Engine specifications

1. Intercooler
Intercoolers increase the efficiency of the induction system by reducing induction air heat
created by the supercharger or turbocharger and promoting more thorough combustion. This
removes the heat of compression (i.e., the temperature rise) that occurs in any gas when its
pressure is raised (i.e. its unit mass per unit volume - density - is increased).

A decrease in intake air charge temperature sustains use of a more dense intake charge into the
engine, as a result of forced induction. The lowering of the intake charge air temperature also
eliminates the danger of pre-detonation (knock) of the fuel/air charge prior to timed spark
ignition. This preserves the benefits of more fuel/air burn per engine cycle, increasing the output
of the engine.

Intercoolers also eliminate the need for using the wasteful method of lowering intake charge
temperature by the injection of excess fuel into the cylinders' air induction chambers, to cool the
intake air charge, prior to its flowing into the cylinders. This wasteful practice (before
intercoolers were used) nearly eliminated the gain in engine efficiency from forced induction, but
was necessitated by the greater need to prevent at all costs the engine damage that pre-detonation
engine knocking causes.

Types

 Depend on design
 front mounted intercoolers (FMIC)
 top mounted intercoolers (TMIC) and
 hybrid mount intercoolers (HMIC)

 Depend on working principle

1. Air-to-air system

An air to air intercooler is an intercooler that uses air

to cool air. Meaning the exchange of heat that occurs
is between the airs that you have charged in your
charge pipes and the air that is flowing through the
intercooler. Air to Air intercoolers are only as efficient
as the ambient airflow (air temperature outside) that
they see. Placement of these types of intercoolers is
therefore very important in the efficiency of this type
of intercooler.
 Pro’s

1. Requires no power to work and therefore is easy to set up.

2. Requires no liquids to work and therefore no chances for leaks.

3. Doesn’t suffer from heat-soak as long as the intercooler is seeing good airflow.

Con’s

1. Efficiency is only as good as the ambient air temperature.

2. Efficiency is only as good as the amount of airflow the intercooler see’s.

3. Cannot be mounted anywhere, since it must be mounted in a location to see airflow.

2. Air-to-liquid system

Air-to-liquid intercoolers, also known as Charge Air

Coolers, are heat exchangers that transfer intake charge
heat to an intermediate fluid, usually water, which finally
rejects heat to the air. These systems use radiators in
other locations, usually due to space constraints, to reject
unwanted heat, similar to an automotive radiator cooling
system. Air-to-liquid intercoolers are usually heavier than
their air-to-air counterparts due to additional components
making up the system (water circulation pump, radiator,
fluid, and plumbing).

A big advantage of the air-to-liquid setup is the lower

overall pipe and intercooler length, which offers faster
response (lowers turbo lag), giving peak boost faster than
most front-mount intercooler setups. Some setups have
reservoirs that can hold ice, producing intake temperatures lower than ambient air, giving a big
advantage (but of course, ice would need constant replacement).

Pro’s

1. Really good efficiency, so the size of the intercooler can be smaller.

2. Efficiency can be exaggerated by using ice, or other chemicals to produce normally un-
realistic temperatures for short amounts of time.

3. Can be mounted anywhere along the charge piping route.

Con’s

1. Requires a lot of other accessories to work.

2. Because it is more complex, it naturally causes more opportunity for problems, like leaks.

3. Can become heat soaked when used for long periods of hard driving and become terribly in-
efficient.

2. Type of injection

IDI - Indirect Injection Diesel

IDI diesel engines utilize a pre-combustion chamber, typically referred to as a swirl chamber or
prechamber. Fuel is injected into the prechamber where it rapidly mixes with air and auto
ignition occurs. As the flame front expands in the pre-chamber, it forces fuel to enter the
combustion chamber rapidly, effectively mixing the fuel with air in the cylinder and atomization
is achieved. The glow plug is also located in the prechamber, and the shape of the pistons in an
IDI tends to resemble those of a gasoline engine.

DI - Direct Injection Diesel

DI diesel engines inject fuel directly into the combustion chamber, right into the top of the
piston. The pistons on a DI engine typically have a bowl or cup machined into them that the fuel
is directed into. DI engines operate at higher injection pressures and therefore more complete
atomization occurs, meaning these engines do not require a prechamber to ensure proper
diffusion of the fuel into the air.
IDI engines are now a thing of the past, as the direct injection diesel operates at a much higher
efficiency with significantly lower emissions and greater performance. That, however, does not
mean that used models have lost their luster. IDI engines of the 80's and 90's lack modern
sophistication and are therefore relatively easy and inexpensive to maintain. The lack of
electronics and emission controls tends to contribute to greater reliability in IDI engines, as the
system is far less complex. Furthermore, IDI equipped pickups can usually be purchased for
cheap on the used market. Despite the attractiveness of older IDI diesels, direct injection diesel
engines tend to have the following advantages over a comparable IDI counterpart:

• Higher thermal efficiency

• Lower NOx and particulate (soot) emissions

• Lower Noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH)

• Greater performance potential

• Greater high altitude performance (compared to naturally aspirated IDI engines)

3. Emission Standards
Tier 1-3 Emission Standards
The 1998 nonroad engine regulations were structured as a 3-tiered progression. Each tier
involved a phase-in (by horsepower rating) over several years. Tier 1 standards were phased-in
from 1996 to 2000. The more stringent Tier 2 standards took effect from 2001 to 2006, and yet
more stringent Tier 3 standards phased-in from 2006 to 2008 (Tier 3 standards applied only for
engines from 37-560 kW).

