Geography with Sandeep Sir

Factors Controlling Landform Development

Definition of ‘Landform’:

“Landform is the function of Structure, Process and Time,

i.e. L.f. = f(S, P, t)” --- W.M. Davis
“Landform is the function of process, geomaterial and changes through time”,
i.e. L.f. = f (P, M). dt” --- K.J. Gregory
“Landform is the ratio of the rate of upliftment by the endogenetic processes and the
degradation by the exogenetic processes.” --- W. Penck

Meaning of ‘Landform’:

 Landform refers to the 3-dimensional morphological features of the earth characterised

by the shape, size and dimensions, which are basically the product of -
 Endogenetic and exogenetic forces [older view],
 Slopes or a combination of slopes [recent view].
 Thus, landforms are the manifestation of various slope types (determined by
geomorphic processes acting on them) and the geomaterials / structure.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

1
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

Meaning of ‘Controlling Factors’:

 They are not involved in the creation or destruction of the landforms, but they
determine the rate at which such destruction or deformation or formation will take
place.
 The controlling factors determine the magnitude, amplitude, dimension, shape and size
of the landforms.
 There are about 10 different types of main controlling factors, which have many sub-
factors:

I. Structure:

 “Geological structure is a dominant controlling factor in the evolution of landforms

and is reflected in them”. --- W. D. Thornbury
 The structure, as a rule, is older than the landscape, and provides a base for the
operation of the various gradational processes which give rise to new sequential
landforms.
 If the rocks are folded, they are more resistant to weathering and dissection because
the molecular strength due to compression and cementing is high.
 The rocks, which have more fractures, joints, cracks, rifts, fissures, and etc., are more
prone to erosion because they become permeable and water can seep through them
easily.
 Normally, less resistant rocks are more rapidly eroded and provide birth to
lowland while highly resistant rocks produce bold topography due to less erosion.
Thus hardness plays key role.
 In permeable rocks, water is able to penetrate underground and the rocks become
liable to denudation with comparative ease. In some instances, porosity can
promote and enhance permeability.
 Some rocks, like limestone, are soluble and dissolve easily in water. The
solution of underground rocks leads to the formation of underground gullies and
caverns.
 With regards to texture, a coarse-grained rock can weather more quickly
than a fine- grained rock, as the later possess a better inter-locking structure
between their crystals.
 For igneous group of rocks, basic rocks weather more rapidly than acid rocks.
 Sedimentary rocks vary considerably in their resistance to weathering.
 Although metamorphic rocks generally present more resistance to erosion than do
their sedimentary and igneous counterparts, it is not easy to identify a separate class
of distinctly metamorphic landforms.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

2
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

 Arrangement of rocks means disposition of rock beds mainly of sedimentary rocks

due to the deformation process like isostatic, tectonic and orogenetic
movements and gets deformed into folded, faulted, domed and homoclinal
structures.
 Different fault types produce, after erosion, landforms of varying characteristics.
 Domed structure results either due to up warping of crustal surface affected by
diastrophic force or due to the intrusion of magma into surficial rocks.
 Homoclinal structures involve both hard and soft rocks, and so these are
subjected to differential erosion with the result of rivers forming their valleys along
the soft rocks.
 The horizontal structures are subjected to differential erosion and give birth to step-
like scraps and bench topography (structural benches).
 Chemical composition determines the nature of chemical weathering of rocks, which
in-turn determines the resultant landforms.
 Dark-coloured minerals are more susceptible to weathering than light-coloured
minerals as the later reflect most of the sun’s rays and heat less rapidly than the
former.
 Rocks having vertical strata are easily loosened and broken down due to the
temperature changes, frost action, water & wind action. Conversely, rocks having
horizontal beds are more compact and are less affected by the mechanisms of
disintegration & decomposition.
 Thus, structure influences not only the major outline of the relief, but even micro-
relief features and landforms bear the imprint of the rocks and their character &
stratification.
 But, geological structure in itself is a controlling factor only in a limited sense & its
influence cannot be wholly separated from the influence of processes in the evolution
of landforms.

II. Climate:

 “Each climatic type produces its own characteristic assemblage of landforms”.

