FACULTY OF EDUCATION

DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION

BAYERO UNIVERSITY, KANO.

TED 3211-CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

PREPARED BY: MAL. AMINU TIJJANI

MAY, 2019

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CONCRETE

Concrete is the most widely used stable construction material. This prime position of concrete in
construction practice could be attributed to many factors, some of which are; its low price
compared to other construction materials like metals and timber, its ability to be molded into any
shape on construction site without mu difficulty, and its strength and durability properties etc.

Concrete is made by mixing three essential constituent; cement, water and aggregate (fine and
coarse aggregate). Cement and water combined to form the medium that bind the aggregate to
form solid rock-like material.

Cement combined with water forms the binding medium which is the reactive part of concrete
while the aggregates form the non-reactive part of concrete.

Concrete achieves its strength as a result of complex chemical reaction that take place between
cement and water (under normal circumstances) cement reacts with water (a process known as
hydration) to form a number of complex substances, the predominant products consist of tiny
particles suspended in liquid. This suspension is known as tobermerite gel, crystalline calcium
hydroxide (CA (OH) 2) is also formed. All products of cement hydration are collectively called
cement gel, cement gels intertwine with each other as hydration continue to form “Hardened
cement paste” (H.C.P). It is the H.C.P that gives strength to concrete and enables it to be used as
a satisfactory construction material. Aggregate in concrete helps in giving rigidity, dimensional
stability and lower cost.

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Cement

Definition: with regards to construction industry, cement is any material that have adhesive and
cohesive properties that make it possible to bind together material fragment so as to produce a
continues compact of masonry

Examples of cementing materials include:

1. Hydraulic materials include

 Portland cement
 Lime
 Gypsum plaster etc.
2. Asphalt
3. Tars etc.

Hydraulic Cement

Those are the cements that achieved strength as a result of chemical reaction between them and
water. For this types of cement to be useful water must be available.

There are many types of hydraulic cement, but the most widely used in construction practice are
the Portland cement.

Manufacture of Portland Cement

All Portland cement have some chemical constituents although in varying proportions. It is this
variation in proportion of constituents that determines the individual types of cement. Portland
cement are made by mixing calcareous or other lime containing material with argillaceous or
other materials containing silica, alumina or other oxide or iron oxide burning them at high
temperature about 1450oC. The clinker is ground to fine powder with addition of about 4-6 percent
of calcium sulphate (Gypsum). Addition of gypsum is necessary in order to retard the rate of
hydration of cement. (More specifically the aluminate component). If gypsum is not added flesh
setting of cement could happened when the cement is mixed with water.

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Types of Cement

 Ordinary Portland Cement

 Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
 Extra Rapid Hardening Portland Cement
 Low Heat Portland Cement
 Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement
 White Portland Cement

Ordinary Portland Cement:- this consist about 46% calcium trisilicates, 24% dicalcium
silicates, 11% tricalcium aluminates, 7% tetra calcium aluminates ferrite, 5% gypsum (Calcium
Sulphate)

Rapid Hardening Portland Cement: - The main difference is not that the final strength is
higher, but that of the strength is reached more quickly. In three days a strength equivalent to
that of seven days ordinary Portland CaCO3 concrete strength may be obtained. It consist of 74%
calcium trisilicate, 5% di calcium silicate, 5% tricalcium aluminate, 4% tetra calcium aluminate
ferrite, 5% gypsum (Calcium Sulphate). An increased in calcium trisilicate will increase the rate
of strength.

Extra Rapid Hardening Portland Cement: - This is rapid hardening Portland CaCO3 with
addition of about 1-5% of calcium chloride (CaCL2) acceleration; ground in at 16 the
manufacturing state. Both setting and hardening are speeded off, with the result that it must be
placed immediately after mixing and more heat of hydration can be executed in the earlier stages.
This can be very useful for cold weather concreting. Its two days strength often compare with
three days strength of rapid hardening CaCO3 on seven days of ordinary Portland CaCO3 (O.P.C).
Unfortunately there is increased shrinkage between the plastic stage and hardening states.

Low Heat Portland Cement: - the heat of hydration even from (O.P.C) can lead to considerable
rises in temperature in mass concrete particularly in hot weather. The two compounds which
hydrate most rapidly have been reduced.

Sulphate Resisting Portland Cement: - All the compounds produced in Portland cement CaCo3
react to some extent with surface. By far the worst is the calcium sulphate aluminates which has

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a volume of about 21/4 times than tri calcium aluminates, and because of the solid state of the
concrete cause stresses and eventually disintegration. The main culprits are the sulphate of Mg
and Na particularly in condition of alternate wetting and drying where their concentrate can
become very high porous concrete will far more than well compacted less porous concrete
sulphate CaCo3 is produced by the same method described earlier but the amount of tri calcium
aluminates ferrite formed instead of the tri calcium aluminates. Typical proportions are: 45% tri
calcium silicate, 23% di calcium silicate, 2% tri calcium aluminate, 18% tetra calcium aluminates
ferrite, and 45% gypsum (calcium sulphate).

White Portland caco3 (Cement):- All the compounds are white except tetra calcium aluminate
ferrite which is black. This explained the characteristic column of p.c for decorative purpose
white and light colored finished may be required. White Portland CaCo3 is china clay which is
free from Fe2o3.Cost is rather higher due to need of china’s clay higher kiln temperature and the
difficulties are grounding without contamination with Fe. Colored CaCo3 may be produced either
by grinding up to 10% pigment at the work. Suitable color aggregate are needed and the cost can
be high.

Site Testing of Cement

Procedure:-

 Examine to determine whether it is free from lumps and of a flour-like consistency (free
from dampness and reasonably fresh)
 Place hand in cement and check if of blood heat then it is in satisfactory condition
 Settle with water at paste in a close jar to see whether it will expand or contract

Storage of Cement

 Prior to use of cement needs to be stored in damp proof and drought proof structure.
 Staging of wood on floor before placement

Aggregates

Aggregates are mineral filler materials used in concrete. Materials like sand, gravel, crushed rock
and other mineral fillers are used as aggregates. Aggregate occupy about 75% of the volume in

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concrete. Almost any material provided it has required strength, durability and can be used as an
aggregate for making concrete.

Classification of Aggregate

On the soundness basis of their size, aggregate may be classified into two categories:

Coarse Aggregate: It is the aggregate whose particles pass through 75mm mesh sieve and are
completely retained on 4.75mm mesh sieve. Aggregate having it particles greater than 75mm is
known as cyclopean aggregate. Coarse aggregate is further divided into natural and artificial
aggregate. The natural aggregate include gravel, crushed gravel or stone, and on the other hand
artificial coarse aggregate include clinker, form slag, breeze and broken bricks.

Fine Aggregate: It is the aggregate whose particles pass through 4.75mm mesh sieve and but
are completely retained on 0.07mm mesh, particles smaller than 0.06mm down to 0.02mm come
under silt, particles less than 0.02mm falls under clay and both two are considered as harmful
ingredients.

Characteristics of Aggregate

A good aggregate should not contain any deterious material which may cause physical and
chemical changes in the concrete: an aggregate should have clean, uncoated, properly shaped
particles of strong, dense, durable mineral rock and materials.

1. Shape and Size

Aggregate may be classified as rounded, regular, angular or flaky.

Rounded aggregate: - have about 35% of voids. It gives minimum ratio of surface area to a
given volume of concrete and therefore requires minimum water for lubrication. It gives good
workability for a given amount of water and also requires less cement for a particular
water/cement ratio. This type of aggregate does not have good interlocking effect and hence,
does not produce high strength concrete.

Irregular Aggregate: - Gives higher percentage of void of up to 37% this type exhibit less
workability and requires more cement. It has better interlocking effect than rounded aggregate,
but not enough for high strength concrete.
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Angular aggregate: - Have void percentage of up to 41%. It requires more water for lubrication
and exhibit less workability for a specified water/ cement ratio. It has very good interlocking
effect and hence most suitable for high strength concrete.

Flat, elongated, or flaky aggregate: - Beside decrease in workability, flaky particles have
tendency to be oriented in one plane which is harmful, from the durability point of view,
percentage of this type of particles in the aggregate should not exceed 25%

2. Surface Texture

Bond between aggregate particles and cement paste is greatly dependent on the surface texture
of the particles. Surface roughness and surface porosity of aggregate are the main elements on
which the bond greatly depends. The rougher the surface of the aggregate, the better the bond
that can be developed between the aggregate and cement mass. Surface of aggregate may be
glassy, smooth, granular, crystalline or honeycombed. Glassy surface aggregate should not be
used for concrete.

3. Porosity and absorption

Small holes are usually found inside rocks during the formation to form what are referred to as
pores. All aggregate have certain amount of pores, through which water can penetrate.

Aggregate without any water in its pores or on its surface is referred to as dry aggregate. A
saturated surface dry aggregate has it pores filled with moisture but the surface is dry. When all
the pores are filled with moisture and the surface is also wet, the aggregate is said to be moist. In
the field, all aggregate have moisture. Fine aggregate increase in volume due to presence of
moisture, therefore suitable allowance has to be made while taking account of it.

Grading of Aggregates

Grading of aggregates implies the particle size distribution of aggregate. If all particles of an
aggregate of one size, more void will be left in the aggregate mass. On the other hand, and
aggregate having particles of varying sizes will exhibit smaller voids. The principle of grading
is that the smaller size particles filled up the voids left in large size particles.

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Grading determines the workability of the mix which controls segregations, bleeding, water and
cement requirements, handling, placing and other characteristics of the mix. These factors also
affect the economy, strength and other properties. This is however more pronounced than in
coarse aggregates.

Maximum Size of Aggregates

For the same workability and strength, concrete having larger aggregate requires less amount of
cement than concrete having smaller aggregate. In large bulk works large sized aggregate is
preferred because it involves lesser consumption of cement. Less cement reduces heat of
hydration and, consequently thermal stresses and shrinkage cracks are also reduced. But there
are other considerations also which control the size of aggregate. Large sized aggregate presents
smaller surface area to be wetted per unit weight that of small sized aggregate and hence for the
same water/cement ratio workability of concrete having comparatively, large sized aggregate is
more small sized aggregate has poor bond with cement paste and hence, its strength is lower than
that having large sized aggregate. The maximum size of the aggregate is governed by the
following factors as well:

It should be three quarter of the clear spacing between reinforcing bars or between reinforcing
bars and forms.

It should be one third of the concrete slab.

40mm, 20mm, and 10mm sized aggregates are most commonly adopted in concrete works. For
structures like abutments, retaining walls, 40mm size aggregate should be used. For reinforced
concrete 20mm sized aggregate is used.

Test of Aggregates

Tests on Cleanness of Sand

Procedure: Pick up a handful of sand from damp pile of sand. Rub the sand between the palms
of the hand

Result: if the palms show signs of staining then the sand is not clear, if the hand is free of any
staining then the sand is clean.