Tier 1-3 emissions standards are listed in Table 1. Nonroad regulations use the metric system of
units, with regulatory limits expressed in grams of pollutant per kWh.
Tier 4 Emission Standards
The Tier 4 emission standards—phased-in from 2008 through 2015—introduce substantial
reductions of NOx (for engines above 56 kW) and PM (above 19 kW), as well as more stringent
HC limits. CO emission limits remain unchanged from the Tier 2-3 stage.

Tier 4 emission standards for engines up to 560 kW are listed in below

4. Engine horse power and Torque

 The expression of this rotational or twisting force around an axis is called torque,
which is measured in units of force times distance from the axis of rotation.
 Power is an expression of the rate or speed at which work is performed. The more power
that is generated, the more work is done in a given time-period.
 Mathematically, horsepower equals torque multiplied by rpm. H = T x rpm/5252, where
H is horsepower, T is pound-feet, rpm is how fast the engine is spinning, and 5252 is a
constant that makes the units jibe. So, to make more power an engine needs to generate
more torque, operate at higher rpm, or both.
 5. Basic geometric parameters of the ICE’s piston and
cylinder
Engine performance relates to both fuel efficiency and dynamic output (power and torque),
which are influenced directly by the basic parameters of the engine.

The main geometric parameters of the cylinder, piston, connecting rod and crankshaft are
depicted in the image below.

Where:

IV – intake valve
EV – exhaust valve
TDC – top dead center
BDC – bottom dead center
B – cylinder bore
S – piston stroke
r – connecting rod length
a – crank radius (offset)
x – distance between the crank axis and the piston pin axis
θ – crank angle
Vd – displaced (swept) volume
Vc – clearance volume

The piston moves within the cylinder between TDC and

BDC. In order to complete a full combustion cycle, the piston
executes four strokes and the crankshaft makes two complete
turns. The displaced volume is the volume in which the piston
moves, the clearance volume is the volume left in the cylinder
when the piston reaches TDC.

For one cylinder, the displaced volume Vd is the product

between the stroke of the piston and the area of the cylinder (nearly the same with the area of the
piston):

Vd=S*Ac

The area of the cylinder is:

Ac¿ π B2 / 4

This gives the volumetric capacity of one cylinder which is equal with the displaced volume:
 Vd = S π B 2 / 4

To find the total volumetric capacity (displacement) of the engine, we only have to multiply
the volumetric capacity of one cylinder with the number of cylinders Nc:

Vd = Nc S π B2 / 4

The displacement of the modern internal combustion engines varies between 1.0 L and around
6.0 L, with the average of around 1.5 – 2 L. There is a clear tendency of decreasing the
volumetric capacity of an engine (downsizing) in order to fulfill the more stringent fuel emission
standards.

The basic geometry of a piston (reciprocating) internal combustion engine is defined by the
following parameters:

 compression ratio
 ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke
 ratio of connecting rod length to crank radius (offset)
 Air–fuel ratio

The compression ratio is calculated as the ratio between the maximum (total) volume of the
cylinder (when the piston is at BDC) and the minimum (clearance) volume (when the piston is as
TDC).

 In the technical literature the Greek letter epsilon ε is used to define the compression ratio
of an engine.
ε=Vmax/Vmin=Vc+Vd/Vd

 Most of the modern spark ignition (gasoline) engines have compression ratios between 8
and 11, while compression ignition (diesel) engines have compression ratios in the range
12 to 24.
 Usually internal combustion engines which are supercharged or turbocharged have a
lower compression ratio than naturally aspirated engines.
 The higher the compression ratio, the higher the combustion pressure in the cylinder. The
maximum value of the compression ratio depends mainly on engine materials, technology
and fuel quality.
 Because it depends on the geometry of the engine, the compression ratio is fixed. There
are various attempts to develop engines with a variable compression ratio which should
have a better overall efficiency.

The ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke is most of the time defined as the Greek letter zeta
ζ:

ζ=B/S
  For passenger road vehicles the bore to stroke ratio is usually from 0.8 to 1.2. When the
bore is equal to the stroke, B = S, the engine is called square engine. If the stroke is
higher than the bore the engine is under square. If the length of the stroke is less than
the bore diameter the engine is called over square. 

The connecting rod length to crank radius ratio is usually defined as R:

R=r/a
 For small engines R is between 3 and 4, for large engine starts from 5 up to 10.

For a fixed volumetric capacity of the engine, a longer stroke allows for a smaller bore (under
square). The advantage is a lower surface area in the combustion chamber and correspondingly
less heat loss. This will improve the thermal efficiency within the combustion chamber. The
disadvantage is that the longer stroke, the higher piston speed and higher friction losses, which
reduce the effective engine power.

