determination of the Reference Effective Dose....................................................................8
6.2 Dose to Bystanders, Operators, and Other Employees ...............................................................8
6.3 Shielding....................................................................................................................................9
7.0 System and Manufacturing Requirements .........................................................................................9
7.1 Filtration.....................................................................................................................................9
7.2 Indicators, Controls, and Safety Interlocks..................................................................................9
7.2.1 Requirements for All Systems..............................................................................................9
7.2.2 Requirements for General-use Systems Using X-ray Sources............................................10
7.2.3 Requirements for Limited-use Systems Using X-ray Sources.............................................11
7.2.4 Requirements for General-use Systems Using Gamma Sources .......................................11
7.2.5 Requirements for Limited-use Systems Using Gamma Sources.........................................11
7.3 Labeling ...................................................................................................................................12
7.4 Modifications............................................................................................................................12
7.5 Information To Be Provided to the End User .............................................................................12
7.6 Records To Be Maintained by Manufacturers ...........................................................................12
7.7 Records To Be Obtained by Dealers And Distributors ...............................................................13
8.0 Operating Requirements .................................................................................................................13
8.1 Operation of General-use Systems...........................................................................................13
8.1.1 Responsible Individual.......................................................................................................13
8.1.2 Installation.........................................................................................................................13
8.1.3 Operating Procedures .......................................................................................................13
8.1.4 Information To Be Provided to Screened Individuals ..........................................................14
8.1.5 Personnel Training ............................................................................................................14
8.1.6 Preventive Maintenance ....................................................................................................14
8.1.7 Radiation Surveys .............................................................................................................14
8.1.8 System Disposal ...............................................................................................................14
8.1.9 Records and Documentation .............................................................................................15
8.2 Operation of Limited-use Systems............................................................................................15
8.2.1 Responsibilities .................................................................................................................15
8.2.2 Installation.........................................................................................................................15

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 8.2.3 Operating Procedures .......................................................................................................16
8.2.4 Information To Be Provided to Screened Individuals ..........................................................16
8.2.5 Personnel Training ............................................................................................................16
8.2.6 Preventive Maintenance ....................................................................................................17
8.2.7 Radiation Surveys .............................................................................................................17
8.2.8 System Disposal ...............................................................................................................17
8.2.9 Records and Documentation .............................................................................................17
9.0 References .....................................................................................................................................18
Annex A (Informative) Reference Effective Dose and Ambient Dose Equivalent Area Product (ADAP)....19
A.1 Reference Effective Dose .............................................................................................................19
A.1.1 Rationale ...............................................................................................................................19
A.1.2 Derivation ...............................................................................................................................20
A.1.3 Revised Tissue Weighting Factors .........................................................................................20
A.1.4 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................21
A.2 Ambient Dose Equivalent Area Product (ADAP)............................................................................24
A.3 References for Annex A ................................................................................................................25
Annex B (Informative) Radiation Dose Discussion ..................................................................................26
B.1 Radiation Risk and Rationale for Subject Dose Limits ...................................................................26
B.2 Dose to Operators and Other Employees ......................................................................................26
B.3 Dose to Special Groups ................................................................................................................27
B.4 Dose Minimization and Negligible Individual Dose ........................................................................27
B.5 References for Annex B ................................................................................................................28
Annex C (Informative) Radiation Measurements....................................................................................29
C.1 Quantities and Units .....................................................................................................................29
C.2 Types of Radiation Detectors .......................................................................................................30
C.2.1 Ionization Chamber................................................................................................................30
C.2.2 Geiger Counter ......................................................................................................................30
C.2.3 Scintillation Detector ..............................................................................................................31
C.2.4 Semiconductor Detector.........................................................................................................31
C.3 Air Kerma Measurements for Compliance with ANSI/HPS N43.17 ................................................31
C.3.1 Instrument Selection ..............................................................................................................31
C.3.2 Calibration .............................................................................................................................32
C.3.3 Measurement.........................................................................................................................33
C.4 Determination of the Half-Value Layer..........................................................................................33
C.5 Determination of Effective Dose for Polyenergetic X--ray Spectra .....................................................34
C.5.1 Conversion Coefficients .........................................................................................................34
C.5.2 Sources of Data and Methods ................................................................................................34
C.6 References for Annex C ...............................................................................................................35

vi
Foreword (This foreword is not part of American National Standard ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009.)

This standard is a revision of ANSI/HPS N43.17-2002 and applies to security screening systems in which
people are intentionally exposed to ionizing radiation. The standard provides guidelines specific to the
radiation safety aspects of the design and operation of these systems. It does not include electrical safety
guidelines or any other safety, performance, or use considerations outside the realm of radiation safety.
The standard is intended for manufacturers, distributors, installers, and users of the systems.

The original standard, N43.17-2002, included requirements that were intended for self-enclosed, full-
body, x-ray scanners that operated by scanning a person who was standing still. New system designs
and new use requirements have developed since publication of the original standard. The new designs
include portal systems, multi-source systems, vehicle scanners meant for screening occupied vehicles,
scanners for inspecting casts and prosthetic devices, and scanners using a radioisotope as the source of
radiation. The new types of uses include the use of vehicle and cargo scanners to inspect people and the
*
limited use of higher-dose systems as defined in NCRP Commentary 16 . The present standard includes
requirements that cover these new developments.

The following major changes were made with respect to the original standard:

1. Systems were broken down into two categories, general-use and limited-use, in accordance with
NCRP Commentary 16.
2. The limit on dose to a person screened was changed from a per-scan limit to a per-screening
limit.
3. The method of calculating the reference effective dose based on the measured half-value layer
was introduced.
4. The user requirements were expanded considerably to cover sufficient administrative and
operational controls necessary for limited-use systems.
5. The concept of Ambient Dose Equivalent Area Product was introduced to deal with partial-body
scanners.
6. Appropriate equivalent requirements were added for radioisotope-based systems.

Notwithstanding the changes, there is consistency of radiation protection between the original standard
and the revised standard. All systems complying with the original standard also comply with the present
requirements for the general-use category. The final goal of limiting the annual effective dose to members
of the public to 0.25 mSv (25 mrem) was preserved and applies to all types of systems.

It is important to reiterate that this standard includes requirements for both the manufacturers and users
of screening systems. Section 6 of this standard contains requirements for both manufacturers and users.
Section 7 contains only manufacturer requirements. Section 8 contains mostly user requirements with
some manufacturer requirements pertaining to installation. Full compliance with this standard only
pertains to systems manufactured and operated according to the standard. Simply procuring equipment
that meets all the manufacturing performance requirements does not guarantee compliance. This is true
for general-use as well as limited-use systems, but the importance of proper implementation of
administrative controls for limited-use systems cannot be understated. The authors of this standard
recommend establishing a mechanism for independent oversight of the use of limited-use systems that
are not subject to licensing or registration by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission or state
governments.

Users and potential users of personnel security screening systems are encouraged to consult the
document Guidance for Security Screening of Humans Utilizing Ionizing Radiation, available from the
Interagency Steering Committee on Radiation Standards (ISCORS Technical Report 2008-1,
http://www.iscors.org/library.htm).

*
National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Screening of humans for security purposes using
ionizing radiation scanning systems. Bethesda, MD: NCRP; NCRP Commentary 16; 2003.

vii
AMERICAN NATIONAL STANDARD ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

Radiation Safety for Personnel

Security Screening Systems 2.0 Definitions
Using X-Ray or Gamma Radiation
The following are terms that are either o f key
significance or have a specific meaning in
1.0 Scope this standard that might differ from the
term’s usage elsewhere. This is not meant
to be a comprehensive glossary of terms
This standard applies to the manufacture
used in radiation protection. The discussion
and operation of security screening systems
in Annex C contains additional information
that are intended to expose humans to
on radiation quantities and units.
primary beam x-rays, gamma radiation, or
both. This standard does not address
Access panel: Any panel designed to be
neutron-based systems. Examples of
removed or opened for maintenance or
screening practices covered by this standard
service purposes that when removed or
include the following:
opened affects the radiation leakage pattern
or allows intrusion into the radiation field.
• Direct screening of humans to detect
objects hidden within an individual’s body ADAP: see Ambient Dose Equivalent Area
or clothing. Product
• Knowingly exposing human occupants to
the primary beam when screening Administrative control: A documented,
vehicles or structures. compulsory, routine procedure aimed at
• Screening of orthopedic casts and controlling the radiation exposure received
prosthetic devices while being worn. by individuals and ensuring that the
appropriate dose limits are not exceeded.
The standard provides requirements specific
to the ionizing radiation safety aspects of Air kerma: The total initial kinetic energy
both the design and operation of these transferred to charged particles per mass of
systems. It does not include electrical safety air as a result of irradiation. The unit of air
guidelines or any other safety, performance, kerma is the joule per kilogram or gray (Gy).
or use considerations outside the realm of (1 Gy air kerma corresponds to approxi-
radiation safety. The limits in this standard mately a 114-roentgen exposure).
are not intended to apply to stowaways not
authorized to be in the area and not known ALARA: As Low As Reasonably
to be present prior to scanning. Achievable, economic and social factors
being taken into account.
It is recognized that the need for security
might sometimes call for exceeding the dose Aluminum-equivalent filtration: The
limits set in this standard. This should be thickness of aluminum affording the same
based on an analysis demonstrating that the attenuation of the x-ray beam as the
security benefit outweighs the risk from the material in question under specified
radiation exposure incurred by the conditions.
individuals screened. This standard does not
address the evaluation of the societal benefit Ambient dose equivalent area product
of security screening. Therefore, screening (ADAP): The product of the ambient dose
operations that exceed this standard’s dose equivalent, H*(10), and the scan area at a
limits are beyond the scope of this standard defined distance (used only for partial-body
and shall not claim compliance with this scanners).
standard.
Ambient dose equivalent, H*(d): The dose
Medical diagnostic systems should be used equivalent at a point in a radiation field
under medical supervision and are not produced by the corresponding expanded
covered by this standard. and aligned field in the ICRU sphere (ICRU

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ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

1998) at a depth d on the radius opposing radiation weighting factor. The unit of
the direction of the aligned field. Dose equivalent dose is joule per kilogram, and its
equivalent is the product of the absorbed special name is sievert (Sv, 1 Sv = 100
dose D at a point in tissue (i.e., the mean rem). See ICRU (1998).
energy imparted per unit mass) and the
quality factor Q at that point. The unit of External surface: The outside surface of
dose equivalent, H, and of ambient dose the enclosure containing all associated
equivalent, H*(d), is the joule per kilogram (J ionizing radiation sources.
–1
kg ), with the special name sievert (Sv, 1
Sv = 100 rem). Facility: See Operating facility.

Backscatter system: A security screening General-use system: A personnel

system that makes use of radiation screening system that delivers a reference
scattered or deflected from an object or effective dose equal to or less than 0.25 µSv
person to form an image of the scattering (25 µrem) per screening as defined in this
object or person. standard. Given proper justification and
certain restrictions, general-use systems
Beam exit surface: The surface of the may be operated without specific controls
outer system assembly from which the direct that would limit the number of individuals
x-ray or gamma ray beam emanates. This scanned or the number of scans per
may be a flat surface or the outer surface of individual in a year.
a port or collimator. The subject being
scanned is exposed through this surface. Ground fault: An accidental electrical
Systems with more than one radiation grounding of an electrical conductor.
source may have more than one beam exit
surface. Half-value layer (HVL): The thickness of
specified material that attenuates the
Beam stop: A radiation shield meant to radiation beam such that the air-kerma (or
intercept the direct beam of radiation. exposure) rate is reduced to one-half of its
original value. The HVL is determined in
Bystander: Any person other than the such a way that scattered radiation, other
individual being screened who is not directly than that initially present in the beam, is
associated with operation of the system. excluded (i.e., in narrow-beam geometry).

Effective dose: A summation of the High radiation area: An area, accessible to

equivalent doses in tissues or organs each individuals, in which radiation levels could
multiplied by the appropriate tissue result in an individual’s receiving a dose
weighting factor as defined by the equivalent in excess of 1 mSv (100 mrem) in
International Commission on Radiation Units 1 hour at 30 cm from a beam exit surface.
and Measurements (ICRU 1998). The tissue The ambient dose equivalent at 10 mm,
weighting factors were modified by the H*(10), shall be used for determining the
International Commission on Radiological potential dose to individuals.
Protection in its Publication 103 (ICRP
2007). The unit of effective dose is joule per Inspection zone: The general area
kilogram, and its special name is sievert (Sv, established by the operating institution for
1 Sv = 100 rem). the purpose of limiting or controlling access
to the area where the screening will be
Engineering control: A safety component performed. This includes but is not limited to
of the system design that prevents improper any ingress, egress, gate, portal, traffic path,
operation or unintended radiation exposure. and areas, access to which is restricted due
Examples of engineering controls include to the presence of radiation. The ambient
one-way turnstiles, interlocked motion dose equivalent, H*(10), outside of the
sensors, etc. inspection zone shall not exceed 20 µSv (2
mrem) in any 1 hour.
Equivalent dose: The absorbed dose in an
organ or tissue multiplied by the appropriate Institution: See Operating institution.