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Silt Test

Apparatus: Measuring cylinder (250ml and 100ml), beaker (250ml), stirrer and measuring rule

Materials: Common salt

Specimen: Natural sand

Method

1. Prepare 1% solution of salt in water

2. Pour about 50ml of the solution into the 250ml measuring cylinder
3. Add sand up to the 100ml mark
4. Add more salt solution until it reaches the 150ml mark
5. Shake the mixture vigorously and leave it to settle in the cylinder for three hours
6. Measure the thickness of the visible silt layer formed at the surface
7. Measure the depth of the sand including the silt layer

Result: Express the thickness of the silt layer as a percentage of the depth of the sand and silt.
The value obtained should not exceed 6%

PRODUCTION OF CONCRETE

Batching

Batching is the process of measuring the desired quantity of the various constituents of concrete
to obtain the desired mix for the concrete. Batching can be by weight or by volume

Batching by volume

In this method an open top box called a gauge box is used to measure the quantity of the various
materials. Cement is most time supplied for use in a unit of 50kg bag and has a volume of about
0.035m3. For a 1;2:4 mix ratio, the gauge box is filled once with cement, two times with fine
aggregate, and four times with coarse aggregate. At all times the top of the gauge box is struck
off. If the fine aggregate is damp or wet its volume will increase by up to 25% and therefore the
amount of fine aggregate should be increased by this amount. This increase in volume is called
bulking.

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Batching by Weight

This method entails measuring out the exact quantities of the various materials using any suitable
weighing method depending on the quantity of the materials to be batched. This is the better
method since it has a greater accuracy and the weighing balance can be attached to the mixing
machine. It water is usually, measured by volume and specified as to the number of liters per bag
of cement to be mixed.

Tools Used for Batching

Tools required for batching are as follows

 Gauge box
 Head pan/wheel barrow
 Shovel/mixer

Mixing

Mixing of concrete is done by hand or machine:

Hand Mixing

Hand mixing should be carried out on a clean hard surface. The materials should be thoroughly
mixed in the dry state twice before the water is added. The water should be added slowly and
mixed at least three times. Shovel should be used for mixing

Machine Mixed

Machine mixing is accomplished using either stationary mixers (plant mixers) or mobile mixers
(transit mixers). Stationary mixers come in two types; one-opening and two-openings. In a one
opening type mixer, the materials are charged and discharged through the same opening. In the
two openings type, the materials are charged from the opening at the rear and the mixed concrete
is discharged from the opening at the front. Both types mix concrete in a rotating drum equipped
with internal blade designed to lift and tumble the ingredients.

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Ready-Mixed Concrete

Ready mix concrete is produced and delivered using one of three operations:

 Central Mixing
 Shrinkage Mixing
 Truck Mixing

Central mixed-concrete is completely mixed in a stationary mixer at the mixing plant and
conveyed (agitating) in a truck mixer. The truck mixer may be used at the job site for remixing.

Shrink-mixed concrete is partially mixed in a stationary mixer at the plant to reduce-or shrink-
the total volume, and is completely mixed in a truck mixer during transit.

Truck-mixed concrete is completely mixed in a truck-mixer via 70-100 revolutions at the mixing
speed of the drum-8 to 12 revolutions per minute. The batch plant in this case only batches the
ingredients and does not mix them, and is called a dry plant.

Handling

If concrete is to be transported for some distance over rough ground, the runs should be kept as
short as possible since vibration of this nature can cause segregation of the materials in the mix.
For the same reason concrete should not be dropped from a height of more than 1m. If this is
unavoidable a chute should be used.

Laying of Concrete

Concrete after it has been mixed and transported to the point where it is required to be placed at
the desired position, it should carefully be poured into the form. The form work should be
checked for rigidity and free from dust, application of oil will help in preventing from sticking
to the form work

Compaction

Compaction of concrete can be done manually or by the use of mechanical vibrator. The purpose
of compaction in concrete is to help in reducing air and water void from the concrete there by
making it stronger.

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Finishing of Concrete

A concrete surface-mostly flatwork-is finished to fulfill the requirements of aesthetics or service.

Finishing can be done by hand or machine. Fresh concrete should be allowed to stand until the
water disappears from the surface before the start of the finishing operation.

Power operated machines for screeding, floating, and trowelling are commonly used in large
jobs. Excessive finishing creates a weakened layer at the top surface. Water should be added
during finishing only in emergencies-such as under rapid drying conditions that may cause plastic
shrinkage crack.

Curing

Curing is any procedure that maintains proper moisture and temperature to ensure continues
hydration. It was indicated previously that hydration-reaction between compound of cement and
water sets off when cement grains comes into contact with water and proceeds until all the grains
are hydrated, which takes a very long time-more than a few years. Properties of concrete improve
with age as long as conditions are favorable for continued hydration. The rate of hydration is
rapid in the beginning but continues rather slowly for an indefinite period of time-a growth
mimicking that of living things like tree.

Methods of Curing

The available methods of curing can be divided into three types:

 Method that maintain the presence of water

 Method that prevent the loss of mixing water
 Method that accelerate hydration by supplying heat and moisture

Curing can be accomplished using four materials:

 Water
 Mats or blanket
 Water proofing paper or plastic sheeting
 Liquid membrane-forming compound

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Water: Water is the ideal curing medium, and water curing can be accomplished by ponding,
spraying, or sprinkling. Ponding is accomplished by building earth or sand dikes around the
perimeter of the concrete slab to retain a pond of water within the enclosed area. Water proofing
paper or plastic sheeting: Covering concrete with a wet mats or blacket (such as cotton curing
mat) slows evaporation loss and supplies moisture to the concrete. Masking the concrete with a
2 in. layer moist sand, earth, or saw dust (wet once a day) can also be an effective curing
techniques for pavement and floors.

Water proofing paper or plastic sheeting: This should be applied immediately the concrete is
hardened and after the concrete has been thoroughly wet. The sheeting should be directly on the
concrete surface and the overlapping edges should a minimum of 12 in. (30cm) wide. The
primary advantage of this method is that periodic addition of water is not required.

Liquid curing compound or liquid membrane-forming compound: they are normally called
seal coats and are mostly used because of their versatility, ease of application, convenience and
economy. They are relatively inexpensive, and provide an effective means of preventing
evaporation from flat slabs and pavements, assuming that they are applied as soon as the concrete
is finished. These compound are the pigmented or clear solvent solutions of resin or waxes, and
are available in spray-on, roll-on and brush applied forms. The pigment helps indicate the area
covered by the compound. After application the solvent evaporates, leaving behind a thin
continues film (membrane) or resin on the surface of the concrete which seal in most of the
moisture. The film remains for a month or so, after which it becomes brittle under the action of
heat and thereafter peels off.

Curing compound should not be applied to dry surface, which may absorb the compound, causing
stains.

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Various Grades of Concrete and Their Ratio

The following are the various grade of concrete and their ratio for use in construction field

M5 1:5:10
M10 1:3:6
M15 1:2:4
M20 1:1.5:3
M25 1:1:2

Above M25 is a special grade use for special purpose

Concrete Slump Test:

The concrete slump test is an empirical test that measures the workability of fresh concrete. The
test is performed to check the consistency of freshly mixed concrete in a specific batch.
Consistency refers to the ease and homogeneity with which the concrete can be mixed, placed,
compacted and finished. This test is most widely used due to the simplicity of apparatus and
simple test procedure.

The slump test gives satisfactory results for the concrete mix of medium to high workability and
unfortunately, it does not give the correct indication of low workability, which may give zero
slumps. This test is also known as slump cone test.

Apparatus for Concrete Slump Test:

1. Mould or slump cone with a height of 300 mm, bottom diameter 200 mm, and top diameter
100 mm.

2. Standard tamping rod.

3. Non-porous base plate.

4. Measuring scale.

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Procedure of Test:

1. First, clean the inner surface of the empty mould and then apply oil to it.

2. Set the mould on a horizontal non-porous and non-absorbent base plate.

3. Fill the mould fully by pouring freshly mixed concrete in three equal layers.

4. Stroke each layer 25 times with the standard tamping rod over the cross-section.

5. After stroking 25 times the top layer is struck off level, now lift the mould slowly in the vertical
direction without disturbing the concrete cone.

6. Use the measuring scale to measure the difference level between the height of the mould and
the concrete sample.

7. The subsidence of concrete is known as the slump and the value of slump is measured in mm.

Types of Slump:

True Slump: The concrete mass after the test when slumps evenly all around without
disintegration is called the true slump.

Shear Slump: When one-half of the concrete mass slide down the other is called the shear slump.
This type of slump is obtained in a lean concrete mix.

Collapse Slump: When the sample is collapsed due to adding excessive water, it is known as
collapse slump.

Zero Slump: For very stiff or dry mixes it does not show any changes of the slump after
removing the slump cone.

Advantages of Concrete Slump Test:

1. The procedure of slump test is simple and easy than any other workability test.

2. Inexpensive and portable apparatus is required for this test.

3. Slump test can be performed at the construction site as well as in the laboratory.

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 Recommended Values of Slumps for Different Concrete Mixes:

Types of Concrete Slump Range in mm

1. Heavy mass construction 25-50

2. Pavements 20-30

3. Bridge deck 25-75

4. Beams and slabs 50-100

5. Columns, retaining walls and thin

75-150
vertical members etc.

6. Vibrated concrete 12-25

ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST ON CONCRETE

Ultrasonic testing of concrete or ultrasonic pulse velocity test on concrete is a non-destructive test
to assess the homogeneity and integrity of concrete.

With this ultrasonic test on concrete, following can be assessed:

1. Qualitative assessment of strength of concrete, its gradation in different locations of structural

members and plotting the same.

2. Any discontinuity in cross section like cracks, cover concrete delamination etc.

3. Depth of surface cracks.

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Ultrasonic Testing of Concrete
Ultrasonic pulse velocity test consists of measuring travel time, T of ultrasonic pulse of 50 to 54
kHz, produced by an electro-acoustical transducer, held in contact with one surface of the concrete
member under test and receiving the same by a similar transducer in contact with the surface at the
other end.
With the path length L, (i.e. the distance between the two probes) and time of travel T, the pulse
velocity (V=L/T) is calculated.
Higher the elastic modulus, density and integrity of the concrete, higher is the pulse velocity. The
ultrasonic pulse velocity depends on the density and elastic properties of the material being tested

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Testing Instrument

Though pulse velocity is related with crushing strength of concrete, yet no statistical correlation can
be applied.

The pulse velocity in concrete may be influenced by:

 Path length
 Lateral dimension of the specimen tested
 Presence of reinforcement steel
 Moisture content of the concrete

The influence of path length will be negligible provided it is not less than 100mm when 20mm
size aggregate is used or less than 150mm for 40mm size aggregate.

Pulse velocity will not be influenced by the shape of the specimen, provided its least lateral
dimension (i.e. its dimension measured at right angles to the pulse path) is not less than the
wavelength of the pulse vibrations.

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For pulse of 50Hz frequency, this corresponds to a least lateral dimension of about 80mm. the
velocity of pulses in steel bar is generally higher than they are in concrete. For this reason pulse
velocity measurements made in the vicinity of reinforcing steel may be high and not
representative of the concrete.

The influence of the reinforcement is generally small if the bars runs in a direction at right angles
to the pulse path and the quantity of steel is small in relation to the path length. The moisture
content of the concrete can have a small but significant influence on the pulse velocity.

In general, the velocity is increased with increased moisture content, the influence being more
marked for lower quality concrete.