--- Richthofen, Passarge, Jenson, Walther, Thorbecke and Sapper
 Climate affects the relative importance of the different weathering processes by
controlling rates of operation. Climatic elements like precipitation,
temperature and the related weathering processes have been given greater
emphasis as a modifier of the landforms.
 For e.g. in a desert environment all the rock-types (limestone, granite, basalt,
sandstone, etc.) ultimately wear down into sand and the structural control has a

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

3
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

limited stage and time after which the climatic forces reduce all the features and
amalgamate into a sandy desert.
 Also, same type of rocks responds differently in different climatic
conditions. For e.g. - sandstone, which gets eroded in the humid regions while stand
still in arid regions.

III. Stage:

 “As the different erosional agencies act on the earth’s surface, there is
produced a sequence of landforms having distinctive characteristics at the
successive stages of their development”. --- W. D.Thornbury
 Stage is a unit of time or a measurement of time, which is characterised by its energy
level, entropy, intensity, and magnitude of the process.
 Each stage of the erosion cycle is characterised by distinctive landforms with the help
of which it is possible to identify the stage of evolution of landscape.
 There is a direct relationship between the stage of development and the
character of landforms. The stages of development of landforms, however, do not
have equal life span.

IV. Time:

 “Landscape is the function of time and space”. --- Schumm and Lichty
 Time is a highly debatable concept in the evolution of landform as it does not show
direct implication and it is not even a process or a mechanism of change.
 But with time, every object or phenomena in the nature must decay. This is the
golden and eternal law.
 Generally, no perceptible change may occur in the morphological features during
short period of time. But sometime, the response is instantaneous.

V. Topography:

 Slope has a direct relationship with the rate of erosion and weathering.
 If the slope is steeper, the intensity of weathering is greater. But, over the horizontal
slopes, more depositional work can be seen.
 For example, the steeper slopes along the western coast of India have led
to Greater incidences of landslides and rock fall in the Western Ghats.
 The amount of available relief and degree of dissection are both bound to affect slope
form. High relief increases erosion, which wears down the topography.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

4
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

VI. Gravity:

 The gravity transport also brings substantial changes on the crust of the earth.
 Mass movement is the downslope transfer of material through the direct action of
gravity.
 The process can be rapid like landslide, or imperceptibly slow, as creep of soil down
the gentle slope of gravity-covered field.
 Rock material may move under the influence of gravity either as a movement of
weathering products down a slope, or as mass movement of rock along joint planes
or bedding planes.

VII. Biota:

 If a landform / region is vegetated, soil erosion is less and geomaterials are more
compact.
 But, the roots of the plants and trees exert pressure on the rocks and break them
apart.
 The microorganisms associated with the roots of plants and trees
encourage decomposition and disintegration of rocks through physico-biochemical
weathering.
 Humans have emerged as the most coercive force bringing modification in crustal
features.

VIII. Space:

 Spatial scale has much significance in controlling the rate and mechanism of
operation of processes and their responses (landforms) as the areal coverage’s of
study areas change.
 There has always been shift in the selection of ideal geomorphic unit having specific
areal coverage for the study of landforms and geomorphic processes with varying
viewpoints and objectives.

IX. Process:

 “Geomorphic processes leave their distinctive imprints upon landforms and

each geomorphic process develops its own country landforms and each geomorphic
process develops its own characteristic assemblage of landforms.”--- W. D.Thornbury
 The word ‘process’ includes the actions of all the endogenetic (internal) and
exogenetic (external) forces. Process is significant in the evolution of landforms.

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

5
 Geography with Sandeep Sir

 The endogenetic forces cause vulcanicity and diastrophism, and produce

irregularities on the earth’s surface by building mountains, plateaus, hills and
undulating topography.
 On the other hand, there are exogenetic forces, which tend to level down
the earth’s surface. The agents of these external processes of denudation
are running water, groundwater, glaciers, and wind and sea waves.

X. Rate of Endogenetic Forces:

 Landforms originate mainly by the endogenetic forces but the rate at which it
operates is important in shaping their morphogenetic characteristics.
 Landforms are the product of the ratio between the rate of endogenetic forces and the
rate of denudation. The relief content of a landform is determined by the rate at
which these forces operate.

Source: Factors Controlling Landform Development- Sanjeev scribd.com

Contact: +91 9972000318 https://t.me/GeographywithSandeepSir [email protected]

6