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ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

Limited-use system: A personnel standard also referred to as “screening

screening system that is capable of system” or “system”).
delivering a reference effective dose greater
than 0.25 µSv (25 µrem) per screening but Primary beam: The beam of radiation
shall not exceed a reference effective dose emanating from the system intended to
of 10 µSv (1 mrem) per screening as reach the target being scanned. This
defined in this standard. Limited-use excludes scattered radiation and radiation
systems require additional controls and transmitted through shielding.
documentation to ensure that annual
individual dose limits are not exceeded. Portal system: A system designed to
image persons who move through the
Mode of operation: A selectable set of inspection zone under their own control, by
technique factors or machine settings that is a moving walkway, or within a vehicle. It
pre-determined by the manufacturer for a does not include systems that move the
specific purpose. individual through the inspection zone in a
controlled manner, such as a moving
Multiple source system: A system utilizing platform on which the subject is normally
more than one source of radiation. required to remain still (see Stationary-
subject system).
NID: Negligible Individual Dose. An annual
effective dose lower than or equal to 0.01 Qualified service provider: As it pertains
mSv (1 mrem). to radiation surveys, a person having the
knowledge—as demonstrated by documen-
Occupancy factor: The fraction of time ted training and experience—to properly
relative to 2,000 hours per year (full measure ionizing radiation and analyze the
occupancy) that a maximally exposed results relative to the requirements of this
individual is expected to remain in a given standard. As it pertains to radioisotope
area. maintenance, a person having the
necessary training and experience to safely
Operating facility (also facility): A maintain and repair the system and who is
location of use where one or more screening registered or licensed according to
systems may be installed. regulatory requirements at the location
where the service is being performed.
Operating institution (also institution,
user, end user): A government or private Radiation area: An area, accessible to
organization that controls the deployment of individuals, in which radiation levels could
screening systems at one or more facilities. result in an individual’s receiving a dose
equivalent in excess of 0.05 mSv (5 mrem)
Operator: Any employee associated with in 1 hour at 30 cm from a beam exit surface.
the operation of the system whose The ambient dose equivalent at 10 mm,
responsibilities include at least one of the H*(10), shall be used for determining the
following: initiating or stopping the scan, potential dose to individuals.
verifying the system is operating correctly,
providing information and instructions to the Reference effective dose, EREF: A quantity
screened individuals, and controlling access based on measurable parameters used by
to the inspection zone. This does not include this standard for setting dose limits. It is
other employees, such as individuals who derived from the effective dose to the
may be remotely viewing the image results average adult as defined in ICRU Report 57
but are not directly responsible for the other (ICRU 1998) and as modified by ICRP
functions. Publication 103 (ICRP 2007). It is obtained
from air kerma (or exposure) and HVL
Personnel security screening system: A measurements as described in Section 6.1.3
system designed for the detection of of this standard, “Determination of the
contraband and weapons concealed on a Reference Effective Dose.”
person or in a vehicle while being occupied
by one or more people (in the body of this

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ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

Safety interlock: A device that is intended one joule of photon energy absorbed in each
to automatically prevent or interrupt the kilogram of irradiated tissue.
radiation hazard whenever safety is
compromised by access to the interior of the Stationary-subject system: A system
system, unauthorized access to a radiation designed to image a person who remains
area, or by an operational malfunction. stationary while a scan is occurring. This
includes systems that move the individual
Scan: The operation necessary to produce through the inspection zone in a controlled
one image (e.g., front view) from one manner, such as a moving platform on
radiation source. One radiation source which the subject is normally required to
simultaneously producing multiple images remain still.
also constitutes one scan. Two sources
simultaneously producing two images Structure: Any physical enclosure
constitute two scans. In some cases several containing humans that might be inspected.
scans may be required for a single Includes but is not limited to vehicles, cargo
screening of the subject. containers, walls, wheelchairs, buildings,
etc.
Scan area: The total area on the reference
plane that is covered by the primary beam Technique factors: The x-ray settings,
as it scans. The reference plane is the plane including 1) the peak kilovoltage applied to
containing the reference measuring point the x-ray tube, 2) the electric current passing
and is perpendicular to the beam direction at through the x-ray tube, and 3) the scan time.
the reference point (used only for partial-
body scanners). Transmission system: A security
screening system using the conventional
Screening: The sum of radiation exposures means of radiographic imaging in which x-
or scans necessary to image objects rays or gamma rays pass through a target
concealed on all sides of the body as (e.g., person or container) and create
intended by the system design under normal shadow-grams of enclosed objects (e.g.,
conditions. Examples: 1) for backscatter contraband) based on their radiation
systems a screening typically consists of attenuating properties.
four scans, one from each side; 2) for
transmission systems a screening typically 3.0 General Considerations
consists of one scan; 3) for portal systems a
screening consists of a complete pass The devices that are subject to this standard
through the inspection zone. are unique in that they intentionally expose
people to ionizing radiation for non-medical
Shall: The word “shall” is used to indicate a purposes. This standard recognizes the
requirement. potential for a net security benefit to society
and presupposes appropriate justification of
Should: The word “should” is used to each screening practice. These security
indicate a provision that is not required but is devices shall not be used frivolously where
recommended as good practice. no security benefit is to be derived.

Shutter: A means of turning a radiation 4.0 Federal, State, and Local

beam on and off by blocking the beam with Regulations
a suitable thickness of shielding material.
This may be accomplished by moving the
Manufacturers, distributors, and users of
shield in front of the radiation source or by
security screening systems under this
moving the radiation source behind the
standard shall comply with all applicable
shield.
requirements in the U.S. Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR): Title 21, Parts 1000
Sievert (abbreviated Sv): The unit of
through 1005 (FDA), regarding x-ray
equivalent dose, ambient dose equivalent,
systems; Title 10, Parts 20 and 30 through
and effective dose. One sievert represents
33 (NRC), regarding radioactive materials;

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ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

and Title 29, Part 1910.1096 (OSHA), 5.1.2 Category 2: Limited-use Systems
regarding occupational safety. In addition, For the purpose of this standard, limited-use
the installation, maintenance, and operation systems are systems that require additional
of these systems may be subject to state administrative controls in order to ensure
and local regulations, which may involve that members of the public are not subjected
registration, licensing, and compliance with to a cumulative effective dose in excess of
specific requirements. the allowed annual limit. Limited-use
systems may be suitable when additional
5.0 System Categories and Classes security measures are necessary and when
a general-use system is not adequate.
Personnel screening systems are divided These systems shall either be used with
into two categories based on the radiation discretion in terms of the number of
output: individuals scanned and the number of
scans per individual in a year or shall be
• Category 1 – general-use systems used with rigorous administrative controls
that guarantee the same dose limitation per
• Category 2 – limited-use systems
screening as general-use systems.
The systems are also classified into two
Category 2 systems shall conform to the
classes based on their configuration:
dose limitation requirements of Section
6.1.2, “Dose Llimitation for Limited-use
• Class A – full-body scanners Systems,” of this standard.
• Class B – partial-body scanners
5.2 Classes
Both categories may include systems of
both classes. The requirements of this 5.2.1 Class A: Full-body Scanners This
standard are specific to each category and class includes all systems that image the full
each class. Manufacturers shall identify the body of a person. Systems in which the
category and class of each system in all subject stands in place, portal systems, and
statements of conformance with this multi-purpose scanners used to intentionally
standard. scan humans who may be pedestrians or
vehicle occupants are examples of full-body
5.1 Categories scanners.

5.1.1 Category 1: General-use Systems For the purpose of this standard, any system
For the purpose of this standard, general- for which at least one dimension of the scan
use systems are systems that guarantee a area is greater than 50 cm shall be
high degree of radiation safety due to the considered a full-body scanner.
extremely low doses delivered and
engineering controls incorporated in the 5.2.2 Class B: Partial-body Scanners This
system. The probability of any one class includes systems designed to image a
individual’s receiving a cumulative effective small part of the body. Partial-body scanners
dose in excess of the annual limit from are used typically to inspect orthopedic
general-use systems is extremely low. casts, braces, and prosthetic devices. For
Therefore, general-use systems require few the purpose of this standard, any system for
administrative controls and may be operated which no dimension of the scan area is
without the need for tracking the number of greater than 50 cm shall be considered a
individuals scanned or the number of scans partial-body scanner.
per individual in a year.
6.0 Dose Limitation
Category 1 systems shall conform to the
dose limitation requirements of Section This section contains dose limits and
6.1.1, “Dose Limitation for General-Use associated requirements. Some of the
Systems,” of this standard. requirements of this section pertain to the
system performance and are directed to the

5
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

system manufacturer. Other requirements in Section 6.1.3, “Determination of the

this section pertain to operating procedures Reference Effective Dose,” shall not exceed
and are directed to the user organization. 0.25 µSv (25 µrem) per screening.
Additional, specific requirements for
achieving the dose limits are included in For Class A general-use systems, the
Section 7.0, “System and Manufacturing reference effective dose received by
Requirements,” and Section 8.0, “Operating individuals from one facility shall not exceed
Requirements.” 250 µSv (25 mrem) over a 12-month period.
Compliance with this requirement shall be
6.1 Dose to Scanned Individuals demonstrated as follows: if the nature of the
screening operation is such that one or more
The radiation dose delivered to a scanned adult individuals may be screened routinely
individual shall be as low as reasonably more than twice each day of the year by the
achievable (ALARA) while meeting the same facility (e.g., as in routine screening of
required detection performance. When using employees), the facility shall keep records to
transmission systems, to minimize the show that either: 1) the number of
effective dose received, persons undergoing screenings received by any individual does
screening should be positioned facing away not exceed 1,000 per 12-month period or 2)
from the source of radiation. the reference effective dose multiplied by
the number of screenings does not exceed
The system manufacturer shall ensure that 250 µSv (25 mrem) over a 12-month period
operating parameters are optimized for the for any individual. Note: the reference
best performance at the lowest dose. effective dose is based on a computational
adult model and is not always indicative of
6.1.1 Dose Limitation for General-use the actual effective dose, especially for small
Systems children. Therefore, practices that involve
daily screening of the same population of
6.1.1.1 Class A (Full-body Scanner) For children are not recommended without
Class A (full-body) scanners the reference additional analysis.
effective dose as determined according to
Table 1 can be used to aid in meeting the
annual dose requirement.

Table 1. The number of allowed screenings for one individual.

Standard is met Standard is
Standard is if number of met if number Standard is met
met if number screenings of screenings if the number of
Reference effective of screenings every month every week screenings
dose per screening per year does does not does not every day does
(µSv) (µrem) not exceed exceed exceed not exceed
0.05 5 5,000 416 96 13
0.10 10 2,500 208 48 6
0.15 15 1,667 138 32 4
0.20 20 1,250 104 24 3
0.25 25 1,000 83 19 2
0.5* 50 500 41 9
1.0* 100 250 20 4
2.0* 200 125 10 2
3.0* 300 80 6 1
4.0* 400 62 5 1
5.0* 500 50 4
10.0* 1,000 25 2
*Applies to limited-use systems only.
6
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

6.1.1.2 Class B (Partial-body Scanner) the nature of the screening

For Class B (partial-body) scanners the operation is such that one or more
ambient dose equivalent area product adult individuals may be screened
(ADAP) is calculated by multiplying the routinely more than twice each day
ambient dose equivalent, H*(10) and the by the same facility (e.g., as in
scanned area. The ADAP shall not exceed routine screening of employees), the
2 2
0.03 µSv m (3 µrem m ) per scan. The facility shall keep records to show
measurement shall be made at the point of that either: 1) the number of
maximum exposure on a plane at the screenings received by any
optimum imaging distance. The individual does not exceed 1,000
measurement shall be made under per 12-month period or 2) the
operating conditions that produce the reference effective dose multiplied
highest radiation exposure. by the number of screenings does
not exceed 250 µSv (25 mrem) over
For Class B general-use systems no a 12-month period for any individual.
individual screened shall receive more than Note: the reference effective dose is
N scans by the same facility in a twelve calculated for a reference adult and
2
month period, where N = 75 µSv m /ADAP is not always indicative of the actual
2
(7,500 µrem m /ADAP). Note: N refers to a effective dose, especially for small
number of scans, not a number of children. Therefore, practices that
screenings. involve daily screening of the same
population of children are not
recommended without additional
6.1.2 Dose Limitation for Limited-use analysis.
Systems
Table 1 can be used to aid in
meeting the annual dose
6.1.2.1 Class A (Full-body Scanner) The requirement.
reference effective dose as determined
according to Section 6.1.3, “Determination of OR
the Reference Effective Dose,” shall not
exceed 10 µSv (1 mrem) per screening. b. Administrative controls shall be in
the form of documented procedures
6.1.2.2 Administrative Controls for Class that ensure that the effective dose to
A (Full-body Scanner) Administrative any individual screened shall be
controls are required for the operation of all limited to 250 µSv (25 mrem) in any
limited-use, full-body scanners. There are 12-month period. This shall be
two options: accomplished by keeping records to
demonstrate that the reference
EITHER effective dose multiplied by the
a. Administrative controls shall be in number of screenings to any
the form of documented procedures individual in a 12-month period does
that ensure that the effective dose to not exceed 250 µSv (25 mrem).
individuals as determined according
to Section 6.1.3, “Determination of It is recognized that the need for security
the Reference Effective Dose,” shall may sometimes call for either the 10 µSv
not exceed 0.25 µSv (25 µrem) per (1 mrem) per-screening limit or the 250 µSv
screening. (25 mrem) annual limit to be exceeded. This
decision should be based on an analysis
In addition, the reference effective demonstrating that the security benefit
dose received by individuals from outweighs the risk from the radiation
one facility shall not exceed 250 µSv exposure incurred by the individuals
(25 mrem) over a 12-month period. screened. This standard does not address
Compliance with this requirement the societal benefit of security screening.
shall be demonstrated as follows: if Therefore, screening operations that exceed
the above dose limits are beyond the scope

