NAME: Buenviaje, Christel Joy P.

Score:
Course/Year/Section: BSA-III CROP SCIENCE
Laboratory Schedule: Friday 3:00pm-6:00pm
Remarks:
Date of Submission:

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. List of common biological control agents and their host.

BCA Common Name/ Scientific PREY/HOST(s)

Name
Praying mantis Moths, mosquitoes, roaches,
flies, aphids
Predatory lady bird beetles aphids, scale insects, mealybugs,
PREDATORS spider mites, white flies, leaf
beetle larvae
Anthocorid bugs Spider mites, thrips, aphids, pear
psylla, young scale, various
insect eggs.
Predatory mites Spider mites, rust mites, bulb
mites, thrips and other plant
feeding mites.
Dragon flies Flies, midges, mosquitoes,
moths
Ground beetles Aphids, moth larvae, beetle
larvae, mites, asparagus beetles,
cutworms, slugs, corn
earworms, cabbage worms
Green Lacewings Soft-bodied insects, mites, insect
eggs, thrips, mealybugs,
immature whiteflies, small
caterpillars.
Caterpillar parasite/Hyposoter Green plants
exigua
Egg parasite/Trichogramma Plants
PARASITES spp.
Whitefly parasite/Encarsia Plants
Formosa
Aphids parasite/Lysiphebus Insects, Spider
testaceipes
Armored scale/Aphytis spp. Parasitic wasps
Alfalta butterfly Lady beetle, Parasitic wasps
 parasite/Cotesia medicaginis
Walnut aphid parasite/Trioxys Walnut
pallidus
Neoseiulus barkeri Fungus, mite
Heterorhabditis indica Fungus gnats, root mealybugs
ENTOMOPATHOGENS Heterorhabditis marelatus Whites grubs, Cutworms
Steinernema kraussei Black vine weevil
Heterorhabditis zealandica Scarab grubs
Stem girdlers Trees
Bacillus subtitlis Litchi fruit
Wireworm Wheat, Potato
ANTAGONISTS Loppers Cabbage, Broccoli
Swarming leaf beetle Avocado, Cocoa, Jackfruit
Tomato russet mite Tomato
Rhodotonela glutinis Jujube fruit

2. Morphological characteristics of common entomopathogens and antagonists.

ENTOMOPATHOGENS
It multiplies rapidly and Regulators of insect Has short life
spread throughout the
haemocoel tend
Either Fungal or Bacteria Infect their host directly Infect the host via the mid-
gut following ingestion

ANTAGONISTS
Relies on predation, Natural enemies Narrow host range
parasitism, herbivory or
other mechanism.

Infect their host directly Attacking a wild range Short handling time

Synchrony with the Climatic adaptability Efficient search ability

host(prey) life cycle

QUESTIONS TO ANSWER
1. What is biological control? Discuss your answer in detail.
 Biological control is a method of controlling pests such as insects, mites, weeds
and other plant diseases using other organisms. It will be relying on predation,
parasitism, herbivory or natural mechanisms, but typically also involves management.
It also a method of using organisms that are predators or parasites of the pest to
reduce pest numbers to low levels at which there is little economic damage. It has
advantages of usually highly specific to particular pests. It has also a capability to
have a long-term solution to pest and no environmental contamination.
2. Discuss the mode of action of fungi, bacteria and yeast as biological control
against plant pathogens.
Different mode of action of bio control-active microorganisms in controlling
fungal plant diseases include hyper parasitism, predation, antibiosis, cross protection,
competition for site and nutrient and include resistance. Microbial biological control
agents protect crops from damage by diseases via different mode of action. They
induce resistance of prime enhanced resistance against infections by a pathogen in
plant tissues without direct antagonistic interaction with the pathogen.
3. What other group of microorganisms can be considered as antagonist and/or
entomopathogens? Give specific examples and their host.
Bacterium Pasteuria penetrans is an endospore-forming bacterium that persists in
the soil until a suitable nematode host encounters the spores. The Pasteuria spores
adhere to the nematode cuticle, infect thenematode and develop inside of the
nematode body. Fungus Hirsutella rhossiliensis is the most abundant and important
entomophagous fungi, and might play an important role in the control of pest’s
insects in nature. It includes three important speies: Hirsutella thompsonii, Hissutella
gigantea and Hirsutella citriformis. It was against nymph and adults of red spider
mite, adults varroa mites of honey bees and coconut eriophyid mite.
4. Differentiate a predator from a parasite/parasitoid.
Predators are organisms that acquire energy by taking that energy from other
organisms. Therefore, we have a relationship that positively affects one organism
which is the predator and negatively affects other organisms or the prey. Predators
eats multiple prey during predator’s lifetime. They were tended to be bigger than their
prey. They tend to kill their prey. While parasites take resources from one host.
Parasites were all smaller than their host. They don’t usually kill their hosts.
However, parasitoid infects just one host per life stage while parasitoids always kill
their hosts.