Method of propagating and receiving pulses

Measurement of pulse velocities at points on a regular grid on the surface of a concrete structure
provides a reliable method of assessing the homogeneity of the concrete.

The size of the grid chosen will depend on the size of the structure and the amount of variability
encountered.

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Procedure for Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test
i) Preparing for use: Before switching on the ‘V’ meter, the transducers should be connected to
the sockets marked “TRAN” and “REC”. The ‘V’ meter may be operated with either:
o The internal battery,

o An external battery or

o The A.C line.

ii) Set reference: A reference bar is provided to check the instrument zero. The pulse time for
the bar is engraved on it. Apply a smear of grease to the transducer faces before placing it on the
opposite ends of the bar. Adjust the ‘SET REF’ control until the reference bar transit time is
obtained on the instrument read-out.
iii) Range selection: For maximum accuracy, it is recommended that the 0.1 microsecond range
be selected for path length up to 400mm.
iv) Pulse velocity: Having determined the most suitable test points on the material to be tested,
make careful measurement of the path length ‘L’. Apply couplant to the surfaces of the
transducers and press it hard onto the surface of the material.
Do not move the transducers while a reading is being taken, as this can generate noise signals
and errors in measurements. Continue holding the transducers onto the surface of the material
until a consistent reading appears on the display, which is the time in microsecond for the
ultrasonic pulse to travel the distance ‘L’. The mean value of the display readings should be taken
when the units digit hunts between two values.

Pulse velocity = (Path length/Travel time)

v) Separation of transducer leads: It is advisable to prevent the two transducer leads from coming
into close contact with each other when the transit time measurements are being taken. If this is
not done, the receiver lead might pick-up unwanted signals from the transmitter lead and this
would result in an incorrect display of the transit time.

Concrete Quality based on Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

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 Pulse Velocity Concrete Quality

>4.0 km/s Very good to excellent

3.5 – 4.0 km/s Good to very good, slight porosity may exist

3.0 – 3.5 km/s Satisfactory but loss of integrity is suspected

<3.0 km/s Poor and loss of integrity exist.

FIBER

Fiber Reinforced Concrete can be defined as a composite material consisting of mixtures of

cement, mortar or concrete and discontinuous, discrete, uniformly dispersed suitable fibers. Fiber
reinforced concrete are of different types and properties with many advantages. Continuous
meshes, woven fabrics and long wires or rods are not considered to be discrete fibers. Fiber is a
small piece of reinforcing material possessing certain characteristics properties. They can be
circular or flat. The fiber is often described by a convenient parameter called “aspect ratio”. The
aspect ratio of the fiber is the ratio of its length to its diameter. Typical aspect ratio ranges from
30 to 150.

Fiber reinforced concrete (FRC) is concrete containing fibrous material which increases its
structural integrity. It contains short discrete fibers that are uniformly distributed and randomly
oriented. Fibers include steel fibers, glass fibers, synthetic fibers and natural fibers.

Fiber-reinforcement is mainly used in shotcrete, but can also be used in normal concrete. Fiber-
reinforced normal concrete are mostly used for on-ground floors and pavements, but can be
considered for a wide range of construction parts (beams, foundations etc.)

Concrete reinforced with fibers (which are usually steel, glass or plastic fibers) is less expensive
than hand-tied rebar, while still increasing the tensile strength many times. Shape, dimension and
length of fiber is important. A thin and short fiber, for example short hair-shaped glass fiber, will

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only be effective the first hours after pouring the concrete (reduces cracking while the concrete
is stiffening) but will not increase the concrete tensile strength

Effect of Fibers in Concrete

Fibers are usually used in concrete to control plastic shrinkage cracking and drying shrinkage
cracking. They also lower the permeability of concrete and thus reduce bleeding of water. Some
types of fibers produce greater impact, abrasion and shatter resistance in concrete. Generally
fibers do not increase the flexural strength of concrete, so it cannot replace moment resisting or
structural steel reinforcement. Some fibers reduce the strength of concrete.

The amount of fibers added to a concrete mix is measured as a percentage of the total volume of
the composite (concrete and fibers) termed volume fraction (Vf). Vf typically ranges from 0.1 to
3%. Aspect ratio (l/d) is calculated by dividing fiber length (l) by its diameter (d). Fibers with a
non-circular cross section use an equivalent diameter for the calculation of aspect ratio. If the
modulus of elasticity of the fiber is higher than the matrix (concrete or mortar binder), they help
to carry the load by increasing the tensile strength of the material. Increase in the aspect ratio of
the fiber usually segments the flexural strength and toughness of the matrix. However, fibers
which are too long tend to “ball” in the mix and create workability problems.
Some recent research indicated that using fibers in concrete has limited effect on the impact
resistance of concrete materials. This finding is very important since traditionally people think
the ductility increases when concrete reinforced with fibers. The results also pointed out that the
micro fibers is better in impact resistance compared with the longer fibers.

Necessity of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

 It increases the tensile strength of the concrete.
 It reduce the air voids and water voids the inherent porosity of gel.
 It increases the durability of the concrete.

Fibers such as graphite and glass have excellent resistance to creep, while the same is not true
for most resins. Therefore, the orientation and volume of fibers have a significant influence on
the creep performance of rebars/tendons.

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Reinforced concrete itself is a composite material, where the reinforcement acts as the
strengthening fiber and the concrete as the matrix. It is therefore imperative that the behavior
under thermal stresses for the two materials be similar so that the differential deformations of
concrete and the reinforcement are minimized. It has been recognized that the addition of small,
closely spaced and uniformly dispersed fibers to concrete would act as crack arrester and would
substantially improve its static and dynamic properties.

Factors Affecting Properties of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Fiber reinforced concrete is the composite material containing fibers in the cement matrix in an
orderly manner or randomly distributed manner. Its properties would obviously, depends upon
the efficient transfer of stress between matrix and the fibers. The factors are briefly discussed
below:

1. Relative Fiber Matrix Stiffness

The modulus of elasticity of matrix must be much lower than that of fiber for efficient stress
transfer. Low modulus of fiber such as nylons and polypropylene are, therefore, unlikely to give
strength improvement, but the help in the absorption of large energy and therefore, impart greater
degree of toughness and resistance to impart. High modulus fibers such as steel, glass and carbon
impart strength and stiffness to the composite.

Interfacial bond between the matrix and the fiber also determine the effectiveness of stress
transfer, from the matrix to the fiber. A good bond is essential for improving tensile strength of
the composite.

2. Volume of Fibers
The strength of the composite largely depends on the quantity of fibers used in it. Fig 1 and 2
show the effect of volume on the toughness and strength. It can see from Fig 1 that the increase
in the volume of fibers, increase approximately linearly, the tensile strength and toughness of the
composite. Use of higher percentage of fiber is likely to cause segregation and harshness of
concrete and mortar.

22
3. Aspect Ratio of the Fiber
Another important factor which influences the properties and behavior of the composite is the
aspect ratio of the fiber. It has been reported that up to aspect ratio of 75, increase on the aspect
ratio increases the ultimate concrete linearly. Beyond 75, relative strength and toughness is
reduced.

4. Orientation of Fibers
One of the differences between conventional reinforcement and fiber reinforcement is that in
conventional reinforcement, bars are oriented in the direction desired while fibers are randomly
oriented. To see the effect of randomness, mortar specimens reinforced with 0.5% volume of
fibers were tested. In one set specimens, fibers were aligned in the direction of the load, in another
in the direction perpendicular to that of the load, and in the third randomly distributed.

It was observed that the fibers aligned parallel to the applied load offered more tensile strength
and toughness than randomly distributed or perpendicular fibers.

5. Workability and Compaction of Concrete

Incorporation of steel fiber decreases the workability considerably. This situation adversely
affects the consolidation of fresh mix. Even prolonged external vibration fails to compact the
concrete. The fiber volume at which this situation is reached depends on the length and diameter
of the fiber.

Another consequence of poor workability is non-uniform distribution of the fibers. Generally,

the workability and compaction standard of the mix is improved through increased water/ cement
ratio or by the use of some kind of water reducing admixtures.

6. Size of Coarse Aggregate

Maximum size of the coarse aggregate should be restricted to 10mm, to avoid appreciable
reduction in strength of the composite. Fibers also in effect, act as aggregate. Although they have
a simple geometry, their influence on the properties of fresh concrete is complex. The inter-
particle friction between fibers and between fibers and aggregates controls the orientation and
distribution of the fibers and consequently the properties of the composite. Friction reducing

23
admixtures and admixtures that improve the cohesiveness of the mix can significantly improve
the mix.

7. Mixing
Mixing of fiber reinforced concrete needs careful conditions to avoid balling of fibers,
segregation and in general the difficulty of mixing the materials uniformly. Increase in the aspect
ratio, volume percentage and size and quantity of coarse aggregate intensify the difficulties and
balling tendency. Steel fiber content in excess of 2% by volume and aspect ratio of more than
100 are difficult to mix.

It is important that the fibers are dispersed uniformly throughout the mix; this can be done by the
addition of the fibers before the water is added. When mixing in a laboratory mixer, introducing
the fibers through a wire mesh basket will help even distribution of fibers. For field use, other
suitable methods must be adopted.

Different Types of Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Following are the different type of fibers generally used in the construction industries.

Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Synthetic/ polymer

GFRC Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Asbestos Fibers

Carbon Fibers

Organic Fibers

1. Steel Fiber Reinforced Concrete

A no of steel fiber types are available as reinforcement. Round steel fiber the commonly used
type are produced by cutting round wire in to short length. The typical diameter lies in the range
of 0.25 to 0.75mm. Steel fibers having a rectangular c/s are produced by silting the sheets about
0.25mm thick.

24
Fiber made from mild steel drawn wire. Conforming to IS:280-1976 with the diameter of wire
varying from 0.3 to 0.5mm have been practically used in India.

Round steel fibers are produced by cutting or chopping the wire, flat sheet fibers having a typical
c/s ranging from 0.15 to 0.41mm in thickness and 0.25 to 0.90mm in width are produced by
silting flat sheets.

Deformed fiber, which are loosely bounded with water-soluble glue in the form of a bundle are
also available. Since individual fibers tend to cluster together, their uniform distribution in the
matrix is often difficult. This may be avoided by adding fibers bundles, which separate during
the mixing process.

2. Synthetic/ polymer fiber

Polypropylene Fiber Reinforced (PFR)
Polypropylene is one of the cheapest & abundantly available polymers polypropylene fibers are
resistant to most chemical & it would be cementitious matrix which would deteriorate first under
aggressive chemical attack. Its melting point is high (about 165 degrees centigrade). So that a
working temp. As (100 degree centigrade) may be sustained for short periods without detriment
to fiber properties.

Polypropylene fibers being hydrophobic can be easily mixed as they do not need lengthy contact
during mixing and only need to be evenly distressed in the mix.

Polypropylene short fibers in small volume fractions between 0.5 to 15 commercially used in
concrete.

25
Polypropylene fiber reinforced cement-mortar and concrete

3. GFRC – Glass Fiber Reinforced Concrete

Glass fiber is made up from 200-400 individual filaments which are lightly bonded to make up
a stand. These stands can be chopped into various lengths, or combined to make cloth mat or
tape. Using the conventional mixing techniques for normal concrete it is not possible to mix more
than about 2% (by volume) of fibers of a length of 25mm.