7
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

of this standard and shall not claim (CR of 1.00 rem/R) shall be used for systems
60 137
compliance with this standard. using Co, Cs, or any other isotope
whose emissions equal or exceed 60 keV.
6.1.2.3 Class B (Partial-body Scanner) 6.1.3.1 Determination of the Half-Value
The ambient dose equivalent area product Layer For x-ray systems, the aluminum HVL
2
(ADAP) shall not exceed 3 µSv m (300 shall be measured according to the
2
µrem m ) per scan. The measurement shall procedure in Annex C.
be made at the point of maximum exposure
on a plane at the optimum imaging distance. Note: In some cases, compliance with this
The measurement shall be made under standard may be shown by assuming the
operating conditions that produce the maximum value of the conversion
highest radiation exposure. coefficient, C, 1.14 Sv/Gy (CR of 1.00
rem/R), thus not relying on a measurement
For Class B limited-use systems no of HVL. However, knowledge of the HVL can
individual screened shall receive more than aid operating facilities in properly calibrating
N scans by the same facility in a 12-month radiation measuring instruments and setting
2
period, where N = 75 µSv m /ADAP (7,500 appropriate annual scan limits.
2
µrem m /ADAP).
6.1.3.2 Measurement of the Reference Air
Kerma or Exposure Compliance with the
6.1.3 Determination of the Reference reference effective dose limits shall be
Effective Dose The reference effective determined by making measurements using
dose for Class A full-body scanners shall be an instrument calibrated in terms of
determined from measurements of the half- exposure or air kerma in the appropriate
value layer (HVL) and air kerma (or energy range (see Annex C). The
exposure) according to Sections 6.1.3.1 and measurement shall be made at the point of
6.1.3.2, respectively. One of the equations maximum exposure but no closer than 30
(1) or (1a) below shall be used. cm from a beam exit surface, a tunnel wall
or virtual tunnel wall. The measurement
shall be made under operating conditions
EREF = Ka × C (eq.1) that produce the highest radiation exposure
to individuals.

where The probe of the air kerma (exposure)

EREF is the reference effective dose in Sv, measuring instrument shall be scanned in
Ka is the measured air kerma in Gy, and the same manner as a human subject. For
C in Sv/Gy is given by portal systems, the probe shall be scanned
C = 0.125 × HVL in mm of Al or at the minimum allowed speed of transit
C = 1.14, whichever is smaller. through the irradiated space. For stationary-
subject systems, the probe shall be
Or, when using traditional units the stationary. For radiation that is incident from
equivalent equation is more than one direction, a probe having
uniform response in all the directions shall
EREF = X × CR (eq. 1a) be used (for example, a cylindrical or
spherical ion chamber is suitable for dual,
where front and back scanners).
EREF is the reference effective dose in rem,
X is the measured exposure in R, and The integrated air kerma (exposure)
CR in rem/R is given by obtained over as many scans as required by
CR = 0.110 × HVL in mm of Al or a full screening shall be used in the
CR = 1.00, whichever is smaller. determination of EREF.

Note: C and CR achieve their maximum

value at HVL = 9.1 mm Al. This corresponds
to an effective photon energy slightly less
than 60 keV. Therefore, a C of 1.14 Sv/Gy

8
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

6.2 Dose to Bystanders, Operators, and

Other Employees

An inspection zone shall be established

around the personnel security screening
system where bystanders are prohibited
during the operation of the device. A means
shall be provided for any operator
responsible for initiating a scan to maintain
full visual surveillance of the inspection
zone. The ambient dose equivalent, H*(10),
outside of this inspection zone shall not
exceed 20 µSv (2 mrem) in any 1 hour.

Any area accessible to individuals in which

radiation levels could result in an individual’s
receiving a dose equivalent in excess of
0.05 mSv (5 mrem) in 1 hour at no less than
30 cm from a beam exit surface, a tunnel
wall or virtual tunnel wall shall be posted
with a sign displaying the radiation symbol
as specified in Fig. 1 and the words
“CAUTION, RADIATION AREA.”
Fig. 1. Radiation symbol (note: cross-
Any area accessible to individuals in which hatched area to be purple, magenta, or
radiation levels could result in an individual black; background to be yellow).
receiving a dose equivalent in excess of 1
mSv (100 mrem) in any 1 hour at no less
than 30 cm from the beam exit surface, a
tunnel wall or virtual tunnel wall shall be
posted with a sign displaying the radiation limit shall also apply to the region of the
symbol as specified in Fig. 1 and the words primary beam while the shutter is closed.
“CAUTION, HIGH RADIATION AREA.” For units that employ a beam stop this limit
shall also apply to the region adjacent to the
beam stop opposite the source of radiation.
The ambient dose equivalent at 10 mm,
H*(10), shall be used for determining the
potential dose to individuals for the purpose 7.0 System and Manufacturing
of establishing the radiation area and high Requirements
radiation area.
The requirements of this section apply to the
The system should be positioned and design and manufacture of systems. These
operated such that the ambient dose requirements are in addition to design and
equivalent at any work station does not manufacturing requirements necessary to
exceed 1 mSv (100 mrem) per year. See meet the dose limitations of Section 6,
Annex B, Section B2, “Dose to Operators “Dose Limitation.”
and Other Employees,” for more information.
7.1 Filtration
6.3 Shielding
For all x-ray systems, the x-ray beam shall
Under maximum operating parameters, the be attenuated by no less than 1 mm of
leakage ambient dose equivalent at any aluminum-equivalent total filtration before
point 30 cm from any external surface of the exiting the beam exit surface.
system, outside of the primary beam, shall
not exceed 2.5 µSv (0.25 mrem) in any 1
hour. For units that employ a shutter this

9
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

7.2 Indicators, Controls, and Safety panels shall have at least one safety
Interlocks interlock.
j. For stationary-subject systems, the
7.2.1 Requirements for All Systems The scanning motion of the x-ray beam
requirements of this subsection apply to all relative to the subject shall be
the systems regardless of category or type interlocked and the exposure shall
of radiation source. In addition to these terminate when the rate of motion of the
requirements systems must comply with the beam in any direction falls below a
requirements of one of the sections 7.2.2 preset minimum speed. The minimum
through 7.2.5 as appropriate. speed shall be chosen so that the dose
during the exposure period is within the
a. There shall be at least one indicator, applicable limit.
clearly visible from any location from k. For portal systems, the minimum
which a scan can be initiated, that walking or driving velocity through the
indicates when a scan is in progress. inspection zone shall be determined by
b. There shall be at least one lighted the manufacturer. The minimum speed
indicator clearly visible from the shall ensure that the dose during the
inspection zone. For portal systems the exposure period is within the applicable
indicator shall be visible from any limit.
approach to the inspection zone to l. Operational interlocks shall terminate
indicate that a scan is in progress. the primary beam in the event of any
c. Power to the system shall be controlled system problem that could result in
by a key switch. The key shall be abnormal or unintended radiation
captured (unable to be removed) emission. This shall include, but is not
whenever it is in a position that allows limited to, unintended stoppage of beam
exposures to be initiated. Turning on the motion, abnormal or unintended x-ray
key switch shall never result in the source output, computer safety system
external emission of radiation. malfunction, termination malfunction,
d. Each system shall have a means for the and shutter or beam stop mechanism
operator to initiate the emission of malfunction.
radiation other than the function of an m. In the event of a malfunction, the system
interlock or the main power control. shall terminate radiation exposure
e. Each system shall have a means for the rapidly enough so that no location on
operator to terminate the emission of the subject’s body shall receive an
radiation other than the function of an ambient dose equivalent (H*10)
interlock. exceeding 250 µSv (25 mrem),
f. Means shall be provided to ensure that regardless of the size of the exposed
operators have a clear view of the area.
scanning area. This can be a direct, n. Following interruption of x-ray
mirror view, or real-time video of the production or external gamma emission
scanning area. Engineering controls by the functioning of any safety
should be provided to ensure that interlock, resetting the interlock shall not
individuals do not reenter the scanning result in the production of x-rays or
area from the exit while x-rays are being emission of gamma radiation. Use of the
produced (e.g., one way turnstile, see normal control sequence shall be
also specific requirements in Sections necessary for resumption of x-ray
7.2.2 through 7.2.5). generation or gamma radiation
g. A ground fault shall not result in the emission.
generation of x-rays or activate a scan
beam from a sealed radioactive source. 7.2.2 Requirements for General-use
h. Failure of any single component of the Systems Using X-ray Sources In addition
system shall not cause failure of more to the requirements of Section 7.2.1,
than one safety interlock. “Requirements for All Systems,” the
i. A tool or key shall be required to open following requirements apply to general-use
or remove access panels. Access systems using x-ray sources:

10
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

a. For any x-ray system that normally mode indicator shall be clearly visible to
keeps high voltage applied to the x-ray the operator.
tube at times other than during a scan, c. Each access panel to the x-ray source
there shall be at least one lighted “x- shall have at least one safety interlock
ray on” indicator at the control console to terminate the x-ray production when
where x-rays are initiated indicating opened.
when x-rays are being produced. d. The following warning label shall be
b. Technique factors for each mode of permanently affixed or inscribed on the
operation shall be preset by the x-ray system at the location of any
manufacturer and shall not be alterable controls used to initiate x-ray
by the system operator. If there is more generation: “CAUTION: X-RAYS
than one mode, prior to each scan, a PRODUCED WHEN ENERGIZED.”
mode indicator shall be clearly visible to e. X-ray emission should automatically
the operator. terminate after a preset time or
c. Each access panel to the x-ray source exposure.
shall have at least one safety interlock
to terminate the x-ray production when
opened. 7.2.4 Requirements for General-use
d. The following warning label shall be Systems Using Gamma Sources In
permanently affixed or inscribed on the addition to the requirements of Section
x-ray system at the location of any 7.2.1, “Requirements for All Systems,” the
controls used to initiate x-ray following requirements apply to general-use
generation: “CAUTION: X-RAYS systems using gamma sources:
PRODUCED WHEN ENERGIZED.”
e. X-ray emission shall automatically a. The gamma system shall use only
terminate after a preset time or sealed sources that meet the
exposure. classification requirements of ANSI/HPS
f. For portal systems, motion sensors shall N43.6-2007, “Sealed Radioactive
monitor the speed of pedestrians or Sources – Classification.”
vehicles through the inspection zone (in b. A means shall be provided to physically
the forward direction) and the radiation lock shutters in the closed position when
exposure shall terminate when the not in use.
speed drops below the minimum (as c. Radiation emission shall automatically
determined according to Section 7.2.1 terminate after a preset time or
k). exposure.
d. There shall be two independent
7.2.3 Requirements for Limited-use shutters. Upon shutdown or loss of
Systems Using X-ray Sources In addition power both shutters shall move to the
to the requirements of Section 7.2.1, closed position. At least one shutter
“Requirements for All Systems,” the shall be capable of being manually
following requirements apply to limited-use operated.
systems using x-ray sources: e. For portal systems, motion sensors shall
monitor the speed of pedestrians or
a. For any x-ray system that normally vehicles through the inspection zone (in
keeps high voltage applied to the x-ray the forward direction). Radiation
tube at times other than during a scan, emission shall terminate when the
there shall be at least one lighted “x-ray speed drops below the minimum (as
on” indicator at the control console determined according to 7.2.1 k).
where x-rays are initiated indicating
when x-rays are being produced. 7.2.5 Requirements for Limited-use
b. Technique factors for each mode of Systems Using Gamma Sources In
operation shall be preset by the addition to the requirements of Section
manufacturer and shall not be alterable 7.2.1, “Requirements for All Systems,” the
by the system operator. If there is more following requirements apply to limited-use
than one mode, prior to each scan, a systems using gamma sources:

11
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

a. The gamma system shall use only required for modifications that are
sealed sources that meet the considered to be manufacturing.
classification requirements of ANSI
/HPS N43.6-2007, “Sealed Radioactive 7.5 Information To Be Provided to the
Sources – Classification.” End User
b. A means shall be provided to physically
lock shutters in the closed position when The manufacturer shall provide information
not in use. to the end user sufficient to achieve and
c. Radiation emission should automatically maintain compliance with this standard,
terminate after a preset time or allow the safe use of the system, fulfill
exposure. regulatory requirements, and prevent
d. There shall be two independent intentional or frivolous misuse. This includes
shutters, each having its own control. but is not necessarily limited to the following:
Upon shutdown or loss of power both
shutters shall move to the closed a. Category and class of the system
position. At least one shutter shall be according to Section 5.0 of this
capable of being manually operated. standard, “System Categories and
Classes.”
7.3 Labeling b. Warnings of potential safety hazards
(such as unauthorized modification of
Every manufacturer of a system to which the system).
this standard applies shall provide the c. A statement that state and/or local
following information: 1) the full name and registration or licensing may be
address of the manufacturer of the system; required.
2) the place and month and year of d. Operational procedures and training
manufacture; and 3) the model, serial needed to use the system safely.
number and any other information needed to e. Preventive maintenance requirements
identify the specific design and configuration for safe operation.
of the system. This information shall be f. Other requirements and
provided in the form of a tag or label recommendations specified in this
permanently affixed or inscribed on the standard that are applicable to the end
system so as to be legible and readily user.
accessible to view when the system is fully g. For x-ray systems, the technique factors
assembled for use. for each operating mode and the beam
quality, stated as the HVL of the system
For gamma systems, the source and in mm of aluminum, of the primary
shielding assembly shall have a clear and beam.
visible radiation warning label(s) in h. The reference effective dose per
accordance with the sealed source device screening measured by the
registry (SSDR). The positioning of the label manufacturer. This information shall
shall be visible from any point where service include a definition of “screening” for the
access might be gained. system (e.g., number of scans required).
i. Identification of the area around the
7.4 Modifications system where the ambient dose
equivalent, H*(10), is greater than 20
Any modification of a system that affects any µSv (2 mrem) in 1 hour of operation at
aspect of the system’s performance for the maximum throughput. (This is the
which this standard has an applicable minimum boundary of the inspection
requirement shall be construed as zone; see Section 6.2).
manufacturing under this standard. The j. Identification of the area around the
manufacturer who performs such system where the ambient dose
modification shall re-identify the system in equivalent, H*(10), is greater than 0.5
accordance with the provisions of Section µSv (50 µrem) in 1 hour of operation at
7.3, “Labeling.” Additionally, notification of the maximum throughput. (This is the
state and/or federal regulators may be recommended area of exclusion for

12
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

work stations occupied full-time, see also acts as a dealer or distributor, the
Annex B Section B.2). manufacturer shall obtain this information.
The information shall include the following:
7.6 Records To Be Maintained by
Manufacturers a. The name and mailing address of the
distributor, dealer, or purchaser to whom
Manufacturers shall establish and maintain the system was transferred.
the following records with respect to b. Identification and brand name of the
systems covered by this standard: system.
a. Quality control procedures related to the c. Model and serial numbers or other
system’s radiation safety. identification number of the system.
b. Results of tests for radiation safety, d. Date of sale, award, or lease.
including the control of unnecessary,
secondary, or leakage radiation; the
The information obtained shall be forwarded
methods, devices, and procedures used
promptly to the appropriate manufacturer of
in such tests; and the basis for selecting
the system.
such methods, devices, and procedures.
c. For those systems displaying aging
effects that may increase radiation
emission, records of the results of tests 8.0 Operating Requirements
for durability and stability of the system,
and the basis for selecting these tests. The requirements of this section apply to the
d. All written communications between the operation of systems. These requirements
manufacturer and dealers, distributors, are in conjunction with any other operating
and purchasers concerning radiation requirements necessary to meet the dose
safety including complaints, limits of Section 6.0, “Dose Limitation.” The
investigations, instructions, or requirements for running a security
explanations affecting the use, repair, screening operation in accordance with
adjustment, maintenance, or testing of general radiation safety principles differ
the listed system. depending on the category of screening
e. Data on production and sales volume systems being used.
levels if available.
f. A record of the manufacturer’s 8.1 Operation of General-use Systems
distribution of systems in a form that
shall enable the tracing of specific This section includes a minimum set of
systems or production lots to distributors requirements for a screening operation that
or to dealers in those instances in which involves only general-use systems.
the manufacturer distributes directly to
dealers. 8.1.1 Responsible Individual The
g. The records outlined in Section 7.7, institution operating the screening system
“Records To Be Obtained by Dealers shall designate a person(s) responsible for
and Distributors.” ensuring compliance with the requirements
h. Any incidents involving unplanned of this section and all applicable regulatory
exposures as reported by the users. requirements.

All records shall be maintained for a period 8.1.2 Installation The manufacturer shall
of at least 5 years. be responsible for providing adequate
installation procedures to ensure compliance
7.7 Records To Be Obtained by Dealers with this standard and the system’s
and Distributors specification. The installer shall comply with
the manufacturer’s installation requirements.
Dealers and distributors of systems covered This does not exempt the manufacturer or
by this standard shall obtain enough installer from compliance with other
information as is necessary to identify and applicable standards, codes, or regulations.
locate first purchasers. If a manufacturer A radiation survey of the system shall be
performed by a qualified service provider

13
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

following installation. The purpose of the 2. Sources and magnitude of common

survey is to verify that the dose to the target exposures
and the maximum hourly dose around the 3. Units of measurement
installation are in compliance with all 4. Time, distance, and shielding
requirements of this standard and any other 5. Concept of ALARA
applicable federal, state, or local regulations. 6. Biological effects of radiation and
radiation risks
8.1.3 Operating Procedures The 7. Operating and emergency proce-
operating institution shall document its dures.
procedures for operating the system. These c. Other safety hazards (e.g., unauthorized
procedures shall include all the topics listed disassembly of the system).
in Section 7.5, “Information To Be Provided d. Physical security procedures to prevent
to the End User.” These procedures shall be unauthorized use or access.
consistent with the manufacturer’s opera- e. Operator awareness and control of
tor’s manual. inspection zones.
f. How to use survey equipment/dosimetry
8.1.4 Information To Be Provided to if applicable.
Screened Individuals The institution g. Rights of declared pregnant workers.
operating the system shall inform each h. Regulatory requirements
person being screened that the system i. Supervised practical operations.
emits radiation and that more information is
available. Posters, signs, and handouts are Proficiency shall be demonstrated at the
examples of appropriate means to provide conclusion of training. Refresher training
this information. shall be provided at least once every 12
months.
At a minimum, the institution operating the
system shall make the following information 8.1.6 Preventive Maintenance The
available to screening subjects prior to operating institution shall follow the
scanning: manufacturer's recommended maintenance
schedule. Preventive maintenance shall be
a. The estimated effective dose from one performed by qualified personnel.
screening (i.e., the reference effective
dose) is less than 0.25 µSv (25 µrem). For gamma systems, a maintenance
b. An example shall be provided to verification of the source integrity shall be
compare the dose to a commonly known performed on the system by a qualified
source of radiation, for example: “The service provider at least once per year.
radiation from one screening is roughly
equivalent to one hour of exposure to See also Section 7.4, “Modifications.”
the average naturally occurring back-
ground radiation.” 8.1.7 Radiation Surveys Radiation
c. The screening complies with the surveys shall verify the reference effective
ANSI/HPS consensus standard N43.17; dose, radiation leakage, inspection zone,
if requested, information on how to and any other parameters specified by the
acquire this standard shall be provided. manufacturer.

8.1.5 Personnel Training All operators Surveys shall be performed:

shall receive appropriate training sufficient to
operate the system in conformance with this a. Upon installation.
standard. This training shall include: b. At least once every 12 months.
c. After any maintenance that affects the
a. Familiarity with the information being radiation shielding, shutter mechanism,
provided to the subject. or x-ray production components.
b. Radiation safety training, including: d. After any incident that may have
1. Types of radiation damaged the system in such a way that
unintended radiation emission occurs.

14
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

Refer to Annex C for information on dently or in conjunction with general-use

radiation measurements and selection of systems. Institutions carrying out such
instruments. operations shall document and implement a
radiation safety program appropriate to the
8.1.8 System Disposal For radionuclide practice and products to be used.
systems disposal shall be performed in
accordance with the requirements of the 8.2.1 Responsibilities
appropriate government entity (e.g., NRC
regulations and license conditions). a. Senior Management shall —
Note: Although not a radiation safety issue, 1. Make the ultimate decision to use
be aware that most x-ray systems contain security screening systems and be
hazardous materials and their disposal ultimately responsible for radiation
should be in accordance with applicable safety.
regulations. 2. Designate an individual responsible
for radiation safety. This individual
8.1.9 Records and Documentation The shall have direct access to senior
institution operating the system shall collect management for radiation safety
and maintain the following records: issues. This individual shall have
training and experience
a. Each operator’s training records commensurate with the scope of the
including sufficient information to show radiation safety program.
compliance with Section 8.1.5. “Per- b. The individual responsible for radiation
sonnel Training.” safety shall—
b. Upgrades, modifications, maintenance,
and repair records shall be maintained 1. Immediately terminate any unsafe
for the life of the system. activity involving personnel security
c. Records of radiation surveys as required screening systems.
in Section 8.1.7, “Radiation Surveys.” 2. Ensure compliance with the
d. Evidence to show that the dose limits requirements of this section and all
specified in Sections 6.1 through 6.2 are applicable regulatory requirements.
being met. 3. Formulate, implement, and exercise
e. The number of scans conducted. staff supervision over the radiation
safety program.
4. Formulate, implement, and
These records shall be maintained on -site at
supervise an active, documented
the facility a minimum of 5 years or more as
program to keep ionizing radiation
noted above or as required by federal, state,
doses to levels that are ALARA.
or local regulations. 5. Advise and assist management and
personnel in all matters regarding
Additionally the following information shall radiation safety.
be kept current: 6. Review current and proposed uses
of the system for compliance with
a. The name and contact information for applicable standards, regulatory
the responsible individual designated as requirements, and guidance.
required in Section 8.1.1, “Responsible 7. Ensure radiation safety
Individual.” considerations are incorporated into
b. A complete set of operating procedures system operating procedures.
as required in Section 8.1.3, “Operating 8. Review and approve the
Procedures,” shall be readily available location/relocation of security
to the operator of each system. screening systems to ensure
compliance with radiation safety
8.2 Operation of Limited-use Systems criteria and manufacturer’s
recommendations/specifications.
The requirements of this section apply when 9. Ensure that radiation safety surveys
the screening operation involves one or are performed in compliance with
more limited-use systems, either indepen- this standard.

15
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

10. Maintain radiation safety records in

accordance with Section 8.2.9, a. Authorization for use – The procedures
“Recordkeeping,” of this standard. to ensure that the system is used only in
an approved manner by authorized
8.2.2 Installation The manufacturer shall personnel. Appropriate methods to
be responsible for providing adequate achieve this include key controls and
installation procedures to ensure compliance user names with passwords.
with this standard and the system’s b. System damage or malfunction – In the
specification. The installer shall comply with event of damage to the system or a
the manufacturer’s installation requirements. system malfunction, procedures for
This does not exempt the manufacturer or removing the system from service until
installer from compliance with other appropriate maintenance or repair
applicable standards, codes, or regulations. personnel have corrected the problem.
A radiation survey of the system shall be
performed by a qualified service provider 8.2.4 Information To Be Provided to
following installation. The purpose of the Screened Individuals The institution
survey is to verify that the dose to the target operating the system shall inform each
and the dose rate around the installation are person being screened that the system
in compliance with all requirements of this emits radiation and that more information is
standard and any other applicable federal, available. Posters, signs, and handouts are
state, or local regulations. examples of appropriate means to provide
this information.
a. Security screening systems shall be
installed in accordance with the At a minimum, the institution operating the
manufacturer’s installation instructions. system shall make the following information
Only properly trained individuals shall available to screening subjects prior to
install security screening systems. scanning:
b. Security screening systems shall be
installed in locations that are as far as a. The estimated effective dose from one
reasonably possible from routinely screening (i.e., the reference effective
occupied areas, subject to the dose).
operational requirements. Consideration b. An example shall be provided to
shall also be given to the direction of the compare the dose to a commonly known
primary beam relative to occupied source of radiation, for example: “The
areas, traffic flow, the number of scans radiation dose from one screening is
per day, the reference effective dose, roughly equivalent to that received from
and locations of existing walls or natural sources during a typical three-
structures that can provide shielding. hour flight at 30,000 feet.”
c. During installation the inspection zone
c. The screening complies with the
and any radiation areas for the system
ANSI/HPS consensus standard N43.17;
shall be determined, documented, and
if requested, information on how to
clearly delineated.
acquire this standard shall be provided.
8.2.3 Operating Procedures The opera-
ting institution shall document its procedures 8.2.5 Personnel Training
for operating the system. These procedures
shall include all the topics listed in Section a. Each operator shall be provided with
7.5, “Information To Be Provided to the End training on the operation and use of the
User,” and all the administrative controls security screening system(s). At a
necessary to comply with the applicable minimum, this training shall include pre-
section 6.1.2.2 or 6.1.2.3 of this standard. operational checks, operation of the
The procedures shall be consistent with the system, subject positioning, interpre-
manufacturer’s operator’s manual. tation of images, procedures to be
followed if the system is damaged or
In addition the following procedures shall be malfunctions, and practical operational
established: experience. Periodic updates shall be