NAME: Buenviaje, Christel Joy P. Score:

 Course/Year/Section: BSA-III CROP Remarks:
SCIENCE
Laboratory Schedule: Friday 3:00pm-6:00pm
Date of Submission:
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
1. List of predators and parasites associated with different insect pests.
AREA
INSECT PESTS PREDATORS PARASITES
COMMON/SCIENTIFIC COMMON/SCIENTIFIC
NAME NAME

Aphids Lacewings, lady bugs Parasitic wasps

Caterpillars Birds, ladybird beetles, yellow Trichogrammatid wasps
jackets
Cutworms Ground beetles, rove beetles, Ophion sp.
spiders, wasps, toads,
parasitic nematodes, birds
Grasshoppers Birds, lizards, mantids, Spinochordodes tellinii
spiders, rodents
Locust Predatory wasps, flies, Microsporidian parasite
parasitoid wasps, beetle,
larvae, birds, reptiles
Thrips Amblyseius cucumeris Dunatothrips aneurae
Weevils Insect eating bird Catolaccus grandis
Whiteflies Lady bugs, lacewing larvae E. mundus
Two-spotted mite Small black lady beetle, Neozygites floridana
Amblyseius spp.,
Phytoseiulus persimilis
Black ants Spiders, antlions, Paussinae P. breviceps
beetles, Oogpister beetles,
Liphyra caterpillars, Alcon
blue butterfly, eucharitid
wasps
Cockroaches Amphibians, shrews, mites, Ascaris, Trichuris, Capillaria,
beetles, spiders Hook worm, Eimeria
Houseflies Frogs, spiders Entamoeba coli, Giardia
lambia, Hymenolepis, Taenia
species.

2. Entomopathogens encountered in the survey.

 GROUP COMMON/SCIENTIFIC HOST
NAME
Bacillus spp. Corn earworm, diamond
Bacteria black moth, tobacco
budworm
Paenibacillus spp. Japanese beetle larvae
Clostridium spp.
Xenorhabdus
Entomophaga maimaiga Gypsy moth
Fungi Enthomophthora muscae Flies
Neozygites fresenii Aphids
Paranosema locustae Locusts, grasshopper,
crickets
Acanthocystis turfacea Chlorella heliozoae
Viruses chlorella
Acara orthobunyavirus Mice
Acanthamoeba polyphaga Amoeba
Cydia pomonella Lepidopterans
DISCUSSON
3. Morphological characteristics of endophytes obtained from different plant parts.
An endophyte is an One or more endophytic Endophytes are
endosymbiont, often a organisms are found in microorganisms (bacteria
bacterium or fungus, that nearly every land plant. It or fungi or
lives within a plant for at is suggested that areas of actinomycetes) that dwell
least part of its life cycle high plant diversity such within robust plant
without causing apparent as tropical rainforests tissues by having a
disease. Endophytes are may also contain the symbiotic association. ...
ubiquitous and have been highest diversity of They protect plants from
found in all species of endophytic organisms herbivory by producing
plants studied to date; that possess novel and certain compounds which
however, most of the diverse chemical will prevent animals from
endophyte/plant metabolites. It has been further grazing on the
relationships are not well estimated that there could same plant and
understood. Some be approximately 1 sometimes act as
endophytes may enhance million endophytic fungi biocontrol agents
host growth, nutrient that exist in the world.
acquisition and improve A diazotrophic bacterium
the plant's ability to isolated in lodgepole
tolerate abiotic stresses, pines (Pinus contorta) in
such as drought, salinity British Columbia,
and decrease biotic Canada, is Paenibacillus
stresses by enhancing polymyxa, which may
plant resistance to help its host by fixing
insects, pathogens and nitrogen.
herbivores.