The major appliance of glass fiber has been in reinforcing the cement or mortar matrices used in
the production of thin-sheet products. The commonly used verities of glass fibers are e-glass
used. In the reinforced of plastics & AR glass E-glass has inadequate resistance to alkalis present
in Portland cement where AR-glass has improved alkali resistant characteristics. Sometimes
polymers are also added in the mixes to improve some physical properties such as moisture
movement.

Glass-fiber reinforced concrete

26
4. Asbestos Fibers
The naturally available inexpensive mineral fiber, asbestos, has been successfully combined with
Portland cement paste to form a widely used product called asbestos cement. Asbestos fibers
here thermal mechanical & chemical resistance making them suitable for sheet product pipes,
tiles and corrugated roofing elements. Asbestos cement board is approximately two or four times
that of unreinforced matrix. However, due to relatively short length (10mm) the fiber have low
impact strength.

Asbestos fiber
5. Carbon Fibers
Carbon fibers from the most recent & probability the most spectacular addition to the range of
fiber available for commercial use. Carbon fiber comes under the very high modulus of elasticity
and flexural strength. These are expansive. Their strength & stiffness characteristics have been
found to be superior even to those of steel. But they are more vulnerable to damage than even
glass fiber, and hence are generally treated with resign coating.

6. Organic Fibers
Organic fiber such as natural fiber may be chemically more inert than either steel or glass fibers.
They are also cheaper, especially if natural. A large volume of vegetable fiber may be used to
obtain a multiple cracking composite. The problem of mixing and uniform dispersion may be
solved by adding a superplasticizer.

27
CREEP AND SHRINKAGE

Creep

Is an important property of hardened concrete which is an increase (or deformation) with time,
when subjected to an external load, a concrete member deforms elastically, and the resulting
deformation is called the elastic or instantaneous deformation. But when the loading continues,
or under sustained load, this deformation increase with time which is a creep component of the
total deformation under the load. Thus, creep can be defined as the time-dependent increase in
strain or deformation at a constant stress.

Ordinarily, aggregate do not creep and creep in concrete can be attributed to the characteristics
of the cement paste. However, aggregate particles retain the creep deformation, resulting in creep
stresses. Concrete made with sandstone or gravel aggregate typically creeped more than that
made with granite or lime stone. The higher the modulus of elasticity of the aggregate, the greater
the restraints offered to the creep. The higher the amount of aggregates, for a given water cement
ratio, the lower the creep.

Creep occur under all types of loading: compression, tension and torsion. It appears rapidly
following the application of load, and roughly 50% of the one year creep take place within 3-4
weeks after loading. The rate of creep increases with ambient temperature. The earlier the age at
which the loading is applied, the greater the creep. The creep is higher in a wet condition than a
dry condition.

Creep is made up of two components

 Reversible creep
 Irreversible creep

Reversible creep: when a member, after been kept loaded for a length of time is unloaded, a part
of the total deformation (elastic plus creep) is immediately recovered called elastic recovery
followed by a delayed recovery, termed creep recovery.

Irreversible creep: deformation remain permanent and cannot be recovered.

28
SHRINKAGE

Shrinkage can be defined as the decreases in volume of concrete which is due to displacement of
water and air to the surface of concrete, and the loss of water to the surroundings.

Concrete shrinkage is of two types namely:

Plastic shrinkage and

Drying shrinkage

Plastic shrinkage: the reduction in volume from wetted concrete is called plastic shrinkage. When
concrete is still plastic, the aggregate particles (which are heavier than water) settle, displacing
water and air to the top surface. Aided by conditions prevailing in the environment (such as high
temperature and humidity), this surface water is lost through evaporation, drawing even more
water to the surface. Both processes-settlement of solids and evaporation of water from the fresh
mix-give rise to shrinkage of wet concrete

Drying shrinkage: the reduction in volume from drying of hardened concrete is the drying
shrinkage, and is attributed to the loss of water from the the cement gel. The amount of drying
shrinkage can be 0.05% of the length of the member. A 3m member is expected to shrink by an
average of 1.5mm. a 30 by 80-ft slab can be presumed to shrink by about 0.12-0.23 in. in the
short direction and 0.34-0.62in. In the long direction.

Drying shrinkage is gradual, and the rate of shrinkage decreases with time. Between about 40-
80% of the 20 years shrinkage takes place within about three months. At the end of one year, the
rate of shrinkage drops to nearly one-half initial value. When concrete that has been allowed to
dry comes in contact with moisture, it swells. And concrete that is maintained in 100% relative
humidity does not shrink, but expands.

Drying shrinkage depends on number of factors, such as type and amount of cement, mix
proportion, size and shapes of structure, curing, environmental conditions (temperature and
relative humidity) and reinforcement. When the water cement ratio goes up, drying shrinkage
increases. Decreases in the maximum size or quantity of coarse aggregate increases the amount
of drying shrinkage.

29
MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS

Brick is a ceramic products because it is basically from clay. It has been classified as the most
durable building material. Historically the Roman were excellent builders and engineers and they
mad use of bricks to build their palaces and places of worship.

Manufacturing Process

1. Excavating of soil
2. Weathering
3. Grinding
4. Mixing
5. Molding
6. Drying
7. Burning

Excavation- the soil to be used for manufacturing bricks has to be dug from the site where it is
available. The top soil which is normally known as vegetable soil has to be removed (up to
200mm depth) and should not be used for manufacturing bricks due to it weakness and high
content of impurities. There are three types of clay that are used in brick manufacture such as
surface clay, shale and fire clays.

Surface clay are found near the surface of the earth. They are unconsolidated and unstratified
material, with a high oxide content (about 10 to 25%).

Shale is also clay in its natural state, but as a result of compression due to soil above is quit firm
and has compressed flaking characteristics. Most shale are not soluble in water when ground,
becoming plastic with addition of water. They are costlier to remove from the ground and contain
large amount of fluxes.

Fire clay is a material that occur at greater depths than earlier surface clay or shale. It has more
uniform physical characteristics and chemical composition, and is able to withstand high
temperatures. Fire clay contains less oxide (2 to 10%), which rises their softening point much
higher than that of surface clays or shales. This gives refractory qualities to brick manufacture
with fire clays and allow them to withstand higher temperatures.
30
The best material for brick making is clay containing about 30% sand and silt, because the
presence sand reduces the shrinkage occurring during the burning of soft clay.

Weathering- weathering of clay is done to remove the presence of soluble salt from the clay.
Removal of soluble salt can be done by exposing the clay to an open atmosphere where it will
be wash by rain, or the can clay can be washed in the wash mill.

Grinding- clay is grounded to a powder paste by using machine after the reasonable amount of
impurities were removed. The purpose of the grinding is to ensure the closeness of the clay
particles and to prepare it for mixing with water in order to achieve the required plasticity.

Mixing- mixing of clay with water can either be done manually or using machine, the purpose
of mixing clay with water is to achieve workability-the ease at which the clay can be molded to
the required shape.

Molding- there are three method of molding bricks:

i. stiff mud process

ii. soft mud process
iii. dry press process

In the stiff mud process (also called the wire cut process), clay containing a minimum amount of
water, generally 12 to 15% by weight, is forced through a die. The die molds the mass into desired
shapes and sizes. The continuous bond of clay that is forced out is later cut into bricks by a wire
frame. If the cross section of the band is the same as the end of the bricks, the bricks are called
end cut, and if the cross section is the same as the side of the bricks, they are called side cut.
Most bricks are produced using this process.

In the soft mud process, which is well suited to clays containing too much water in their natural
state, ground clay is hydraulically pressed in steel molds. All handmade bricks are made using
this process. When the insides of the molds are sanded to prevent sticking of clay, the product is
sand-struck brick. When the molds are wetted to prevent sticking, the product is called water
struck-brick.

The dry process which is suited for clay processing low plasticity, consist of dropping the moist
clay (mix with about 7 to 10% water) into dry press forming machines, where the bricks are
31
molded under low operating pressures. The method uses the least water in tempering and makes
bricks in the same way as concrete blocks. It produces the most accurate formed bricks but it is
no longer widely used because it is more expensive, due to labor cost.

Drying- drying of clay bricks can be done either in open air or in a specially designed drying
chamber. The purpose of bricks drying before burning is to protect the bricks from developing
various degree of cracks.

Burning- burning of brick is normally done in a kiln where the dried bricks are subjected to high
temperature.

GLASS

Glass are used in building mainly as flat glass, and for products such as lenses, glass fibres and
foamed (cellular) glass. Glass consist of the following ingredients

1. Sand/silica
2. Soda/ash
3. Lime stone
4. Dolomite
5. Small amount of aliminia
6. Residual materials and broken glass (cullet)
7. Iron oxide

Manufacture of Glass

Molten glass batches produced continuously in tank consist of mainly of sand, soda/ash, lime
stone and dolomite, a small amount of aluminia, a few residual materials and broken glass
(cullet). Iron oxide in ordinary glass made in this country gives it a slight green tints, opacity,
sparkle, chemical and fire resistant etc.

Today the main process of producing glass are:

Rolling- the process of making rough cast and patterned glasses (one can be incorporated in the
glass during rolling)

32
Floating- the process of making parallel and flat surface glasses. Using this process vision is not
distorted

Pressing- is the process used for making lenses, hollow glass blocks etc.

After forming the shape required, glass must be cooled slowly (anneled) to rlieve the strains
which will otherwise result

Types of Glasses Used in Construction Industry

Now a day glass is extensively used in construction industry in windows, doors, façade, interior
partitions, balustrades, railings for stairs and balconies. There are many types of glass with
different appearance and properties which can used in various application

1. Clear glass- it is clear and transparent annealed glass. Class glass usually has a natural
greenish hue or colour. It is used in doors, windows, solar applications, shelves etc. it is
also used for other further processing to other glass types.
2. Tinted glass- the body tinted glass is float glass in which melted colourants are added for
tinting and solar radiation absorption properties. This types of glass saves energy, reduces
heat penetration into buildings and gives the striking visual effect. It can be tinted in many
colour such as blue, red, green, yellow etc.
3. Patterned glass or textured glass- it is a decorative and translucent glass with textured or
patterned on one face of the glass for diffusing light and obstructing visibility from the
outside.
4. Wired glass- wire mesh is inlaid in the glass to protect it from shattering and breaking out
under stress. Wired glass is low cost fire resistance glass hence it is used to protect against
the harmful effect of smoke and flame.
5. Extra clear glass- high quality glass which is free from impurities such as iron. It is used
for making table tops, in the show room of jewelry items, watches and sparkling display.

Types of High Performance Glasses

1. Solar control glass- special oxide coated glass which transfers less amount of heat into the
building and also helps in reducing the glare of light entering’

33
 2. Low E glass- low emissivity glass commonly known as low E glass has excellent thermal
insulation properties. It allows any visible light to enter the room and thus gives protection
from ultra violet and infrared rays.
3. Solar control- low E glass- for facades which are in direct contact with sunlight. It is used
to block solar radiations as well as provide thermal insulation.