16
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

provided as the security screening Contingency plans for the possibility of

systems or relevant threats change. repairs outside of the recommended
b. Each individual associated with the preventive maintenance schedule should be
operation of the security screening made when purchasing a system.
system shall be provided radiation
safety training prior to performing See also Section 7.4, “Modifications.”
security screening operations. At a
minimum, this training shall include the 8.2.7 Radiation Surveys Radiation
following: surveys shall verify subject dose, radiation
1. The types of radiation leakage, inspection zone, radiation area,
2. Sources and magnitudes of typical and any other parameters specified by the
exposures manufacturer.
3. Radiation units
4. Concept of time, distance, and Surveys shall be performed:
shielding
5. Concept of ALARA a. Upon installation.
6. Biological effects b. At least once every 12 months.
7. Radiation risk c. After any maintenance that affects the
8. Basic risk communication concepts radiation shielding, shutter mechanism,
9. Training on the administrative or x-ray production components.
controls associated with ensuring d. After any incident that may have
that dose to subjects is limited and damaged the system in such a way that
on the importance of these unintended radiation emission occurs.
administrative controls (i.e., much
more emphasis on administrative Refer to Annex C for information on
controls for limited-use systems) radiation measurements and selection of
c. Other safety hazards (e.g., unauthorized instruments.
disassembly of the system)
d. Physical security procedures to prevent 8.2.8 System Disposal For radionuclide
unauthorized use or access systems, disposal shall be performed in
e. Operator awareness and control of accordance with the requirements of the
inspection zones appropriate government entity (e.g., NRC
f. How to use relevant radiation meters regulations and license conditions).
and personnel dosimetry if applicable
g. Rights of declared pregnant workers Note: Although not a radiation safety issue,
h. Regulatory requirements be aware that most x-ray systems contain
i. Supervised practical operations hazardous materials and their disposal
should be in accordance with applicable
Proficiency shall be demonstrated at the regulations.
conclusion of training. Refresher training
shall be provided at least once every 12 8.2.9 Records and Documentation
months.
a. Maintenance Logs. Records of
8.2.6 Preventive Maintenance The upgrades, modifications, maintenance,
and repair shall be maintained for the
operating institution shall follow the
life of the system.
manufacturer's recommended maintenance
schedule. Preventive maintenance shall be b. Survey Records, including the following:
performed by qualified personnel. 1. System make, model, serial num-
ber, and location
For gamma systems, a maintenance 2. Surveyor
verification of the source integrity shall be 3. Survey date
performed on the system by a qualified 4. Instrumentation make, model, serial
service provider at least once per year. number, and calibration dates
5. Results of visual inspection of
system safety features

17
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

6. Background measurements These records shall be maintained on -site at

7. Survey measurements the facility a minimum of 5 years or more as
8. Survey diagram noted above or as required by federal, state,
9. System parameters at which mea- or local regulations.
surements were made
c. Training Records. Records of training
shall be maintained that contain the date 9.0 References
of training, an outline of the training, and
the names of those in attendance. Food and Drug Administration (FDA).
d. Use logs. For individuals who could Radiological health. 21 CFR 1000–1005.
receive radiation doses approaching Washington, DC: U.S. Government Prin-
0.25 mSv (25 mrem) in any 12-month ting Office.
period, such as screened employees or International Commission on Radiation Units
frequent visitors, records shall be and Measurements (ICRU). Conversion
maintained to demonstrate that the coefficients for use in radiological protec-
administrative control of 0.25 mSv (25 tion against external radiation. Bethesda,
mrem) is not exceeded. These records MD: ICRU; ICRU Report 57; 1998.
shall include the following: International Commission on Radiological
1. The names and identifying infor- Protection (ICRP). The 2007 recom-
mation of individuals routinely mendations of the International Com-
screened mission on Radiological Protection.
2. The reference effective dose per Oxford: Elsevier; ICRP Publication 103;
screening 2007.
3. The number of times and dates National Council on Radiation Protection
when each individual was screened and Measurements (NCRP). Limitation of
4. The cumulative reference effective exposure to ionizing radiation. Bethesda,
dose for the number of screenings MD: NCRP; NCRP Report 116; 1993.
undergone by each individual over Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC).
the past 12 months Standards for protection against radiation.
e. The name and contact information for 10 CFR 20, 30–33. Washington, DC: U.S.
the responsible individual designated as Government Printing Office.
required in Section 8.2.1, “Responsi- Occupational Safety and Health Admini-
bilities.” stration (OSHA). Ionizing radiation. 29
f. A complete set of operating procedures CFR 1910.1096. Washington, DC: U.S.
as required in Section 8.1.3, “Operating Government Printing Office.
Procedures,” shall be readily available
to the operator of each system.

18
 ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

ANNEX A (Informative)

Reference Effective Dose and Ambient Dose Equivalent Area Product (ADAP)

A.1 Reference Effective Dose scheme of ANSI N43.17-2002 was based on the
effective dose for a uniform, full-body, x-ray
The dose limits to screened individuals in exposure incident from one direction (i.e.,
ANSI/HPS N43.17 are based on the “reference anterior–posterior, AP, projection). For that
effective dose” defined in the standard. This case, a chart of conversion coefficients was
section describes the motivation for the provided based on the kilovoltage and filtration
reference effective dose, its derivation, and of the x-ray machine. The N43.17-2002 limit of
comparison with the adult effective dose using 0.1 µSv (10 µrem) was based on one scan from
the tissue weighting factors of the 2007 ICRP a backscatter system, taking into account that
recommendations. multiple scans would be necessary for viewing
all sides of the body.
A.1.1 Rationale
When considering other exposure geometries
The quantity “effective dose” was defined by the and transmission systems that require only one
International Commission on Radiation Units scan per screening, the N43.17-2002 method of
and Measurements in its Report 57 (ICRU 1998) estimating effective dose is no longer feasible.
and is meant to provide a realistic indicator of An accurate estimation of effective dose for all
radiation risk. The effective dose is a summation circumstances is much more complicated and is
of the doses in tissues or organs each multiplied not practical for the purpose of this standard.
by the appropriate tissue weighting factor. The However, it was desired to preserve a system of
tissue weighting factors, which are based on the dose limitation that would not penalize systems
vulnerability of individual body organs to using lower-energy x-rays. These systems
radiation, were modified by the International generally deliver a lower effective dose per scan
Commission on Radiological Protection in its whereas the measured air kerma or entrance
Publication 103 (ICRP 2007). The potential skin dose may be higher than with systems
effective dose from a security scan is not operating at higher energy. This is illustrated by
amenable to a direct measurement, but it can be the examples shown in Table A1 based on the
estimated (for the average adult) if the exposure AP projection and a beam air kerma of 10 µGy
conditions are known. The dose limitation (1 mrem).

Table A1. Comparison of effective dose and ambient dose equivalent for two x-ray
spectra, each yielding 10 µGy air kerma.

Ambient dose
X-ray tube Filtration Air kerma equivalent, Effective dose
potential (kV) (mm of Al) (µGy) H*(10), (µSv) (µSv)
50 1 10 8.2 2.4
120 6 10 15.5 9.1

19
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

The “reference effective dose” of the present for considering uncertain geometries, such as
standard was conceived for the purpose of portals with multiple sources. The AP–PA
preserving an equitable system of dose combination was deemed the most appropriate
limitation based on a measurable effective dose- for approximating average effective doses from
like quantity. most personnel security screening applications
at the time of publication of this standard. It
averages the two most common projections for
A.1.2 Derivation backscatter systems and also effectively
averages transmission systems that may be
The conversion coefficients from air kerma used in either the AP or PA mode.
(exposure) to effective dose were calculated for
a number of x-ray beam spectra. The beams The conversion of air kerma or exposure to
included many NIST and ISO standard beams reference effective dose is taken to be a straight
and known beams from existing personnel line until it reaches a maximum of 1.14 Sv/Gy or
scanners. Beams with little total filtration were 1 rem/R. The line, shown in Fig. A4, closely
also included to provide worst-case information. approximates the AP-PA-average conversion
The PCXMC Monte Carlo computer code coefficients as a function of HVL in the HVL
(Servomaa 1998) was used to calculate the region below 9 mm Al.
adult effective dose based on the kilovoltage,
filtration, and tungsten anode angle. The A.1.3 Revised Tissue Weighting Factors
effective dose, based on the ICRU Report 57
(ICRU 1998) tissue weighting factors, was ICRP, in its Report 103, recently published new
calculated for anterior–posterior (AP), posterior– tissue weighting factors (ICRP 2007). For many
anterior (PA), left lateral (LLAT), and right lateral of the spectra considered, the PCXMC-
(RLAT) projections. A large source-to-skin calculated organ doses were weighted
distance was used in order to approximate a according to the ICRP 103 factors to calculate
uniform beam intensity incident from each of the the new effective dose. Because some organs
four directions. For x-ray beams without specified in ICRP 103 were not included in the
measured HVL values the HVL was calculated PCXMC output, the absorbed doses to these
using IPEM Report 78 (IPEM 1997). To verify organs were approximated as follows:
the accuracy of the Monte Carlo program the
effective dose for some of the spectra was also 1. The dose to the salivary glands was
calculated by interpolating the conversion approximated using the average of the
coefficients published in ICRU Report 57 and esophagus and thyroid doses.
integrating over the energy spectrum, yielding
similar results. The conversion coefficients were 2. The prostate dose was approximated using
plotted as a function of the HVL and are shown the urinary bladder dose.
in Figs. A1–A4. The ICRU conversion 3. The dose to the oral mucosa was
coefficients for monoenergetic photons were approximated using the average of the
also included in the plots. For each projection, it esophagus and thyroid doses.
was found that the effective dose for 4. The dose to the extrathoracic region was
monoenergetic photons and for all the spectra approximated using the average of the
having at least 1 mm AL total filtration follows a esophagus and thyroid doses.
relatively close-grouped pattern as a function of 5. The dose to the lymph nodes was
HVL. approximated using the muscle dose.

The ICRU Report 57 conversion coefficients for These approximations are based on general
monoenergetic photons are shown in Fig. A5. anatomy and information from ICRP Publication
For defining the reference effective dose, the 89 (ICRP 2003). The contribution of each of
average conversion coefficients of four these newly weighted tissues is extremely small
projections (AP, PA, RLAT, and LLAT) and two for external x-rays.
projections (AP and PA) were considered. The
averages are useful for considering multiple The results were again plotted as a function of
scans from backscatter systems. The four-scan HVL and are shown in Fig. A6 in relation to the
average coincides approximately with the ICRU reference effective dose as described above.
rotational conversion coefficients and is useful

20
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

The differences in effective dose using the old the United States the National Institute of
and new tissue-weighting factors were found to Standards and Technology provides traceability
be relatively small; the old weighting factors of instruments to the primary air kerma
generally yielded higher effective doses. Fig. A5 standards. The reference effective dose can be
shows that when AP and PA scans contribute readily calculated from measurements of air
equally to the exposure the reference effective kerma (or exposure) and HVL, which is also
dose is a reasonable approximation of the based on air kerma. The reference effective
effective dose calculated according to ICRP 103. dose is a more equitable dose indicator for
personnel security screening than any of the
A.1.4 Conclusion operational quantities defined by the ICRU. The
reference effective dose accurately
The reference effective dose defined in this approximates the adult effective dose for typical
standard is a reasonable approximation of front and back x-ray exposures and reasonably
effective dose for the wide range of energy approximates effective dose for all other
spectra used in security screening systems. In exposure conditions.

AP Projection

1.3

1.2
E ffective D ose C onversion (rem /R

1.1

1 M onoenergetic beam s
N IS T L series
0.9
N IS T M series
0.8 N IS T H series
ISO W series
0.7
ISO N s eries
0.6 ISO H s eries
System 1
0.5
System 2
0.4 System 3
0.3 System 4
Beam s w ith 1 m m total A l filtration
0.2 Beam s w ith 1 m m Be filtration
0.1 D ata derived from N43.17-2002 Annex B

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

H VL (m m Al)

Fig. A1. Conversion coefficients from exposure to the ICRU 57 effective dose as a function of
half-value layer for various x-ray spectra. This chart applies to the anterior-posterior (AP)
projection.

21
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

PA Projection

0 .9
E ffective D ose C onversion (rem /R

0 .8

0 .7

0 .6
M onoenergetic beam s
0 .5 N IS T L series
N IS T M series
0 .4 N IS T H series
ISO W series
0 .3 ISO N s eries
ISO H s eries
0 .2 System 1
System 2
0 .1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

H VL (m m Al)

Fig. A2. Conversion coefficients from exposure to the ICRU 57 effective dose as a function of
half-value layer for various x-ray spectra. This chart applies to the posterior-anterior (PA)
projection.

LLAT Projection

0 .9 M onoenergetic beam s
E ffective D ose C onversion (rem /R

N IS T L series
0 .8
N IS T M series
N IS T H series
0 .7
ISO W series
0 .6 ISO N s eries
ISO H s eries
0 .5 System 1
System 2
0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20

H VL (m m Al)

Fig. A3. Conversion coefficients from exposure to the ICRU 57 effective dose as a function of
half-value layer for various x-ray spectra. This chart applies to the left lateral (LLAT) projection.