Endophytic species are Endophytes are There is evidence that

very diverse; only a small microorganisms which plants and endophytes
minority of existing colonize plant tissues. engage in communication
endophytes have been They develop without with each other that can
characterized. Many any visible symptoms, at aid symbiosis. For
endophytes are in the least for a major part of example, plant chemical
phyla Basidiomycota and their life cycle. Fungi, signals have been shown
Ascomycota. Endophytic bacteria or even viruses to activate gene
fungi may be from can be classified as expression in endophytes.
Hypocreales and endophytes. One example of this
Xylariales of the plant-endosymbiont
Sordariomycetes interaction occurs
(Pyrenomycetes) class or between dicotyledonous
from the class of plants in the
Loculoascomycetes. One Convolvulaceae and
group of fungal clavicipitaceous fungi.
endophytes are the When the fungus is in the
arbuscular mycorrhizal plant it synthesizes
fungi involving ergoline alkaloids at a
biotrophic higher rate, compared to
Glomeromycota when it is grown apart
associated with various from the plant. This
plant species. As often supports the hypothesis
with other organisms that plant signaling is
associated with plants required in order to
such as mycorrhizal induce expression of
fungus, endophytes gain endophytic secondary
carbon from their metabolites.
association with the plant
host. Bacterial
endophytes are
polyphyletic, belonging
to broad range of taxa,
including α-
Proteobacteria, β-
Proteobacteria, γ-
Proteobacteria,
Firmicutes,
Actinobacteria.

Endophytes may benefit This enhanced Endophytes may be

host plants by preventing survivability is largely transmitted either
other pathogenic or attributed to endophytic vertically (directly from
parasitic organisms from production of secondary parent to offspring) or
 colonizing them. metabolites which protect horizontally (among
Endophytes can against herbivory as well individuals) Vertically
extensively colonize as increased uptake of transmitted fungal
plant tissues and nutrients. endophytes are typically
competitively exclude considered clonal and
other potential pathogens. transmit via fungal
hyphae

QUESTIONS TO ANSWER
1. What Life stages of insects are commonly infected with entomopathogenic bacteria?
Entomopathogens are microorganisms that are pathogenic to arthropods such as
insects, mites, and ticks. Several species of naturally occurring bacteria, fungi,
nematodes, and viruses infect a variety of arthropod pests and play an important role in
their management. Some entomopathogens are mass-produced in vitro (bacteria, fungi,
and nematodes) or in vivo (nematodes and viruses) and sold commercially. In some
cases, they are also produced on small scale for non-commercial local use. Using
entomopathogens as biopesticides in pest management is called microbial control, which
can be a critical part of integrated pest management (IPM) against several pests.
Some entomopathogens have been or are being used in a classical microbial control
approach where exotic microorganisms are imported and released for managing invasive
pests for long-term control. The release of exotic microorganisms is highly regulated and
is done by government agencies only after extensive and rigorous tests. In contrast,
commercially available entomopathogens are released through inundate application
methods as biopesticides and are commonly used by farmers, government agencies, and
homeowners. Understanding the mode of action, ecological adaptations, host range, and
dynamics of pathogen-arthropod-plant interactions is essential for successfully utilizing
entomopathogen-based biopesticides for pest management in agriculture, horticulture,
orchard, landscape, turf grass, and urban environments.

2. How do bacteria infect insects?

First task in infecting any host is to gain access into host cells or body cavities.
When infecting insects, it is gaining access into the haemolymph. This can occur through
three main mechanisms: invasion of body cavity via nematode vector, through a wound,
and though consumption of contaminated food by the insect. An example of infection by
consumption is the infection of fleas by Yersinia pestis, the bacterium responsible for the
plague. The gut is infected when the fleas feed on infected rats- another vector for this
bacterium. After consumption the bacteria colonize the mid-gut of the flea and cause a
blockage between the fore and mid gut. This prevents the flea from pumping blood into
the mid gut and leads to starvation causing repetitive flea bites and regurgitation of blood
into the bite wound causing infection. An example of infection via nematode vector are
Photorhabdus luminescence and Xenorhabdus nematodphila who infect insects by first
colonizing the nematode gut in a symbiotic manor. The nematode then infects an insect
 and releases the bacteria allowing colonization. The bacteria then kill the insect providing
food for the nematode.