Types of Processed Glasses

1. Laminated glass- it is also known as heat proof glass or sound proof glass or bullet proof
glass or insulating glass or safety glass. It is made by sandwiching a layer of polyvinyl
butyl between two or more layers of glass. It is used in exterior curtain walls and windows,
balustrades and guard rails etc.
2. Tempered glass or toughened glass- it is a strong glass which is heated to uniform
temperature and rapidly cooled to increase the strength. It is stronger than the normal glass
of equivalent thickness hence it is used for safety and strength. Tempered glass is used for
commercial application where wind, snow or thermal load exceed. It is used for escalator
side panels, hand rails, balustrades, stair case hand rails and viewing pertition of sport
complexes, resort and airporss etc.
3. Heat strengthened glass- is processed with heat treatment for durability and safety reasons.
Its mechanical strength is twice that of normal annealed glass and half of fully tempered
glass.
4. Reflective glass or mirror glass- is a;so called mirror glass impart a mirror like appearance
and wide palettes of colours to the exterior building under day time conditions
5. Insulated glass unit- prefabricated units made of two or more glass panes which are
separated by cavities filled with dry air. They provide excellent thermal and sound
insulation properties. This type of glass is used in office buildings, hospitals, hotels and
houses building with high heating or cooling requirement.
6. Ceramic printed glass- is also known as silk screened glass for its appearance like a silk
screen. Ceramic printed is used when it is important to mask a part or whole of glass for
privacy or hiding the background.

34
 7. Lacquered glass- it is also known as back painted glass obtained by painting the back
surface with high quality paint. They are viewed from the front surface which is not
painted. BPG is used in kitchen, furniture etc.
8. Frosted glass- has a translucent or obscure surface rather than transparent surface in float
glass. One surface of the glass is etched and has a rough finish through which diffusion
of light occurs. Is used as decorative glass when privacy is required. It is used in
conference room, doors of bedroom etc.

Types of Glass Based on Principal Constituent (Silica)

1. Soda lime glass- is also known as soda ash glass, commercial or soft glass which is
obtained from the fusion of silica, lime, soda and alumina. It is widely used for glazing of
doors and windows.
2. Potash lime glass- it is also known as hard glass. Is similar to soda lime glass except that
soda is replaced by potash.
3. Potash lead glass- it is also known as flint glass or lead glass. It is obtained from fusion of
a mixture of silica, lead and potash. Is used for high quality glassware, cut glass, bulbs,
lenses and prism
4. Borosilicate glass- is known as Pyrex glass. It is obtained from the fusion of silica, borax,
lime, and feldspars. Is used for making laboratory.

Properties of Glass

The following are the properties of glass

1. Appearance- ordinary glass is transparent and more or less colourless. Transparent,

translucent and opaque glasses are coloured in four ways: pot, ceramic, pigment, flashed
and printing.
2. Density- glass weight 2.5kg/m2/mm thickness. Flat glass is often described by weight i.e.
mass per unit area.
3. Melting point- the melting point of glass is 25000C approximately.
4. Ultra-violet transmission- violent transmission- ordinary glass transmit a very small
proportion of the sun ultra-violet rays.

35
 5. Visible light transmission- the refractive index for glass is about 1.52 obscuration is
provided by pattern glass.
6. Solar heat transmission- ordinary glass is relatively transparent but solar heat rejecting
glasses are available that are capable of reducing heat by 16-65%
7. Durability- glass is extremely durable in normal conditions. It is however attacked by
hydrofluoric and phosphoric acids and by strong alkalis e.g. caustic soda.
8. Strength properties- glass in building is required to resist loads including wind loads,
impact by person and animals and sometimes thermal and other stresses.
9. Safety from injury- broken glass is a serious potential hazard, suitable thick glass should
be used i.e. toughened glass, or laminated safety glass.
10. Security- toughened glass can be regarded as anti-vandals glasses. Laminated anti
vandals, and bandit and bullet resistant glasses are also available.
11. Thermal insulation- although glass is dense and is a good conductor of heat, it surface
resistance is high so that doubling the thickness almost halves the heat loss through a
single pane, the optimum gap being about 20mm
12. Sound insulation- it will be seen that the normal air leakages which occur around ‘closed’
opening light are very important. Sealed double glazing is therefore necessary for a
superior level of insulation. The sound insulating advantages given by wider gaps can be
further improved by the use of sound absorbent around the edges for window.
13. Behaviour in fire- although non combustable, ordinary glass breaks and later melt in fires,
and double glazing shows non-significant advantage over single glazing.

POLYMER/ PLASTIC

The term plastic is used to describe any group of synthetic or natural organic materials that can
be shaped when soft and then hardened. The basic components of organic plastic is resin that can
flow when softened.

The resin can be:

 Synthetic
 Partially synthetic
 Natural
36
The majority of plastics are made from synthetic chemicals. Note that all three types of resin are
organic. The components molecules of resins used in the manufacture of plastic are very large;
they are made up of relatively simple repeating units. A repeating unit, designated by the suffix
“-Mer,” may exist in a single unit (called monomer), in two units (called a dimer) or in many
units (called polymer)

Thus, a monomer can be defined as a unit consisting of relatively few hydrocarbon atom joint to
other unit to form a polymer. A polymer can be defined as molecule made up of repeating group
of monomers. E.g. polyvinyl chloride is a polymer made from monomer called vinyl chloride.

Types of Plastics

Plastic (or polymer resins) fall into two classifications

1. Thermoplastic
2. Thermoset

Thermoplastic material is a polymer that softens and melt gradually when heated and can be
reshaped when still warm. Thermoplastic have linear molecular chain (without cross linkage)
that move in relation to one another when heated or cooled.

Examples of thermos plastic materials are:

i. Polyethylene
ii. Polypropylene
iii. Polystyrene
iv. Polyvinyl chloride

Polyethylene is waxy and chemically inert flexible at low temperature. It is a water barrier and
retard the passage of water vapour and has excellent electrical properties. They are inform of low
density (standard) or high density (linear)

Polypropylene is composed of polymers of propylene. It has a similar properties to linear

polyethylene but generally harder, stronger and more temperature resistant. It is widely used as
pipes, electrical insulators etc.

37
Polystyrene has negligible water absorption even under prolong immersion and brittle. It is used
in electric lighting diffusers and is an important thermal insulator.

Polyvinyl chloride

Thermosetting material is a polymer that cannot be reshaped after manufacture. The molecular
structure of thermoset is similar to that of thermoplastic before molding but during the hardening
process these chains are cross linked to form an interconnected network of chains that are not
free to move.

Examples of thermosetting materials are:

1. Unsaturated polyester
2. Epoxides
3. Phenol formaldehyde
4. Polyurethane

Modified Ingredients of Plastics

Most plastics are modified with other ingredients with each base material forming the nucleus
for a large number of a product having varieties of properties. The following are the modified
ingredients

1. Filler
2. Plasticizers
3. Stabilizers
4. Colourant

Fillers- are added to reduce the cost and or extend the bulky of the product. They are commonly
added to enhance mechanical properties e.g. mica (gives better electrical properties), and
asbestos fiber (provide better heat resistance)

Plasticizers- are added to thermoplastic primarily to transform hard and rigid materials into
varieties of forms having degree of softness, flexibility and strength e.g. phosphate

Stabilizers- they are added to reduce adverse effect of heat, sunlight etc. white lead used for vinyl
stabilization
38
Colouration Materials- are also added to reduce a wide range of colours to finish plastic such as
dyes and pigment

Manufacture/ Forming Process of Polymers

The following are the process of manufacturing polymers

1. Extrusion
2. Calendaring
3. Compression molding
4. Transfer molding
5. Injection molding
6. Blowing molding

Extrusion- is a continues process of producing hollow materials such as pipes. The thermoplastic
is forced through a suitable shape diameter and it is cooled as it emerged.

Calendaring- is also a continues process for producing films or sheet. It is a modified form of
extrusion where by instead of diameter the system of rollers are used.

Compression Molding- it is discontinues process which involves pressing the top half of the
mold into the lower half that contains the lower materials (the charge is heated and pressurized
in the same mold). It is used for both thermoplastic and thermosetting.

Transfer molding- is a modification of compression molding and so a discontinues process. The

molding powder is free heated in a chamber before being force into a heated mold. The charge
is heated in the outside loading chamber.

Injection molding- it is discontinues process whereby the powder is softened by heating in a

cylinder and injected into mold in which it cool and hardened e.g. boxes

Blowing molding- it is continues process which is similar to that in processing glass bottle and
other hollow materials. It involves forcing air into a sealed melted body sorounded by a cold
mold e.g. containers, bottles etc.

39
PAINTS

Paints are building materials employed as finishing for other materials. They are used to protect
metals, timber or plastered surfaces from the effect of weather, heat, moisture, or gasses etc. and
also improve their appearance.

Qualities of Paints

1. It should form hard and durable surface

2. It should be attractive in appearance
3. The spreading quality should be high
4. It must dry early after application
5. Hair crack should not appear on the surface after drying
6. The colour must uniform in drying
7. It should not be easily affected by atmospheric conditions

Compositions of Paints

1. Base
2. Vehicle or carrier
3. Drier
4. Pigment
5. Thinner or solvent

Base- is a solid substance which provide body to the paint, provide the opaque coating that hide
the surface being painted. Examples of the commonly used bases includes white lead, red lead,
oxide of iron and zinc

Vehicle- it is the liquid material in which the base and pigment are soluble. It influences the
spreading capacity of the paint. Examples are linsed oil, nut oil etc.

Drier- this is needed to hasten the process of drying and hardening of the paint. The dries
achieves this by absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere and transferring it to the vehicle.
Examples are cobalt, lead, manganese etc.

Pigment- colouring pigments are added to the base to produce different colours

40
Thinner or solvent- this applied to make the paint thin for ease of application and also for the
paint to be able to penetrate into the surface on which it is to be applied. Turpentine is
recommended for oil paints while water is usually used for emulsion paints.

Types of Paints

Paints are classified into the oil, water, cement and bituminous paint. There are also special paints
used for special purposes. The following are various types of paint also

1. Emulsion paint- consist of vehicle of polyvinyl acetate, styrene and other synthetic resin.
It dries off quickly and is commonly used on block/brick walls.
2. Oil (Gloss) paints-the principal components are the base and the vehicle with low
proportion of driers and pigments. The vehicle in used are linsed oil while white lead, red
lead, oxide of zinc are used as the base. They are generally applied in three coats i.e.
priming, under coating and finishing coat. Their application are extended to many surfaces
such as walls, ceilings, wood work and metal work.
3. Other paints- there are varieties of paints used in special conditions. Some of them are
aluminum paints, asbestos paints, bituminous paints, bronze paints, casein paints, enamel
paints, plastic paints, synthetic rubber paints among various others.

Method of Applications

The most commonly used methods are:

1. Brushing
2. Spraying
3. Dipping

Brushing- by use of brush and roller. It is relatively slow

Spraying- usually by compressed air through the use of spray gun

Dipping- involves dipping materials in a deep tank for a period. This method has limited used in
building construction

41
BITUMEN

Is a solid, semi solid or viscous cementitious material, natural or artificial (manufactured) and
composed principally of various mixtures of complex hydrocarbon. The term hydrocarbon refers
to any of a class of compound containing only hydrogen and carbon atoms in the molecules. All
bituminous materials are completely soluble in carbon disulfide (CS2) and are nonvolatile,
nontoxic and are soften when heated.