22
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

RLAT P rojection

0 .9
E ffective D ose C onversion (rem /R

M onoenergetic beam s
0 .8 N IS T L series
N IS T M series
0 .7 N IS T H series
ISO W series
0 .6 ISO N s eries
ISO H s eries
0 .5 System 1
System 2
0 .4

0 .3

0 .2

0 .1

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
H VL (m m Al)

Fig. A4. Conversion coefficients from exposure to effective dose as a function of half-value
layer for various x-ray spectra. This chart applies to the right lateral (RLAT) projection.

Monoenergetic Photons
1.5
Conversion Coefficient (rem/R)

0.5 AP
PA
Ave (AP, PA)
Ave (AP, PA, RLAT, LLAT)
Rotational
Reference Effective Dose
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
HVL (mm Al)

Fig. A5. Conversion coefficients from exposure to the ICRU 57 effective dose for
monoenergetic photons incident from various directions. The reference effective dose, shown
as the straight lines, was derived from the average of AP and PA projections.

23
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

R e feren ce E ffec tive D o se a nd IC R P 10 3 E ffec tive D o se

1 .3

1 .2

1 .1
E ffective D ose C onversio n (rem

1 .0

0 .9

0 .8

0 .7

0 .6

0 .5
AP
0 .4
PA
0 .3 2-View (A P, PA)
4-view (AP, PA, LLAT , RLAT )
0 .2 R eference E ffective Dose
0 .1

0 .0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
H VL (m m Al)

Fig. A6. Conversion coefficients from exposure to effective dose using the ICRP 103 tissue
weighting factors. The reference effective dose is shown for comparison. For each combination
of projections a wide range of very narrow to very wide x-ray spectra are represented.

A.2 Ambient Dose Equivalent Area Product cast scanner was studied extensively. Several
(ADAP) hypothetical cases using higher-energy x-rays
and different field sizes were also considered.

The dose limits in ANSI/HPS N43.17 that apply The scanner that was studied consisted of a 50
to partial-body scanners are based on the kV x-ray generator with about 1 mm total Al-
“ambient dose equivalent area product” (ADAP) equivalent filtration and a field of view of 15 × 25
defined in the standard. This section describes cm (6 × 10 inches). Effective doses were
the derivation of the ADAP. calculated for several projections and body sizes
using the PCXMC Monte Carlo program.
For partial-body scanners, such as screening Projections of the limbs produced very low
systems for casts and prostheses, it was desired effective doses. The effective doses for leg
to prescribe dose limits that would result in projections were well under 0.001 µSv (0.1
effective doses not exceeding the limits of the µrem) for the average adult. The PCXMC code
full-body scanners. That is, for general-use did not allow for separation of the arms from the
systems the effective dose to a subject being body and the effective dose from arm
screened should not exceed 0.25 µSv per projections was up to about 0.02 µSv (2 µrem).
screening or about 0.1 µSv per scan (25 µrem Simulation of projections involving the chest,
and 10 µrem, respectively). To determine neck, and the lower abdomen produced much
potential effective doses the case of an existing higher effective doses. Worst-case results for
these projections are shown in Table A2.

24
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

Table A2. Worst-case effective doses obtained using Monte Carlo simulations for the
studied cast scanner with a 15 × 25 cm field of view.

Effective dose
per unit skin
Age entrance
(height, exposure Effective dose
weight) AP projection (µrem/µR) (µrem)
5 y.o. child Chest & neck 0.130 9.96
h = 139 cm
w = 19 kg Abdomen 0.176 13.5
10 y.o. child Chest & neck 0.090 6.92
h = 109 cm
w = 32 kg Abdomen 0.144 11.1
adult Lower abdomen 0.077 5.94
h = 174 cm Uterus absorbed dose (lower
w = 71 kg 0.092 7.05
abdomen projection)

A dose-area product quantity was judged to be

the most appropriate for setting limits for this less than 6 µrem per scan. However, the
type of scanner. Based on ICRP recom- relationship between ADAP and effective dose is
mendations, the ambient dose equivalent at 10 non-linear. Also, the effective dose per unit
mm depth, H*(10), was chosen as the dose ambient dose equivalent is higher at x-ray
quantity. So, the ADAP was defined as the spectra of higher effective energy. Therefore the
product of ambient dose equivalent and scan annual limit on scans was set at (75 µSv
2 2
area. The ADAP for the studied cast scanner m )/ADAP [(7,500 µrem m )/ADAP].
2
was measured at about 0.025 µSv m (2.5 µrem
2
m ). Based on the original premise that the A.3 References for Annex A
effective dose should not exceed 0.1 µSv (10
µrem) per scan and the results of Table A2, it Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine
was clear that the dose limit for general-use (IPEM). Catalogue of diagnostic x-ray spectra
partial-body scanners should be near the dose and other data. York, UK: IPEM; Report No.
delivered by the studied scanner. Thus, the 78; 1997.
ADAP general-use limit was set at 0.03 µSv m
2 International Commission on Radiological
2
(3 µrem m ). The ADAP limit for limited-use Protection (ICRP). Basic anatomical and
2 2 physiological data for use in radiological
systems was set at 3 µSv m (300 µrem m )
based on a maximum effective dose of 10 µSv protection: reference values. Oxford: Elsevier;
(1 mrem) per scan. ICRP Publication 89; 2003.
International Commission on Radiological
For the case of the studied cast scanner, the Protection (ICRP). The 2007 recommen-
worst-case effective dose to an adult from one dations of the International Commission on
scan is about 0.06 µSv (6 µrem). The annual Radiological Protection. Oxford: Elsevier;
goal of 250 µSv (25 mrem) effective dose can be ICRP Publication 103; 2007.
met if the number of scans to any one individual International Commission on Radiation Units
does not exceed 4,167. Since the ADAP is and Measurements (ICRU). Conversion
2 2
about 0.025 µSv m (2.5 µrem m ), a formula of coefficients for use in radiological protection
(100 µSv m )/ADAP [(10,000 µrem m2)/ADAP]
2 against external radiation. Bethesda, MD:
for the maximum number of scans would ensure ICRU; ICRU Report 57; 1998.
compliance with the annual limit. For the studied Servomaa A, Tapiovaara M. Organ dose
scanner this is a conservative formula because calculation in medical x ray examinations by
the average effective dose is likely to be much the program PCXMC. Radiat Prot Dosim
80:213–219; 1998.

25
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

ANNEX B (Informative)
Radiation Dose Discussion

This annex contains information on the risks General-use systems operating in accordance
associated with radiation doses and the with this standard produce a maximum
rationale for the dose requirements of the reference effective dose of 0.25 µSv (25 µrem)
standard. per screening. Therefore, an individual may be
screened up to 1,000 times each year without
B.1 Radiation Risk and Rationale for Subject exceeding the annual 0.25 mSv (25 mrem) limit.
Dose Limits The associated incremental risk of death is 1 in
80,000,000 per screening. To put this in
Various organizations have studied the perspective, this same risk of death results from
biological effects of ionizing radiation exposure. about 2.5 minutes of riding in an automobile.
The National Council on Radiation Protection Likewise, this same risk of death is experienced
and Measurements (NCRP) reviewed two about each 25 minutes of working in a “safe”
independent studies, one by the United Nations field such as a secretary or office administrator,
Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic due to occupational deaths from accidents,
Radiation (UNSCEAR 1988) and the other by homicides, and other causes. (The automobile
the National Academy of Sciences/National death rate is calculated from: 250 million people
Research Council, Committee on the Biological in the United States, each driving an average of
Effects of Ionizing Radiation, known as BEIR V 10,000 miles per year, at an average speed of
(NAS/NRC 1990). Based on this review, the 30 mph, resulting in 25,000 traffic deaths per
NCRP recommends that, for radiation protection year. The occupational death rate is based on 5
purposes, an incremental lifetime risk of fatal deaths per 100,000 employees per year, a
cancer of 5% per sievert be used for the general typical value for “safe” occupations).
population (NCRP 1993). The 5% per sievert
risk is also consistent with the more recent BEIR B.2 Dose to Operators and Other Employees
VII report (NAS/NRC 2006). Application of this
risk estimate means that each 0.01 µSv (1 Compliance with the Occupational Safety &
µrem) of effective dose received is considered to Health Administration’s standards for radiation
–10 safety is mandatory in the United States
contribute 5 × 10 (one chance in two billion) to
an individual's risk of contracting a fatal cancer (OSHA). It is recommended that the
during his or her lifetime. These low-dose manufacturers of systems covered by the
estimates assume a “linear no-threshold” present standard provide a system that, when
relationship between radiation exposure and installed and operated as designed, ensures that
health effects. the operator dose not exceed an annual ambient
dose equivalent of 1 mSv (100 mrem). This
Both the NCRP and the International ensures compliance with the NCRP recom-
Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) mended annual dose limit for the general public.
recommend that members of the general Personnel dosimeters are not typically required
population who are frequently exposed to at these dose levels. The 1 mSv annual limit is
ionizing radiation not exceed an annual effective achieved by positioning all work stations outside
dose of 1 mSv (100 mrem) from all man-made, of the primary beam up to a minimum distance
non-medical sources (NCRP 1993; ICRP 2007). or by shielding the primary beam. The minimum
Further, the NCRP recommends that institutions combination of distance and shielding is
ensure that the individuals they expose do not determined based on the maximum throughput
repeatedly exceed the 1 mSv yearly limit from all of the system and the occupancy factor at the
non-medical sources. Information relating to work station. That is, through a combination of
other sources of radiation exposure may be distance and shielding, the ambient dose
difficult to obtain, so institutions have the option equivalent at any work station should not exceed
to ensure that the radiation sources under their
own control do not contribute to an individual H*(10)scan = 1,000 µSv/(Nmax × 2,000 × OF)
more than an annual effective dose of 0.25 mSv
(25 mrem).

26
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

where women and children) receive less than 1 mSv

H*(10)scan is the maximum ambient dose (0.1 rem) effective dose per year. Both these
equivalent per scan, levels are subject to the radiation safety principle
Nmax is the number of scans that the system can of ALARA. That is, even though these radiation
deliver in 1 hour, and exposures may be acceptable, they shall be
OF is the occupancy factor of the maximally kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable, while
exposed worker at the work station as a fraction taking into account the benefit derived from the
of full time (full time is 2,000 hours/year). exposure. As an exposure is made smaller, the
risk from the exposure is also reduced. When
For example, if the system can produce 180 the exposure is reduced beyond a certain point it
scans per hour, the primary beam is not becomes indistinguishable from variations in the
shielded, and an employee spends one half of natural background radiation. The NCRP defines
the work day at the work station, then the a category for extremely low radiation exposures
maximum ambient dose equivalent for a single called the Negligible Individual Dose (NID) and
scan is 1,000/(180 × 2,000 × 0.5), or 0.0056 µSv sets its value at 10 µSv (1 mrem) per year. At
(0.56 µrem). Therefore, in this example, the radiation exposures below the NID, efforts to
distance at which an ambient dose equivalent of reduce the dose further are not warranted.
0.56 µrem is measured is the minimum distance
from the scanner to that work station. These recommendations can be applied to the
0.25 µSv (25 µrem) maximum dose per
Manufacturers should specify the distance at screening allowed for general-use systems
which the maximum hourly dose, H*(10), is 0.5 operating under this standard. By direct
µSv (50 µrem). This is the minimum distance for calculation, an individual screened less than 40
a full-time work station. The user of the system times per year would receive a radiation
should ensure that the system is operated in exposure within the NID. Likewise, an individual
accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions. screened up to 4,000 times per year would still
be within the recommended dose limit for
B.3 Dose to Special Groups members of the general public (assuming the
individual did not receive radiation exposure
Various subgroups of the general population from other non-medical, man-made sources).
may be more susceptible to radiation-induced However, the use of radiation exposure in
health effects. This includes pregnant and personnel security screening is a unique
potentially pregnant women, children, infants, application. Accordingly, the following
persons receiving radiation treatment for interpretation of the principles of ALARA and
medical conditions, and others. For NID in this specific context is recommended.
occupationally exposed individuals the NCRP
recommends lower dose limits to these special Systems operating under this standard should
groups. For example, the NCRP recommends a only be used in the legitimate search for
maximum occupational dose of 0.5 mSv/month concealed weapons and contraband, along with
(50 mrem/month) to the embryo or fetus. This related activities such as training and service.
means that a pregnant worker should receive a Use of these systems for unnecessary or
lower dose than the occupational limit of 50 frivolous activities is contrary to the
mSv/year (5 rem/year). For the general recommendations of this standard and the
population NCRP does not recommend different intended use of the applicable systems.
limits for special groups. Consistent with the principles of ALARA and
NID, the number of examinations an individual
B.4 Dose Minimization and Negligible receives per year can be divided into two
Individual Dose general categories. In applications where the
subject is likely to receive less than 10 µSv
Under recommendations of the National Council (1,000 µrem) per year, procedures for
on Radiation Protection and Measurements conducting scans can generally be based on the
(NCRP 1993) occupationally exposed necessity of the scan, without explicit
individuals can receive up to 0.05 Sv (5 rem) consideration of the radiation dose involved.
effective dose per year. Likewise, NCRP That is, when subjects are examined less than
recommends that members of the general public about 40 times per year at the maximum
(including special groups such as pregnant emission for general-use systems, the primary

27
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

concern is that the system not be used for any National Academy of Sciences/National
obviously unneeded or frivolous activity. In Research Council (NAS/NRC), Committee on
applications where significantly more frequent the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation.
examinations are conducted, reasonable efforts Health effects of exposure to low levels of
should be made to reduce the number of scans, ionizing radiation. BEIR V. Washington, DC:
taking into account the nature of the application. National Academy Press; 1990.
This does not mean that 10 µSv (1,000 µrem) National Academy of Sciences/National
per year is a safety limit or a sharp division Research Council (NAS/NRC), Committee on
between two regulatory categories. Rather, it is the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation.
meant to provide users of the system a general Health risks from exposure to low levels of
guideline regarding when efforts should be ionizing radiation. BEIR VII. Washington, DC:
expended to reduce the number of examinations National Academy Press; 2006.
taking place. National Council on Radiation Protection and
Measurements (NCRP). Risk estimates for
B.5 References for Annex B radiation protection. Bethesda, MD: NCRP;
NCRP Report 115; 1993.
International Commission on Radiation Units Occupational Safety and Health Administration
and Measurements (ICRU). Conversion (OSHA). Ionizing radiation. 29 CFR
coefficients for use in radiological protection 1910.1096. Washington, DC: U.S. Govern-
against external radiation. Bethesda, MD: ment Printing Office.
ICRU; ICRU Report 57; 1998. United Nations Scientific Committee on the
International Commission on Radiological Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR).
Protection (ICRP). The 2007 recommen- Sources, effects and risks of ionizing
dations of the International Commission on radiation, report to the General Assembly with
Radiological Protection. Oxford: Elsevier; annexes. New York: UN; United Nations
ICRP Publication 103; 2007. Publication E.88.IX.7; 1998.

