22.

6 2009 ASHRAE Handbook-Fundamentals (SI)

the type of water, type of pipe material, temperature of water, and Other Piping Materials and Fluids
type of system (open or closed) and include For fluids not included in this chapter or for piping materials of
Sliming (biological growth or deposited soil on the pipe walls), different dimensions, manufacturers’ literature frequently supplies
which occurs mainly in unchlorinated, raw water systems. pressure drop charts. The Darcy-Weisbach equation, with the
Caking of calcareous salts, which occurs in hard water (i.e., water Moody chart or the Colebrook equation, can be used as an alterna-
bearing calcium salts) and increases with water temperature. tive to pressure drop charts or tables.
Corrosion (incrustations of ferrous and ferric hydroxide on the
pipe walls), which occurs in metal pipe in soft water. Because HYDRONIC SYSTEM PIPING
oxygen is necessary for corrosion to take place, significantly The Darcy-Weisbach equation with friction factors from the
more corrosion takes place in open systems. Moody chart or Colebrook equation (or, alternatively, the Hazen-
Allowances for expected decreases in capacity are sometimes Williams equation) is fundamental to calculating pressure drop in hot
treated as a specific amount (percentage). Dawson and Bowman (1933) and chilled water piping; however, charts calculated from these equa-
added an allowance of 15% friction loss to new pipe (equivalent to an tions (such as Figures 4,5, and 6) provide easy determination ofpres-
8% decrease in capacity). The HDR Design Guide (1981) increased the sure drops for specific fluids and pipe standards. In addition, tables
friction loss by 15 to 20% for closed piping systems and 75 to 90% for of pressure drops can be found in Hydraulic Institute (1979) and
open systems. Carrier (1960) indicates a factor of approximately 1.75 Crane Co. (1976).
between friction factors for closed and open systems. The Reynolds numbers represented on the charts in Figures 4, 5,
Obrecht and Pourbaix (1967) differentiated between the corro- and 6 are all in the turbulent flow regime. For smaller pipes and/or
sive potential of different metals in potable water systems and con- lower velocities, the Reynolds number may fall into the laminar
cluded that iron is the most severely attacked, then galvanized steel, regime, in which the Colebrook friction factors are no longer valid.
lead, copper, and finally copper alloys (i.e., brass). Hunter (1941) Most tables and charts for water are calculated for properties at
and Freeman (1 941) showed the same trend. After four years of cold 15°C. Using these for hot water introduces some error, although the
and hot water use, copper pipe had a capacity loss of 25 to 65%. answers are conservative (i.e., cold water calculations overstate the
Aged ferrous pipe has a capacity loss of 40 to 80%. Smith (1983) pressure drop for hot water). Using 15°C water charts for 90°C
recommended increasing the design discharge by 1.55 for uncoated water should not result in errors in Ap exceeding 20%.
cast iron, 1.08 for iron and steel, and 1.06 for cement or concrete.
The Plastic Pipe Institute (1971) found that corrosion is not a Range of Usage of Pressure Drop Charts
problem in plastic pipe; the capacity of plastic pipe in Europe and General Design Range. The general range of pipe friction loss
the United States remains essentially the same after 30 years in use. used for design of hydronic systems is between 100 and 400 Paim of
Extensive age-related flow data are available for use with the pipe. A value of 250 Paim represents the mean to which most sys-
Hazen-Williams empirical equation. Difficulties arise in its applica- tems are designed. Wider ranges may be used in specific designs if
tion, however, because the original Hazen-Williams roughness certain precautions are taken.
coefficients are valid only for the specific pipe diameters, water Piping Noise. Closed-loop hydronic system piping is generally
velocities, and water viscosities used in the original experiments. sized below certain arbitrary upper limits, such as a velocity limit of
Thus, when the Cs are extended to different diameters, velocities, 1.2 m/s for 50 mm pipe and under, and a pressure drop limit of 400
and/or water viscosities, errors of up to about 50% in pipe capacity Pa/m for piping over 50 mm in diameter. Velocities in excess of 1.2
can occur (Williams and Hazen 1933, Sanks 1978). m/s can be used in piping of larger size. This limitation is generally
accepted, although it is based on relatively inconclusive experience
Water Hammer with noise in piping. Water velocity noise is not caused by water
When any moving fluid (not just water) is abruptly stopped, as but by free air, sharp pressure drops, turbulence, or a combination of
when a valve closes suddenly, large pressures can develop. While these, which in turn cause cavitation or flashing of water into steam.
detailed analysis requires knowledge of the elastic properties of the Therefore, higher velocities may be used if proper precautions are
pipe and the flow-time history, the limiting case of rigid pipe and taken to eliminate air and turbulence.
instantaneous closure is simple to calculate. Under these conditions,
Air Separation
Air in hydronic systems is usually undesirable because it causes
where flow noise, allows oxygen to react with piping materials, and some-
A p h = pressure rise caused by water hammer, Pa times even prevents flow in parts of a system. Air may enter a sys-
p = fluid density, kg/m3 tem at an air-water interface in an open system or in an expansion
cs = velocity of sound in fluid, mis tank in a closed system, or it may be brought in dissolved in makeup
V = fluid flow velocity, m/s water. Most hydronic systems use air separation devices to remove
air. The solubility of air in water increases with pressure and de-
The c, for water is 1439 mis, although the elasticity of the pipe creases with temperature; thus, separation of air from water is best
reduces the effective value. achieved at the point of lowest pressure and/or highest temperature
Example 3. What is the maximum pressure rise if water flowing at 3 m / s
in a system. For more information, see Chapter 12 of the 2008
is stopped instantaneously? ASHRAE Handbook-HVAC Systems and Equipment.
In the absence of venting, air can be entrained in the water and
Solution: carried to separation units at flow velocities of 0.5 to 0.6 m/s or more
Aph = 1000 x 1439 x 3 = 4.32 MPa in pipe 50 mm and under. Minimum velocities of 0.6 m/s are there-
fore recommended. For pipe sizes 50 mm and over, minimum veloc-
Other Considerations ities corresponding to a pressure loss of 75 Pa are normally used.
Not discussed in detail in this chapter, but of potentially great Maintenance of minimum velocities is particularly important in the
importance, are a number of physical and chemical considerations: upper floors of high-rise buildings where the air tends to come out
pipe and fitting design, materials, and joining methods must be of solution because of reduced pressures. Higher velocities should
appropriate for working pressures and temperatures encountered, as be used in downcomer return mains feeding into air separation
well as being suitably resistant to chemical attack by the fluid. units located in the basement.
Pipe Sizing 22.7

VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE, L/s

Fig. 4 Friction Loss for Water in Commercial Steel Pipe (Schedule 40)

5a
a"
0
cc
O
W
cc
3
cn
cn
W
u:
a

VOLUMETRIC FLOW RATE. Us

Fig. 6 Friction Loss for Water in Plastic Pipe (Schedule 80)