The most common bituminous materials are:

1. Asphalt
2. Tar
3. Pitches

Asphalts are cementitious materials in which the predominant constituent materials are bitumen.
They are available as natural deposits or are produced from petroleum processing.

Tars along with pitches are the product of distillation of materials such as coal, wood and shale.
When these materialsunder goes destructive distillation (subjecting the raw materials to heat
alone without access to air), the resulting condensate is tar.the most widely used tars are the
biproduct of the distillation or carbonization of coal. Further processing yield a solid or semi

42
solid residue known as pitch. Coal tar pitch is defined as bituminous material produced by the
partial distillation of coal. Pitches are black or dark brown in colour and liquefied gradually when
heated.

Manufacture of Tars and Pitches

When coal is heated in coke ovens, it is reduced to coke, the gasses (vapourized oil) generated
during the process are collected from the oven and refined. The distillation of lighter oils
produces tar leaving a semi solid residue, which is pitch. As noted tars and pitches can be
produced from organic materials other than coal but coal tar is the most common.

Asphalt being most commonly and widely used bituminous materials are found as natural deposit
or are produced from petroleum crude. The term asphalt refers to a black cementitious material
which varies widely in consistency from solid to semi solid at normal temperature. When heat is
applied, asphalt soften and becomes a liquid. Asphalt produced from petroleum are called
petroleum asphalt. The amount of asphalt a crude oil contains varies from source to source.
Higher grade crude may contain as little as 10% (the balance being lighter products such as
gasoline, kerosene, and fuel oil) where lower grade crudes have as much as 90% asphalt.

The Natural Deposit of Asphalt

The natural deposit of asphalt are of two types:

1. Natural rock asphalt

2. Native asphalt or lake asphalt

Natural rock asphalt- sand stone or lime stone filled with asphalt through a geologic process.
Some soft varieties of lime stone contain from 6-14% bitumen, a few crystalline lime stones
contains 2-20% bitumens, the various rocks are found in Switzerland, France, Italy and USA. It
is used for surfacing road when combined with other materials.

Native or lake asphalt- this types of asphalt are found in lakes e.g. Trinidad lake, cubal,
losangeles etc.

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Asphalt Cement

It is known as paving asphalt. Is very sticky and highly viscous. It is obtained after separating a
lubricating oil from crude petroleum. Asphalt cement is highly viscous material; consequently
when used in pavement construction. It is necessary to heat both the asphalt and the aggregate
prior to mixing.

The penetration reading of asphalt to be used for this purpose should range from 5-300. The
minimum should be 40 while the maximum should be 300 at a load of 100g in 5 seconds at 77oF.

Cutback Asphalt

Is asphalt cement that is liquefied by blending with petroleum solvent (called diluents). The
diluent evaporate upon expose to atmosphere leaving asphalt cement behind. This type of asphalt
is suitable for direct application, requiring little or no heating before use.

Emulsified Asphalt

Composed of asphalt cement and water that contains a small amount of an emulsified agent e.g.
soap, water soluble chemicals etc. (percentage of water is 12-15%). The particles of asphalt
remain as long as the water does not evaporate or the emulsifier does not break down.

It can be used for spray application, slurry seal and sub base, base and surface.

Blown Asphalt

Obtained by blowing air through the semi solid residue obtained during the later stages of the
distillation process. It is the stiffest asphalt made and is reasonably ductile. It is the highly
weather resistant and can withstand temperature changes very well. Fully blown asphalt are not
used in pavement.

Properties of asphalt

The properties of asphalt are as follows:

1. Adhesion
2. Consistency
3. Durability

44
 4. Ductility
5. Resistance to reaction with water
6. Temperature susceptibility
7. Aging and hardening
8. Specific gravity
9. Rate of curing
10. Viscosity

Penetration Test

Penetration test is a test done to measure the consistency of asphalt. Consisting of a bitumen
material expressed as the distances in tenth of a millimeter that a standard needle penetrates a
sample of material vertically under standard condition of loading, time and temperature. A higher
value of penetration indicates a softer consistency. The load is the total moving weight of the
needle plus the attachment (100g and 200g as required for the condition of test). The needle is
left to penetrate the sample for 5 seconds. The penetration is given as the distance (in unit of
0.1mm) that the needle penetrates. For example if the needle penetrate a distance of 2.2cm, the
penetration is 220.

Viscosity Test

Viscosity test is done to measure the flowing resistivity of bituminous materials.

During this test, some apparatus are required in addition to at least three samples of bitumen to
be tested. The apparatus required includes the viscometer, stirrer blade, water bath which contain
heating coil, a thermometer for measuring the temperature of the materials under test and timer.
During the test, the specimens are tested differently. They have to be heated to a temperature of
about 1000C and poured into the cylinder of the viscometer which has two openings-one at the
top and the other one below it. The poured bitumens have to be thoroughly mixed, and the
temperature be maintained before they will later be allowed to pass through the lower opening
down to the beaker where they will be collected. Each sample has to undergo this process and
the time taken by each sample to finish flowing into the beaker has to be recorded. Below is an
example of viscosity test results for three different samples

45
 S/N Details of samples
1. Test temperature 1000C 1000C 1000C
2. Time taken to flow 4 min, 26 sec. 4min. 23 sec. 4 min. 32 sec
3. Viscosity 266 seconds 263 seconds 272 seconds
Mean viscosity 267 seconds

Asphalt Concrete

Asphalt concrete is made by mixing hot asphalt cement with heated aggregate and compacting
the mix to form a uniform dense mass (emulsified asphalt can be used instead of asphalt cement).

It is used for the construction of asphalt pavement which is called flexible pavement. The
function of asphalt cement is to hold the aggregate particles.

Aggregate constitute up to 90-95% by weight or 70-75% by volume. Aggregate for asphalt

concrete consist of fine and coarse aggregate with or without a mineral fillers. The mineral fillers
include stone dust, pulverized lime stone, Portland cement etc.

Grading

Coarse aggregate are made of particles that are retained on a 4.75mm sieve while the fine
aggregate completely pass 4.75mm sieve. Macadam is a coarse aggregate of uniform size usually
of stone or gravels

Types of Asphalt Concrete

1. Hot mixed asphalt

2. Cold mixed asphalt

Hot mixed asphalt- both asphalt and aggregate are heated before mixing, the mixing is done
using mix plant and transported to the paving site and spread on a loosely compacted layer to a
uniform, even surface with help of a paving machine and compacted by heavy-motor-driven
roller.

Cold mixed asphalt- mixing and laying of coarse aggregate, fine aggregate or both with or
without filler uniformly mix with liquid bitumen (emulsified asphalt, cutback or tar) and laid at
46
or near ambient temperature. Drying of aggregate is not necessary unless when the particles have
surface moisture.

Elements of Flexible Pavement

The following are the elements of flexible pavement

1. Sub grade
2. Sub base
3. Base
4. Surface course

Sub grade- called prepared road base consist of natural or imported soil. The soil can be
stabilized using addition of Portland cement. It the foundation of the road.

Sub base- layer between the sub grade and base course, it is made from materials superior to that
of sub grade. The materials are particles of various size up to a maximum of 12% is made to pass
sieve no. 200 (75um). Aggregate base mix with lime.

A base course- lies directly beneath the wearing surface-Portland cement, lime, aggregate are
used for the construction of a base course.

Surface course- asphalt surface treatments and seal coats are spray application of asphalt
followed by the application of a skin aggregates (stone chips or fine aggregate embedded by
rolling)

TIMBER

Timber is one of the oldest known materials of construction and the only one that is naturally
renewable. Historically, timber has been employed in many applications, from ship building to
bridges, railroad ties to flooring and cabinet. A number of factors ranging from simplicity in
fabrication such as lightness, reusability, insulation from heat, sound and electricity, aesthetically
pleasing appearance, resistance to oxidation, acid, and salt water and environmental
compatibility have made this material on of the most popular in light construction.

Structure of Timber

A cross section of log or trunk is shown below

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Types of wood

Classifying wood as either a hardwood or softwood comes down to its physical structure
and makeup, and so it is overly simple to think of hardwoods as being hard and durable
compared to soft and workable softwoods. This happens to be generally true, but there are
exceptions, such as in the cases of wood from yew trees — a softwood that is relatively hard
— and wood from balsa trees — a hardwood that is softer than softwoods.

Hardwood comes from angiosperm — or flowering plants — such as oak, maple, or walnut,
that are not monocots. Softwood comes from gymnospermtrees, usually evergreen conifers,
like pine or spruce.

Comparison chart

Hardwood versus Softwood comparison chart

Hardwood Softwood

Definition Comes from angiosperm trees that Comes from gymnosperm trees which
are not monocots; trees are usually usually have needles and cones.
broad-leaved. Has vessel elements Medullary rays and tracheid transport
that transport water throughout the water and produce sap. When viewed
wood; under a microscope, these under a microscope, softwoods have
elements appear as pores. no visible pores because of tracheid.

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Hardwood versus Softwood comparison chart

Hardwood Softwood

Uses Hardwoods are more likely to be About 80% of all timber comes from
found in high-quality furniture, softwood. Softwoods have a wide
decks, flooring, and construction range of applications and are found in
that needs to last. building components (e.g., windows,
doors), furniture, medium-density
fiberboard (MDF), paper, Christmas
trees, and much more.

Examples Examples of hardwood trees Examples of softwood trees are cedar,

include alder, balsa, beech, Douglas fir, juniper, pine, redwood,
hickory, mahogany, maple, oak, spruce, and yew.
teak, and walnut.

Density Most hardwoods have a higher Most softwoods have a lower density
density than most softwoods. than most hardwoods.

Cost Hardwood is typically more Softwood is typically less expensive

expensive than softwood. compared to hardwood.

Growth Hardwood has a slower growth Softwood has a faster rate of growth.
rate.

Shedding of Hardwoods shed their leaves over Softwoods tend to keep their needles
leaves a period of time in autumn and throughout the year.
winter.

FireResistance More Poor

Contents: Hardwood vs Softwood

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 Differences in Microscopic Structure

Presence of pores in hardwoods (oak, top) and the absence of pores in softwoods (pine, bottom).

There are differences between the physical structures of hardwoods and softwoods. This is
usually visible at both microscopic level and at the surface — hardwoods tend to have broad
leaves, while softwoods tend to have needles and cones. Hardwoods have vessel
elements that transport water throughout the wood; under a microscope, these elements
appear as pores. In softwoods, medullary rays and tracheid transport water and produce sap.
When viewed under a microscope, softwoods have no visible pores because tracheid do not
have pores. The pores in hardwoods are a lot of what gives hardwood its prominent grain,
which is quite different from softwood's light grain.

Uses of Hardwood vs Softwood

In many cases, hardwoods and softwoods are both used for many of the same purposes, with
more emphasis placed on the type of hardwood or softwood and how dense it is.

Generally, though, softwoods are cheaper and easier to work with than hardwoods. As such,
they make up the bulk of all wood used in the world, with about 80% of all timber being a
softwood. This is impressive considering hardwoods are much more common in the world
50
 than softwoods. Softwoods have a wide range of applications and are found in building
components (e.g., windows, doors), furniture, medium-density fiberboard (MDF), paper,
Christmas trees, and much more. Pines are one of the most commonly used softwoods.