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ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

ANNEX C (Informative)
Radiation Measurements

This annex contains information necessary for In general, dose denotes energy imparted (per
making accurate measurements of the radiation unit mass) by the radiation on a material.
output of personnel security screening systems. Different materials absorb different amounts of
The discussion of this annex pertains only to energy and the proportion of energy absorbed
measurements of x and gamma radiation that varies with depth in the material. The ambient
are relevant to this standard and is not intended dose equivalent is the dose calculated at a point
to be a comprehensive treatment of radiation in a water phantom (consisting of a sphere of
dosimetry. water 30 cm in diameter) multiplied by a quality
factor that depends on the radiation type (i.e.,
C.1 Quantities and Units alpha, beta, gamma and x rays, or neutrons).
Ambient dose equivalent assumes a uniform
There are many quantities and corresponding radiation field and is denoted by H*(d), where d
units of measurement for ionizing radiation. is the depth in the sphere at which the dose is
These are defined in the International calculated (d = 0.7 mm is customary for
Commission on Radiation Units and estimating shallow skin dose; d = 10 mm is
Measurements’ Report 57 (ICRU 1998). The customary to estimate deep dose). Effective
number and complexity of these quantities stem dose is a summation of the doses to all the body
from the complex way radiation interacts with organs, each multiplied by a tissue weighting
matter. For radiation protection purposes we are factor and the radiation quality factor. The tissue
interested in the damage that radiation can weighting factor depends on each organ’s
cause to the cells of the human body. The vulnerability to radiation. The SI unit of ambient
severity of the damage depends on the type, dose equivalent and ef fective dose is the sievert,
energy, and intensity of the radiation and on the abbreviated Sv. The old unit was the rem (1 Sv
sensitivity of the tissue irradiated. Machine- = 100 rem). One sievert represents the
produced x-rays are usually composed of a wide equivalent of one joule of photon energy being
energy spectrum and the body, in turn, is deposited in a kilogram of tissue.
composed of a wide range of tissues. In order to
measure the radiation dose it is necessary to The term kerma refers to the sum of the initial
consider the relationship between the kinetic energy of all ionizing particles liberated
interactions of the radiation with the various (per unit mass) in a material. Air kerma (related
detector materials and the interactions of the to the energy deposited in a unit mass of air) is
radiation with human tissues. useful because air is an important detection
material and instrument calibrations are often in
For the purpose of this discussion we will terms of this quantity. Therefore, air kerma can
concentrate on the quantities used in this be readily measured. The measurement can
standard: air kerma, ambient dose equivalent, serve as a basis for calculating the other dose
and effective dose. Air kerma (and exposure) quantities. The SI unit for air kerma is the joule
was chosen because it can be measured per kilogram or gray, abbreviated Gy. The old
accurately and can be related to the other dose unit was the rad (1 Gy = 100 rad). In the old
quantities. Ambient dose equivalent was chosen system of units the relevant unit was the
because it is the recommended quantity for roentgen (R), a unit of exposure (an air kerma of
describing the potential dose that can be 1 Gy corresponds to an exposure of 114 R ). The
received at a location. Effective dose is only conversion from air kerma to ambient dose
used in the standard in that it is approximated by equivalent is shown Fig. C1. Conversions from
the reference effective dose. Effective dose is air kerma to effective dose are discussed in
deemed to be proportional to the risk of harmful Annex B and in Section C5 below. The
effects of radiation on a human body, taking into conversion from air kerma to the reference
account the exact exposure conditions and effective dose is given by equations (1) and (1a)
human physiology. in Section 6.1.3 of the standard.

29
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

1.8

1.6
Conversion Coefficient (Sv/Gy)

1.4

1.2

NIST L Beams
1
NIST M Beams
NIST H Beams
0.8 ISO H Beams
ISO W Beams
0.6 ISO N Beams
Monoenergetic Beams
0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
HVL (mm Al)

Fig. C1. The conversion coefficients from air kerma to H*(10) as a function of HVL. The data for
NIST x-ray beams is from Soares (1995). The data for ISO x -ray beams is from ISO (1999). The
data for monoenergetic photons is from ICRU (1998). To convert from exposure in roentgens (R)
to ambient dose equivalent in rems, multiply the conversion coefficient from the chart by 0.88.

should be made. The ionization chamber is the

C.2 Types of Radiation Detectors detector most often used when high quality
measurements of air kerma or exposure are
desired.
C.2.1 Ionization Chamber
C.2.2 Geiger Counter
The ionization chamber is a type of radiation
probe consisting of a volume of air (or other gas) The Geiger counter consists of a Geiger-Mueller
between two electrodes. A voltage is applied to (GM) tube and a pulse counting circuit. The GM
the electrodes. When the chamber is irradiated, tube is similar to an ionization chamber except
electrically charged ions are created in the air that it is filled with a special gas and operates at
volume and collected on the oppositely charged higher voltage. The electrodes are usually in the
electrode. The number of ions created is form of a cylinder and a concentric thin wire.
proportional to the energy deposited in the air Because of this geometry and the small
volume. An electrometer is used to measure the thickness of the wire, the electric field near the
charge or electrical current. The amount of inner electrode is extremely high. When
charge produced per unit mass of air is a radiation interacts with the gas it ionizes the gas,
measure of exposure, which is proportional to air producing electron-ion pairs. The resulting free
kerma. The exposure and air kerma rates are electrons are accelerated by the electric field
given by measurement of the electrical current and go on to produce other electron-ion pairs,
(charge produced per unit time). If the air which in turn produce more ionization. This
volume is not sealed, the mass of air in the avalanche effect results in a fairly large electrical
volume changes with temperature and pressure. pulse that can easily be detected and counted
Therefore, appropriate gas law corrections by the circuitry. This makes the Geiger counter

30
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

extremely sensitive to radiation. However, the free electrons are swept away by the bias
pulses counted are a measure of “events” rather potential. In the presence of ionizing radiation
than actual energy deposited. Unless the this depleted region acts like an ion chamber,
instrument is calibrated in a radiation field only it is much more sensitive. The electric pulse
having an energy spectrum identical to the field created by an ionizing event is proportional to
measured, it is difficult to estimate dose from a the energy of the ionizing photon or particle.
Geiger counter reading. Geiger counters are Germanium semiconductor detectors have a
useful for locating a source of radiation and very high energy resolution and fast charge-
giving a general idea of its strength. It is rarely collecting time, which makes them very useful
appropriate for quantifying pulsed radiation for spectrometry applications. One drawback is
fields. that they need to be cooled to cryogenic
temperatures in order to keep electronic noise
C.2.3 Scintillation Detector down. Room-temperature semiconductor
detectors made of silicon, cadmium telluride,
Scintillation detectors consist of a scintillator mercuric iodide, or cadmium-zinc-telluride can
material, a photomultiplier tube (or solid-state be used for dose and dose rate measurements.
light detector), and associated electronics. When The advantages are generally high sensitivity,
the scintillator is exposed to ionizing radiation, a small size, and fast response. The main
portion of the energy absorbed is immediately disadvantage is a very high energy dependence.
released in the form of visible light. The light is
directed to the photomultiplier tube, which C.3 Air Kerma Measurements for
converts it to an amplified electrical signal. Like Compliance with ANSI/HPS N43.17
the GM tube, the scintillation detector can be
very sensitive. It has the advantage, however,
that the signal is proportional to the energy C.3.1 Instrument Selection
absorbed in the crystal. If the electrical circuit
measures the current or charge produced For checking compliance with the dose limits for
(rather than counting the number of electrical full-body scanners an instrument is needed that
pulses produced), the resulting measurement is is capable of making accurate measurements of
an indication of dose. Although this is a very air kerma (or exposure) for the types of
good way to measure the dose delivered to the irradiation conditions encountered in personnel
scintillator, it is not always indicative of the dose screening. This instrument is used to make
that would be delivered to human tissue. Some determinations of the reference effective dose
scintillator materials, called tissue-equivalent, by measuring the air kerma per scan and the
mimic the radiation response of muscle tissue HVL of the primary beam (see Section 6.1.3 of
for a certain energy range. the standard).

C.2.4 Semiconductor Detector Partial-body scanners require measurements of

ambient dose equivalent for the ADAP
Semiconductor or solid-state detectors consist of determination. For this purpose, an air kerma
a semiconductor diode. A diode is a junction of measurement may be used along with a
p-type and n-type semiconductor material, such conversion based on Fig. C1 or the instrument
as silicon. Through the addition of impurities, the and probe may be calibrated directly in terms of
n-type material contains an excess of free H*(10). For traceability to the National Institute
electrons whereas the p-type material contains of Standards and Technology, a calibration in
an excess of “holes” or electron vacancies. terms of air kerma is preferred. Calculation of
When a bias voltage is applied across the the ADAP also requires knowledge of the scan
junction so that the p side is positive with area size. The edge of the scan area may be
respect to the n side the diode acts as a determined using a small GM detector,
conductor, allowing an electric current to flow. semiconductor detector, x-ray film or by using
When the bias is such that the p side is negative techniques based on scanned images.
with respect to the n side the diode acts as an
insulator, turning off the current flow. The latter The verification of shielding also requires H*(10)
condition is called reverse bias. When a reverse measurements and the above discussion
bias is applied to the diode, a depleted region regarding the instrument calibration applies. For
forms at the p-n junction where all the holes and this purpose, a second instrument for localizing

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ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

the “hot spots” is also useful. A count rate meter instrument used performs automatic background
employing a probe “wand” consisting of an array subtraction, the process should be understood
of GM tubes is a suitable localization instrument. and care should be taken that all of the “real”
The instrument should indicate the responses of signal is measured, taking into account the time -
the GM tubes separately so that localization of dependent ionization rate and the sequence and
the highest exposure is possible. At least two duration of scanning of the ionization chamber
such instruments are commercially available for volume.
surveying cabinet x-ray systems. After the “hot
spots” are found, follow-up measurements using The energy dependence is also very important.
the calibrated meter should be made at those The x-ray fields in question are composed in
locations. large part of photons of relatively low energies.
The air volume in the ionization chamber is
The rest of this discussion pertains to accurate enclosed by the chamber wall. The wall
measurements of air kerma. The most preferentially attenuates the lower-energy
appropriate instrument for air kerma photons, so a thin wall is preferable. However,
measurements should include an ionization for a large chamber, because of structural
chamber as the detector. The instrument should integrity the wall cannot be made very thin.
have 1) an integrating mode, 2) high sensitivity, Some ionization chambers are pressurized in
and 3) low energy dependence. The integrating order to maximize the air mass and therefore the
mode is necessary in order to measure the total sensitivity. This requires a thicker wall to hold
accumulated electrical charge during the course the pressure, and the pressurized air itself also
of one or more complete scans. This yields a attenuates the radiation. All these factors point
measurement of the air kerma (or exposure) to the fact that there will be energy dependence,
“seen” by the side of the body facing the source particularly when measuring x-ray systems
of radiation. An instrument having only a rate operating at low kilovoltage. The effects may be
mode (i.e., measuring in grays per second or minimized by choosing the best ion chamber-
roentgens per second) is not useful for electrometer system for the energy range in
measurements involving a scanning beam. In question and by proper calibration. A large (at
order to obtain an accurate reading, the entire least 1,500 cc), nonpressurized ion chamber is
volume of the ionization chamber should receive recommended. A good-quality electrometer with
the same amount of radiation exposure during at least a 0.1 picocoulomb (pC) resolution,
the course of the scan. capable of measuring a pulse of charge of 5 pC
magnitude and 10 ms duration within ± 10%
Instrument sensitivity and resolution are accuracy, is also recommended (this is
extremely important. The level of air kerma to be approximately the charge produced in 1,500 cc
measured is typically only slightly higher than of air by 10 µR).
background radiation. The electrical signal
produced is so small that it requires a very C.3.2 Calibration
stable electrical circuit with a minimum of
electronic noise in order to be measured The instrument and ion chamber should be
accurately. The ionization chamber should be calibrated in a beam that approximates the x-ray
large enough so that enough electrical charge spectrum of the security scanner being tested.
may be produced for the electrometer to make The calibration should be traceable to one of the
an accurate measurement. Even with a large- National Institute of Standards and Technology’s
volume ion chamber, the electrometer itself (NIST) standard beams. The standard beams
should be very sensitive. Automatic background shown in Table C1 are some of the most
subtraction is not recommended. If the appropriate for this type of calibration.