3. Enumerate signs and symptoms of fungal infection in insects.

Entomopathogenic fungi recognize and infect insects through the spore adhesion
and formation of appressoria that penetrate the cuticle. After reaching the hemocoel
(body cavity) of an insect, fungal filaments will switch into yeast-like cells that undergo
budding for rapid propagation and counteract the immune response of the hosts. Parasites
often manipulate the behavior of their hosts; for example, crickets or grasshoppers
commit suicide by drowning when infected by the parasitic hairworm Spinochordodes
tellinii. A striking death grip behavior has also been observed in carpenter ants
(Camponotus spp.) following infection by the parasitic fungus O. unilateralis. The
infected, moribund ants essentially behave like zombies; they walk alone and erratically
climb to a certain height in the vegetation (approximately 25 cm above the soil surface).
They bite leaf margins in rainforests and twigs in temperate woods and transition from
wandering to biting takes place synchronously around noontime (within 11:00–14:00 h)
possibly in association with a solar cue

4. What are the routes of viral infection in insects?

Direct contact transmission occurs through direct body contact with the tissues or
fluids of an infected individual. Physical transfer and entry of microorganisms occurs
through mucous membranes (e.g., eyes, mouth), open wounds, or abraded skin. Direct
inoculation can occur from bites or scratches. Examples include organisms such as rabies,
Microsporum, Leptospira spp., and staphylococci, including multidrug-resistant (MDR)
species methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Staphylococcus
pseudintermedius (MRSP). This is probably the most common and highest-risk route of
pathogen transmission to patients and personnel.
Fomite transmission involves inanimate objects contaminated by an infected
individual that then come in contact with a susceptible animal or human. Fomites can
include a wide variety of objects such as exam tables, cages, kennels, medical equipment,
environmental surfaces, and clothing. Disease examples include canine parvovirus and
feline calicivirus infections. Aerosol transmission encompasses the transfer of pathogens
via very small particles or droplet nuclei. Aerosol particles may be inhaled by a
susceptible host or deposited onto mucous membranes or environmental surfaces. This
can occur from breathing, coughing, sneezing, or vocalization of an infected individual,
but also during certain medical procedures (e.g., suctioning, bronchoscopy, dentistry,
inhalation anesthesia). Very small particles may remain suspended in the air for extended
periods and be disseminated by air currents in a room or through a facility. However,
 most pathogens pertinent to companion animal veterinary medicine do not survive in the
environment for extended periods or do not travel great distances due to size and as a
result require close proximity or contact for disease transmission. Examples of common
aerosolized pathogens include Bordetella bronchiseptica, canine influenza, and canine
distemper virus.
The ingestion of pathogenic organisms can occur from contaminated food or
water as well as by licking or chewing on contaminated objects or surfaces.
Environmental contamination is most commonly due to exudates, feces, urine, or saliva.
Examples of diseases acquired via oral transmission include feline panleukopenia and
infections caused by Campylobacter, Salmonella, Escherichia coli, and Leptospira.
Vectors are living organisms that can transfer pathogenic microorganisms to other
animals or locations and include arthropod vectors (e.g., mosquitoes, fleas, ticks) and
rodents or other vermin. Vector-borne transmission can be an important route of
transmission in climates where these pests exist year-round and may be brought into the
practice by an infested patient. Examples of vector-borne diseases include heartworm
disease, Bartonella infection, Lyme disease (borreliosis), and plague. It is important to
remember many animal diseases are zoonotic and therefore pose a risk for the healthcare
team as well as clients. The transfer of these agents can occur by the same five routes of
transmission described above. Examples of zoonotic pathogens include Microsporum,
Leptospira, Campylobacter, and Bartonella.

5. Why do we collect healthy plants instead of diseased plant in isolating microbial

antagonist?
Without proper identification of the disease and the disease-causing agent, disease
control measures can be a waste of time and money and can lead to further plant losses.
Proper disease diagnosis is therefore vital. Often, plant pathologists have to rely on
symptoms for the identification of a disease problem.