Though hardwoods are often more expensive and sometimes more challenging to work with,
their upside is that most — though not all — are denser, meaning many hardwoods will last
longer than softwoods. For this reason, hardwoods are more likely to be found in high-quality
furniture, decks, flooring, and construction that needs to last.

Properties of Timber.
1. Color and Odor.
Most trees are characterized by a typical color and odor. Thus, walnut wood is distinguished by
its typical dark brown color. Similarly, a freshly cut teak wood has a golden yellow shade. The
softwoods like deodar and pine show light (white) colors. As regards odor (smell), quite a few
kind of woods are immediately identified by their characteristic smell. Teak kinds of wood have
an aromatic smell. The pines smell of resins. The color and odor, however, may show variation.
2. Specific Gravity.
Wood is a very light material, its specific gravity being always less than 1 (that of water). It is
interesting to note, however, that if the wood tissue is compacted in such a way that not even a
few pores are left in it, then its specific gravity will approach 1.5 (i.e., it will become heavier
than water). Such compression is, however, not possible as a natural process. Woods shows a
good deal of variation in their Specific gravity. Some varieties may be as light as 0.3 whereas, in
other varieties of timber, the specific gravity may approach 0.9. This depends on their structure
and presence of pores in them. The heartwood is heavier than sapwood in the same tree.
Similarly, hardwoods are always denser than soft woods as a whole.

3. Moisture Content.
All woods are porous to some extent. Further, all woods are hygroscopic in nature. They gain
moisture from the atmosphere and lose moisture to the atmosphere depending on moisture
content of their cells vis-a-vis the humidity in the atmosphere. The natural moisture content, Mc,
of wood is easily determined from the below relationship.

Mc = w1 – w2 / w2 x 100
51
 1. Where W1, is the weight of the natural wood sample.
2. W2 is the weight of the same sample after it is oven dried.
The cell walls and hence the cell cavities of many kinds of woods are quite easily stretched. As
such, wood may absorb moisture more than 2 to 2.5 times than its own weight. Hence, Mc values
of natural (green) wood may sometimes be as high as 250 percent. Wood that has been lying in
the air for quite some time (six months to one year) after felling, however, loses most of its
moisture to the atmosphere. Its “Mc” may be as low as 20-30 percent. The air seasoned woods
can be made to lose further moisture by prolonged exposure (up to four years). Moisture content
of 12-15 percent of air-seasoned woods is considered quite safe for timber being used in any
construction. Woods can be seasoned in kilns with less than 6-7 percent moisture.

4. Grain.
By grain, it is understood that the arrangement and direction of growth of the wood elements
(tracheid, fibers, and vessels) in the wood. In a normal wood, the tracheid and vessels (called
collectively as fibers) grow parallel to the length of the tree trunk. This type of structure is called
a straight grain. The fibers may be very tightly and closely packed giving rise to a fine-grained
texture in wood. In other cases, they may be broad and quite wider (comparatively). The structure
is then termed coarse-grained. Sometimes the fibers do not grow essentially parallel to the trunk.
These may be arranged in a twisted, spiral or interlocked manner. This type of structure is called
“cross-grained.”

5. Shrinkage and Swelling.

The newly cut wood loses moisture when subject to drying naturally or artificially. On drying,
the wood undergoes a shrinkage. Similarly, dry wood on getting rain melted or wetted may
undergo considerable swelling. It is known that in the drying process, moisture from the wood is
lost first from the cell cavity and then from the cell walls. It is only when the water is lost from
the cell walls then the wood starts shrinking. Conversely, when dry wood is wetted the water is
first received by the cell walls. Only when the walls become saturated, water goes to the cell
cavities. Hence, on wetting, the swelling starts quickly. Thus, shrinkage and swelling are related
to the behavior of the cell wall of the wood tissue towards the water. It is now fairly established
that:

52
1. Thick walled cells shrink more than the thin-walled cells.
It is for this reason that the hardwoods shrink more than the softwoods.

2. Shrinkage in the longitudinal direction is least (0.1 to 0.5 percent) whereas it is highest (7 to
15 percent) in a direction tangential to cell walls. It is because in the latter case “full width” of
the cell walls is involved. In the radial direction, it is of an intermediate order.
3. Deformation is caused by the board cut from timber due to shrinkage and swelling.
The extent of deformation will depend on the direction in which it has been cut with respect to
the grain of the tree.

6. Strength.
The most important fact about the strength of timber is that it is not the same in all directions.
This is because wood is an anisotropic material (having a different structure in different
directions). Hence, the Strength of wood is determined with reference to the direction of the grain
of the wood under load. Besides grain, many other factors also influence the strength of the
timber. These are:

1. Density: Higher the density of timber, greater will be its strength.

This is because the high density of timber is a result of thicker cell walls, i.e., the greater amount
of wood substance per unit volume.

2. Moisture content: Higher the moisture content, lower is the strength of the timber.
This is because water in itself has no load-bearing capacity.

Its increased volume in the cell simply decreases the volume of the wood tissue.

Moreover, the higher amount of water in the cells invites many fungal and insect growths which
destroy the wood tissue. They tend to reduce the strength indirectly.

3. Presence of defects: There may be some of the natural and artificial defects in timber such as
cross-grain, knots, and shakes, etc. All of them cause a decrease in the strength of the timber.

The strength of timber can be classified as

53
1. Compressive Strength: Timber from most of the trees is amazingly strong under compressive
loads -500 kg/cm2 to 700 kg/cm2.
It is, however, to be noted that other things being same, the compressive strength parallel to grain
is always less than that determined at right angles to the grain in the same type of wood.

2. Tensile Strength: Wood is very strong to tensile forces acting parallel to grain but very weak
when these forces are made to act perpendicular to the grain.
Thus, the tensile strength of some woods ranges from 500-2000 kg/cm2 parallel to the grain,
whereas same values lie between 10-100 kg/cm2 for the same varieties when tested perpendicular
to the grain.
3. Transverse or Bending Strength: The most important use of timber as beams is based on the
fact that wood has very high bending strength. It may vary from 300 to 900 km/cm2 or more.
Defects

Timber is a natural product and every natural product has some imperfections. Timbers are not
excluded from that. Most of the defects in timber cause weakness or others sorts of difficulties.
However some defects can be beneficial for a specific type of work, for example, twisted wood
is good for making a bowl out of timber.

A
Defect in Timber
The followings are the five main types of defects in timber:

1. Defects due to natural Forces

2. Defects due to attack by insects
3. Defects due to fungi
4. Defects due to defective seasoning
5. Defects due to defective conversion

54
These timber defects are briefly discussed below.

Defects in Timber due to Natural Forces

a. Knots: Knots are the most common defects caused due to natural forces. During the
growth of a tree, branches close to the ground or lower branches die. Bases of those
branches remain in the tree as the trees grow. These bases may create imperfection known
as knots.

Types of Knots: Knots are of two types.

i. Dead knots: The remains of damaged branches after drying out they become loose
and fall out.
ii. Live knots: They are sound and firm. If small, are not great of a defect.
Live knots are usually not a problem as they remain firmly attached to the timber.
But in dead knots, they are loosely attached and reduce strength. Knots decrease
the strength of the wood and thus lower its value for structural uses. Knots cause
serious defects when the load is perpendicular to the grains.

Dead knot and Live Knot.

b. Twist: Twist in timber rotates the ends of the timber in opposite directions. The main
reason behind this defect is twisting of the trees by the strong wind.

55
 Twisting of the trees by the strong wind.
c. Shakes: Shakes are timber defects that occur around the annual ring or growth ring of a
timber. In other words, cracks or splits in the woods are called shakes.

It may or may not be a structural problem depending upon depth and use. The main
problem is aesthetic. Where the appearance is important, shakes are undesirable.

Types of shakes: Shakes can be classified into three main categories:-

i. Star Shakes: This type of shake starts propagating from the bark towards the
sapwood and sometimes even towards the heartwood along the lines of medullary
rays. Cracks are wider on the outer edge or bark and narrower on the inside (usually
sapwood, sometimes heartwood). The main reasons behind star shakes are extreme
heat or frosting during the growth of the trees and rapid or uneven seasoning after
cutting off the timber. Extreme heat or frost causes temperature difference, which
causes shrinkage leading to the crack.
ii. Cup and/or Ring Shakes: Cup shakes follow the annual growth ring. It is capable
to separate the growth ring partially or completely. When the crack separates the
annual ring completely, it is called ring shakes. So, all ring shakes are cup shakes,
but all cup shakes are not a ring shape. Excessive frost action is the main reason
for this type of crack.
iii. Heart Shakes: Unlike star shakes, heart shakes starts propagating from the pith to
the sapwood along the lines of medullary rays. Shrinkage of the interior part of the
timber causes this crack.

56
 d. Rind Galls: THe meaning of rind is bark and gall is abnormal growth. So abnormal
growth of the bark of the trees is called rind galls. Improper cutting of branches causes
this abnormal growth. Wood from this portion of the timber lacks strength and desirable
in structure.
e. Upsets: Upsets in various wood indicate that the tree was subjected to crushing or
compression. Improper felling of trees, heavy wind blowing during the young age of the
tree these are the main reasons behind this type of defect.

Defects of Timber due to Attack by Insects

Insects like beetles, termites or marine boars eat wood, make holes and weaken the strength of
the wood.

Beetles are small insects that make holes in almost all the sapwoods. The larvae make tunnels
through the sapwood in all directions and turn wood into powder.

Termites live in a colony. They are very fast in eating woods and making tunnels through it. Only
a few good kinds of wood can withstand the action of termites.

Marine boars are found in salt water. Usually, they make tunnels in wood to take refuge or shelter.
All kinds of wood or timber are vulnerable to this kind of insect.

Defects in Timber due to Attack by Fungi

a. Stain: When fungi feed only on sapwood, where the food materials are stored, it causes a
stain. Heartwood doesn’t contain these kinds of food materials and is not affected by it.
Stain action causes color but does not affect the strength of the wood.

57
 b. Decay: wood eating or wood destroying fungus is responsible for this type of defect in
wood. This type of fungi breaks down the cell structure. Both sapwood and heartwood are
affected by them. Considerable strength reduction occurs.

Defect in Timber due to Defective Seasoning

Faulty method of seasoning causes serious defects in woods. During seasoning of timber, exterior
or surface layer of the timber dries before the interior surface. So, stress is developed due to the
difference in shrinkage. In a perfect seasoning process, stress is kept minimum by controlling the
shrinkage. Some of the defects resulting from defective seasoning are as follows:-

a. Bow: Curvature formed in direction of the length of the timber is called bow.
b. Cup: Curvature formed in the transverse direction of the timber is called a cup.
c. Check: Check is a kind of crack that separates fibers, but it doesn’t extend from one end
to another.
d. Split: Split is a special type of check that extends from one end to another.
e. Honey Combing: Stress is developed in the heartwood during the drying process or
seasoning. For these stresses, cracks are created in the form of honeycomb texture.