32
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

Table C1. NIST calibration beams.

Tube kilovoltage HVL Filtration
Beam code (kV) (mm Al) (mm/material)
M30 30 0.36 0.5/Al
M40 40 0.73 0.89/Al
M50 50 1.02 1.07/Al
M60 60 1.68 1.56/Al
M80 80 2.97 2.61/Al
M100 100 5.02 5.0/Al
M120 100 6.79 6.87/Al
M150 150 10.2 5/Al + 0.25/Cu
M200 200 14.9 4.1/Al + 1.12/Cu
M250 250 18.5 5.25/Al + 3.2/Cu
L80 80 1.83 1.45
L100 100 2.77 1.98
Radioisotopes Effective energy (keV)
137
Cs 662
60
Co 1,250

The beam having the closest kilovoltage (kV) produce sufficiently reproducible results. The air
and filtration to those of the security system kerma or exposure of one scan is given by:
should be chosen. If the half-value layer (HVL) is
known, this should be used to pick the ( Rs − Rb) × CF
calibration beam, because it is a good indicator K=
of effective energy. If the values of HVL, kV, and n
filtration desired are not available in calibration
beams, then the two points bracketing those where
values should be used. For beams of about 100 K is the air kerma or exposure per scan,
kV and lower it is generally safer to use a Rs is the integrated reading obtained from all the
calibration energy that is somewhat lower (i.e., scans,
calibration kV, filter thickness, or HVL lower than Rb is the background reading,
those of the scanner), because this yields a CF is the appropriate energy-dependent
higher measurement. (Note: the tube kilovoltage calibration factor of the ionization chamber, and
in kV determines the highest photon energy in n is the number of scans.
the x-ray beam in keV.)
C.4 Determination of the Half-Value
C.3.3 Measurement Layer
After positioning the ionization chamber for a The half-value layer (HVL) of the x-ray beam is
measurement, a background reading of air needed in order to obtain the appropriate
kerma (Gy) or exposure (R) over a time interval conversion coefficient C or CR to use in equation
should be obtained. After resetting the (1) or (1a). A meter and probe suitable for air
electrometer, the ion chamber should be kerma or exposure measurements as described
scanned a number of times, for the same total in Section C.3 should be used. The meter
time interval as the background measurement. sensitivity and resolution should be no greater
The number of scans (and time interval of the than 5% of the reading at the maximum
measurement) should be chosen so as to attenuation (after background subtraction). The

33
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

following is a suggested procedure for FOR INFORMATION ONLY AND TO PROVIDE

measuring the HVL. AN ALTERNATE METHOD OF ESTIMATING
EFFECTIVE DOSE FOR COMPARISON. THIS
a. The measuring probe should be placed at IS NOT A METHOD FOR DETERMINING THE
the approximate location of a screened REFERENCE EFFECTIVE DOSE FOR THE
individual. PURPOSE OF COMPLYING WITH THE
b. The scanning motion may be disabled for PRESENT STANDARD.
this test in order to achieve higher radiation
intensities. Alternatively, a high-sensitivity C.5.1 Conversion Coefficients
probe may be scanned in the same manner
as a screening subject. As attenuators are The conversion coefficient between air kerma in
added (or removed) the geometry of each Gy (or exposure in R) and effective dose in Sv
measurement should be kept identical. (or rem) is dependent on the energy spectrum of
c. A lead collimator should be placed at the x-ray beam, which can generally be
approximately 1/2 to 1/3 the distance from specified by two parameters: the kilovoltage
the probe to the x-ray source. The collimator applied to the x-ray tube (i.e., the kV) and the
should have a diameter no larger than 0.1d, filtration the beam has passed through. This
where d is the distance between the filtration is usually expressed in millimeters of
collimator and the x-ray source (e.g., a 5-cm aluminum. Conversion coefficients have been
collimator at 50 cm from the source or a 7- tabulated for various values of kV and beam
cm collimator at 70 cm from the source, filtration and are shown in Figs. C2 and C3.
producing a 10-cm-diameter beam at 100 Since effective dose is different for exposures to
cm from the source). Note: because these the front and rear of the body due to different
are relative measurements, the beam need impacts of the radiation on the various organs,
not cover the entire probe or ion chamber separate charts are provided. Section C5.2,
provided the geometry stays the same. including Figs. C4–C7, describes how the data
d. Aluminum attenuators of at least 99% purity in Figs. C2 and C3 were prepared.
should be used. Thicknesses should be
added in suitable steps until the air kerma or The conversion coefficients are shown in units of
exposure is reduced to at least 30% of the rem/R (used to convert exposure in R to
unattenuated beam. The attenuators should effective dose in rem). For the sake of simplicity
be placed over the collimator added for this other units have not been included in the charts
measurement. but the appropriate conversion coefficients may
e. Air kerma (exposure) results, obtained be obtained as follows:
according to the procedure in Section C.3.3
above, should be plotted as a function of Al • To convert air kerma in gray to effective
thickness added. The HVL is found by dose in sievert multiply the value taken from
interpolation to the Al thickness producing Figs. C2 and C3 by 1.14 (i.e., 1 rem/R =
an attenuation of 0.5. 1.14 Sv/Gy).
• To convert exposure in C/kg to effective
C.5 Determination of Effective Dose for dose in sievert multiply the value taken from
Polyenergetic X-Ray Spectra Figs. C2 and C3 by 38.8 [i.e., 1 rem/R =
38.8 Sv/(C/kg)].
THE FOLLOWING SECTION IS TAKEN FROM • To convert exposure in R to effective dose in
ANNEX B OF THE 2002 EDITION OF sievert divide the value taken from Figs. C2
ANSI/HPS N43.17. IT PRESENTS A METHOD and C3 by 100 (i.e., 1 rem/R = 0.01 Sv/R).
FOR DETERMINING CONVERSION COEFFI-
CIENTS FOR EFFECTIVE DOSE FROM THE C.5.2 Sources of Data and Methods
X-RAY KILOVOLTAGE AND FILTRATION. THE
METHOD IS BASED ON THE CONVERSION The conversion data presented in Figs. C2 and
COEFFICIENTS OF ICRU 57 (ICRU 1998) AND C3 were prepared using the following sources
DOES NOT INCORPORATE THE TISSUE and methods of calculation.
WEIGHTING FACTORS RECOMMENDED IN
THE 2007 ICRP RECOMMENDATIONS (ICRP Photon spectra for the 14 combinations of kV
2007). THE SECTION IS INSERTED HERE and beam filtration (shown by the square

34
ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

markers in Figs. C2 and C3) were obtained from The solid curves shown in Figs. C2 and C3 are
tabulated data in a standard reference (Birch et obtained by the same procedure, except the
al. 1979; pp. 15–43). As an example, Fig. C4 photon spectra are generated from the equation
shows two of these photon spectra, for 50 kV for Kramer's spectrum (Attix 1986; p. 214):
with 1.5 mm aluminum filtration, and 120 kV with
2.5 mm aluminum. These spectral curves, as Φ(E) = (V – E) K exp[–taρaµ(E)]
well as the other curves discussed below, are
calculated and stored with one data point per where
keV. That is, 150 points are used to represent a
Φ(E) is the photon fluence at energy E,
spectrum running from 1 to 150 keV. Note that
V is the voltage applied to the x-ray tube in kV
the term “kV” is used instead of “kVp” to
(equal to the peak photon energy in keV),
describe these spectra, since they are based on
E is the photon energy in keV,
constant potential operation.
K is a normalization factor determined by
comparison with the Birch spectra,
Fig. C5 shows the conversion coefficient
ta is the thickness of alumin um filtration,
between photon fluence (i.e., the number of
photons per unit area) and exposure (in units of ρa is the density of aluminum, and
roentgens) for monochromatic x-rays (Birch et µ(E) is the energy dependent mass attenuation
al. 1979; Table 2, p. 12). The vertical axis of this coefficient of aluminum.
graph is a relative scale.

When the curve in Fig. C5 is multiplied by a C.6 References for Annex C

photon spectrum (such as the examples shown
in Fig. C4), an exposure spectrum is produced. Attix FH. Introduction to radiological physics and
This exposure spectrum is analogous to the radiation dosimetry. New York: John Wiley &
kerma in air spectrum in the SI system of units. Sons; 1986.
After converting each of the 14 spectra in this Birch R, Marshall M, Ardran GM. Catalogue of
manner, each exposure spectrum is normalized spectral data for diagnostic x-rays. London:
such that the sum of all the values in each The Hospital Physicists’ Association;
spectrum is unity. Fig. C6 shows the normalized Scientific Report Series 30; 1979.
exposure spectra for the two examples. International Commission on Radiation Units
and Measurements (ICRU). Conversion
The curves in Fig. C6 can be understood by coefficients for use in radiological protection
considering an x-ray beam that produces an against external radiation. Bethesda, MD:
exposure of exactly one roentgen. The exposure ICRU; ICRU Report 57; 1998.
spectrum breaks this one roentgen exposure International Commission on Radiological
into 150 different energy bands, each 1 keV Protection (ICRP). Basic anatomical and
wide. Each point in the spectrum represents the physiological data for use in radiological
exposure resulting from x-rays within its energy protection: reference values. Oxford: Elsevier;
band, and the sum of all the points is equal to ICRP Publication 89; 2003.
one roentgen. International Standards Organization (ISO). X
and gamma reference radiation for calibrating
Fig. C7 shows the conversion coefficient dosemeters and doserate meters and for
between exposure (in roentgens) and effective determining their response as a function of
dose (in rem), for monochromatic x-ray beams. photon energy – Part 3. ISO Standard 4037-
The markers in this graph are from a standard 3; 1999.
reference (ICRU 1998). The values between Soares CG, Martin PR. A consistent set of
these points (the solid lines) are obtained by photon conversion coefficients for personnel
linear interpolation. When this curve is multiplied and environmental dosimetry. In: Proceedings
by each of the 14 exposure spectra, 14 effective of the Panasonic Users Group Meeting,
dose spectra are produced, such as the Somerset, PA, June 5–9; 1995.
examples shown in Fig. C8. The total effective
dose produced by each spectrum is found by
summing the effective doses at each individual
energy. These are the values reported by the
square markers in Figs. C2 and C3.

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ANSI/HPS N43.17-2009

Fig. C2. Conversion between exposure and effective dose for a frontal scan. These curves provide the
conversion coefficient between measured exposure (in roentgens) and effective dose (in rem), as a
function of the x-ray tube potential (KV) and beam filtration (mm of Aluminum) for a front scan. When
converting from air kerma (in Gy) to effective dose (in Sv) the conversion coefficients from the y-axis
should be multiplied by 1.14 (see text).

Fig. C3. Conversion between exposure and effective dose for a rear scan. These curves provide the
conversion coefficient between measured exposure (in roentgens) and effective dose (in rem), as a
function of the x-ray tube potential (KV) and beam filtration (mm of aluminum) for a rear scan. When
converting from air kerma (in Gy) to effective dose (in Sv) the conversion coefficients from the y-axis
should be multiplied by 1.14 (see text).
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Fig. C4. Photon spectra. Examples of two photon spectra: 50 kV with 1.5 mm aluminum filtration, and 120
kV with 2.5 mm aluminum filtration.

Fig. C5. Photon fluence to exposure conversion. The curve represents relative conversion coefficients
between photon fluence (i.e., the number of photons per unit area) and exposure (in units of roentgens)
for monochromatic x-rays (Birch et al. 1979; Table 2, p. 12).

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Fig. C6. Exposure spectra. The normalized exposure spectra for the two examples of Fig. C4.

Fig. C7. Monochromatic conversion. The conversion coefficient between exposure (in roentgens) and
effective dose (in rems) for monochromatic x-ray beams. The markers in this graph are from a standard
reference (ICRU 1998). The values between these points (the solid lines) are obtained by linear
interpolation.

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Fig. C8. Effective dose spectra. The effective dose spectra obtained by multiplying the exposure spectra
of Fig. C5 by the conversion curve for a frontal scan shown in Fig. C7. The total effective dose produced
by each spectrum is found by summing the effective doses at each individual energy. These are the
values reported by the square markers in Figs. C2 and C3.

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