Defects of Timber due to Defective Conversion

a. Boxed Heart: This term is applied to the timber, which is sawn in a way that the pith or
the center heart falls entirely within the surface throughout its length.
b. Machine Burnt: Overheating is the main reason for this defect.
c. Machine Notches: defective holding and pulling causes this defect.
d. Miscut: erroneous cutting or sawing of wood causes this defect. Lack of experience in
sawing and carelessness is the main reason for erroneous cutting.
e. Imperfect Grain: Mismatch in grain alignment.

Preservation of Timber

Preservation of timber is carried out to increase the life of timber. Preservation is done using
different types of preservatives. Methods and different materials used for preservation of timber

58
 is discussed. Increasing life makes timber more durable and it can be used for longer periods.
Preservation also helps the timber to get rid of insects and fungi etc. If preservation is not done,
then wood will be diseased and damaged badly as shown in figure below.

Properties of Good Preservative for Timber

The preservative used to protect the timber should contain following requirements or properties.

o It should be effortlessly and cheaply available.

o It should not contain any harmful substances, gases etc.

o It should cover larger area with small quantity. Hence, it should be economical.

o Decorative treatment or any surface treatment should be allowed on timber after the application
of preservative.

o Strength of timber should not be affected by the preservative.

o It should not contain any unpleasant smell.

o It should not get affected by light, heat, water etc.

o It should not get affected by fungi, insects etc. and should also efficient to kill them.

o It should not generate flame when contacts with fire.

o It should not corrode metals when it makes a contact with them.

o The depth of penetration of preservative in wood fibers should be minimum 6mm to 25mm.

Different Types of Preservatives for Timber

o Coal tar

59
o ASCU

o Chemical slats

o Oil paints

o Solignum paints

o Creosote oil

Coal Tar for Preservation of Timber

Coal tar is heated and obtained liquid hot tar is applied on timber surface using brush. Coal tar
contains unpleasant smell and does not allow paint on it.

So, it is used for door frames, window frames etc. It is very cheap and has good fire resistance.

ASCU Preservative for Timber

ASCU is a special preservative which is available in powder form. It is dissolved in water to get
preservative solution. It should be added 6 parts by weight of ASCU in 100 parts by weight of
water. The final solution is applied on timber by spraying. This solution does not contain any
odor. It is useful mainly to get rid of from white ants. ASCU contains hydrated arsenic pent
oxide, copper sulphate or blue vitriol and sodium dichromate or potassium dichromate in it. After
applying ASCU, the timber can be coated with paint, varnished etc.

Chemical Slats for Preservation of Timber

Chemical salts like copper sulphate, mercury chloride and zinc chloride are used as preservative
which can be dissolved in water to get liquid solution. They are odorless and do not generate
flames when contact with fire.
60
Oil Paints Preservatives for Timber
Oil paints are suitable for well-seasoned wood. They are generally applied in 2 or 3 coats. Oil
paints prevents timber from moisture. If timber is not seasoned, then oil paints may lead to decay
of timber by confining sap.

Solignum Paints for Preservation of Timber

Solignum paints are applied in hot condition using brush. They are well suitable for preserving
timber from white ants. Solignum paints can be used by adding color pigments so, the timber has
good appearance.

Creosote Oil for Preservation of Timber

Creosote oil is prepared by the distillation of tar. It is black or brown in color. It contains
unpleasant smell. It is applied in a special manner.

Firstly, the timber is well seasoned and dried. Then, it is placed in airtight chamber and inside
air is pumped out. Finally creosote oil is pumped into the chamber with high pressure about 0.7
to 1 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50oC.
After allowing it for 2 hours, the timber absorbs creosote oil sufficiently and taken out from the
chamber.
61
 Creosote oil is flammable so, it is not used for timber works in fireplaces. It is generally used for
wood piles, poles, railway sleepers etc.

Methods of Timber Preservation

The following are methods of preserving timber
o Brushing

o Spraying

o Injecting under pressure

o Dipping and stepping

o Charring

o Hot and cold open tank treatment

Brushing of Timber Preservatives

Brushings the simplest method of applying preservatives. For well-seasoned timber, oil type
preservatives are applied with good quality brushes. For better results, the applied preservative
should in hot condition. Multiple coats should be applied and certain time interval should be
maintained between successive coats.

Spraying of Timber Preservatives

Spraying is an effective technique than brushing. In this case, preservative solution is sprayed on
to the surface using spray gun. It is time saving and quite effective.

62
Preservative Injecting Under Pressure
The preservative is injected into the timber under high pressure conditions. Generally, creosote
oil is applied in this manner which is already discussed above. It is costly treatment process and
required special treatment plant.

Dipping and Stepping Method of Timber Preservation

Dipping is another type of preserving in which, timber is dipped directly in the preservative
solution. Hence, the solution penetrates the timber better than the case of brushing or spraying.
In Some case, the stepping or wetting of timber with preservative solution is allowed for few
days or weeks which is also quite effective process.

63
Charring Method of Timber Preservation
Charring is nothing but burning of timber surface, which is quite an old method of preservation
of timber.

In this method, the timber surface is wetted for 30 minutes and burnt up to a depth of 15mm from
top surface. The burnt surface protects the inner timber from white ants, fungi, etc. This method
is not suitable for exterior wood works so, it is applied for wood fencing poles, telephone pole
bottoms etc.

Hot and Cold Open Tank Treatment of Timber

In this method, the timber is placed in an open tank which contains preservative solution. This
solution is then heated for few hours at 85 to 95 degree Celsius. Then, the solution is allowed to
cool and timber gets submerged with this gradual cooling. This type of treatment is generally
done for sap wood.

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 Seasoning of Timber

Seasoning of timber is the process by which moisture content in the timber is reduced to required
level. By reducing moisture content, the strength, elasticity and durability properties are
developed. A well-seasoned timber has 15% moisture content in it.

Methods of Seasoning of Timber

There are two methods of Seasoning of timber which are explained below

1. Natural seasoning

2. Artificial seasoning

Natural Seasoning of Timber

Natural seasoning is the process in which timber is seasoned by subjecting it to the natural
elements such as air or water. Natural seasoning may be water seasoning or air seasoning.

Water Seasoning
Water seasoning is the process in which timber is immersed in water flow which helps to remove
the sap present in the timber. It will take 2 to 4 weeks of time and after that the timber is allowed

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 to dry. Well-seasoned timber is ready to use.

Air Seasoning
In the process of air seasoning timber logs are arranged in layers in a shed. The arrangement is
done by maintaining some gap with the ground. So, platform is built on ground at 300mm height
from ground. The logs are arranged in such a way that air is circulated freely between logs. By
the movement of air, the moisture content in timber slowly reduces and seasoning occurs. Even
though it is a slow process it will produce well-seasoned timber.

Artificial Seasoning of Timber

Natural seasoning gives good results but takes more time. So, artificial seasoning of timber is
developed nowadays. By artificial seasoning, timber is seasoned within 4-5 days. Here also
different methods of artificial seasoning are there and they are as follows.

o Seasoning by Boiling

o Chemical seasoning

o Kiln seasoning

o Electrical seasoning
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Seasoning by Boiling
Seasoning of timber is also achieved by boiling it in water for 3 to 4 hours. After boiling timber
is allowed to dry. For large quantity of timber boiling is difficult so, sometimes hot steam is
passed through timber logs in enclosed room. It also gives good results. The boiling or steaming
process develops the strength and elasticity of timber but economically it is of heavier cost.

Chemical Seasoning
In case of chemical seasoning, timber is stored in suitable salt solution for some time. The salt
solution used has the tendency to absorb water from the timber. So, the moisture content is
removed and then timber is allowed to dry. It affects the strength of the timber.

Kiln Seasoning
In this method timber is subjected to hot air in air tight chamber. The hot air circulates in between
the timber logs and reduces the moisture content. The temperature inside the chamber is raised
with the help of heating coils. When the required temperature is obtained moisture content and
relative humidity gets reduced and timber gets seasoned. Even though it is costly process but
gives good results and is strength wise.

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Electrical Seasoning
In the method of electrical seasoning, timber is subjected to high frequency alternating currents.
The resistance of timber against electricity is measured at every interval of time. When the
required resistance is reached, seasoning process is stopped because resistance of timber
increases by reducing moisture content in it. It is also called as rapid seasoning and it is
uneconomical.

MANUFACTURE OF SANDCRETE HOLLOW BLOCKS

The various materials that can be used for making sand Crete hollow block include sand and
cement in addition to various types of material that can be used as aggregate. The most commonly
used aggregate for this type of block consist of hard, durable, clean sand mixed with cement.

Batching of Materials

The mix proportion are determine carefully in order that their resulting blocks meet specific
standards. Blocks for load bearing walls should have a mix of one part of ordinary Portland
cement to six part of clean sand (1:6). Commercial producers may use proportions much weaker
than this. It is therefore advisable to take all necessary precautions to ensure that blocks satisfied
specific standard before buying them. A mixture of 1:4.5 is used where the thickness of the web
of hollow blocks is 25mm or less. Hollow blocks for load bearing walls should contain solid
materials not less than one-half of the gross overall volume. No web should be less than 12.6mm.
To ensure uniformity of batches a gauge box or other container whose capacity has been
determined in advance such as a head pan should be used.

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Mixing

Where a large number of blocks is to be manufactured, the mixing should be done by mechanical
means. A concrete mixer is often used, but a pan-type mixer should preferred where it is
available, as a better result is obtained. The mixing should continue until the cement content is
evenly mixed with sand. It is advisable to mix it dry first and then add water in sprays. Only
sufficient water to enable the hydration of the cement should be added. The mixture should cake
when a quantity is pressed in between the palms without bringing out water.

Excessive water in the mix causes shrinkage and distortion of the blocks on drying. In a similar
way to the measuring of aggregate and matrix, the correct amount of water per batch should be
ascertained in advance. (Drawing of concrete mixer).

Molding

Block-molding machines are invariably used for this purpose. The simplest of these machines
are those having a weighted press which is used to tamp the blocks. The more sophisticated
machines effect compaction by vibration combined with compression, demolding the finished
products is performed by means of guided mechanical device. Handling of freshly mix blocks
should be reduced to the very minimum in order to avoid distortion. To this end too, the whole
casting shed and the standing for the molding equipment itself should be so designed as to obviate
any transmission of joint or vibrations from the molding machine to freshly mold block.

Curing

Adequate curing of block is essential to ensure sufficient hydration of the cement. The method
of curing employed can significantly affect the properties of the blocks. Being concrete product,
strength can only be gained if blocks are subjected to conditions in which moisture is retained
long enough for the setting of the cement. After the initial setting of the block, they should be
kept moist until sufficient strength is gained. With ordinary Portland cement this occurs after 28
days. Because of the dangers of hot, dry weather or heavy downpours of rain, freshly made
blocks should not be left in the open to dry, but always under covered space.

Storage

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The blocks should be stacked on a dry surface, away from where they will be broken by other
activities in the workshop or on the site. If during the rain they are likely to be soiled by mud or
buried in the wet ground, they must be stacked on a raised platform of old blocks. Stack block as
they will be used on the wall and on no account should a stack be so high as to damage the bottom
layers of blocks. All blocks should be handled with care to avoid chipping the edges and corners.
This is especially important if the wall is to be left unrendered. Chipped blocks make unsightly
joints so they will probably have to be discarded

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