If the stroke is reduced, the bore diameter must be increased and the engine will be over square.
This results in lower friction losses but increases heat transfer losses. Most of the
modern automobile engines are near square, with some slightly over square and some slightly
under square.

Air–fuel ratio (AFR) is the mass ratio of air to a solid, liquid, or gaseous fuel present in a
combustion process. The air-fuel ratio is an important measure for anti-pollution and
performance-tuning reasons. If exactly enough air is provided to completely burn all of the fuel,
the ratio is known as the stoichiometric mixture, often abbreviated to stoich. Ratios lower than
stoichiometric are considered "rich". Rich mixtures are less efficient, but may produce more
power and burn cooler. Ratios higher than stoichiometric are considered "lean." Lean mixtures
are more efficient but may cause higher levels of nitrogen oxides.

 A 'Stoichiometric' AFR has the correct amount of air and fuel to produce a chemically
complete combustion event. For gasoline engines, the stoichiometric, A/F ratio is 14.7:1,
which means 14.7 parts of air to one part of fuel. The stoichiometric AFR depends on
fuel type-- for alcohol it is 6.4:1 and 14.5:1 for diesel.

6. Engine starter
Type

 Electric Starter

The modern starter motor is either a permanent magnet or a

series/series-electric motor. A solenoid switch is mounted on it.
When current from the through a key-operated switch, it pushes out
the drive pinion on the starter pinion with the ring gear on the
flywheel of the engine. The solenoid also closes high-current
contacts for the starter motor, which starts; the key-operated switch
is opened. A spring in the solenoid assembly from the ring gear. This yields the stopping of
starter motor. The starters through an overrunning sprag clutch, which permits the pinion to
transmit way, drive is transmitted through the pinion to the flywheel ring gear, but the pinion will
spin independently of its drive shaft.

 Hydraulic Starters

Hydraulic starters and the associated systems provide a

sparkless, reliable method of engine starting over a wide
temperature range. Typically hydraulic starters are found in
applications such as remote generators, lifeboat propulsion
engines, offshore fire pumping engines, and hydraulic fracturing
rigs. The system used to support the hydraulic starter includes
valves, pumps, filters, a reservoir, and piston accumulators. The
operator can manually recharge the hydraulic system; this
cannot readily be done with electric starting systems, so
hydraulic starting systems are favored in applications wherein emergency starting is a
requirement.

With various configurations, Hydraulic starters can be fitted on any engine. Hydraulic starters
employ the high efficiency of the axial piston motor concept, which provides high torque at any
temperature or environment, and guarantees minimal wear of the engine ring gear and the pinion.

 Pneumatic Starter
These starters consist of a geared turbine, an air compressor
released from the tank is used to spin the turbine. Apart
from it, a set gear on the flywheel. The engine, once
running, powers the compressor Another method uses
additional valves in cylinder heads. Compressed pressure
pushes pistons down when appropriate. At the upward
piston normal exhaust valves. Since large trucks typically
use air brakes, the compressed air to the brake system.
Pneumatic starters have the advantages mechanicals implicity and reliability. They
eliminate the need for oversized, mover electrical systems.

7. Batteries
 Cold cranking amps (CCA) is a rating used in the battery
industry to define a battery's ability to start an engine in cold
temperatures. The rating refers to the number of amps a 12-
volt battery can deliver at 0°F for 30 seconds while
maintaining a voltage of at least 7.2 volts. Learn more about
 Cold Cranking Amps (CCA).The higher the CCA rating, the greater the starting power of
the battery.

 Reserve Capacity (RC) is a general indicator of how long a new, fully charged battery
can continue to operate essential accessories if the vehicle’s alternator fails. It identifies
how many minutes the battery can deliver a constant current of 25 amps at 80°F without
falling below the minimum voltage, 1.75 volts per cell, needed to keep your vehicle
running.

 Amp Hour and C20 Battery Capacity is an indicator of how much energy is stored in a
battery. It is the energy a battery can deliver continuously for 20 hours at 80°F without
falling below 10.5 volts

Hydraulic pump
A hydraulic pump is a mechanical device that converts mechanical power into hydraulic energy. It
generates flow with enough power to overcome pressure induced by the load.

When a hydraulic pump operates, it performs two functions. First, its mechanical action creates
a vacuum at the pump inlet which allows atmospheric pressure to force liquid from
the reservoir into the inlet line to the pump. Second, its mechanical action delivers this liquid to
the pump outlet and forces it into the hydraulic system.

A pump produces liquid movement or flow: it does not generate pressure. It produces the flow
necessary for the development of pressure which is a function of resistance to fluid flow in the
system. For example, the pressure of the fluid at the pump outlet is zero for a pump not
connected to a system (load). Further, for a pump delivering into a system, the pressure will rise
only to the level necessary to overcome the resistance of the load.

Classification of pumps
All pumps may be classified as either positive-displacement or non-positive-displacement. Most
pumps used in hydraulic systems are positive-displacement.

 A non-positive-displacement pump produces a continuous flow. However, because it

does not provide a positive internal seal against slippage, its output varies considerably as
pressure varies. Centrifugal and propeller pumps are examples of non-positive-
displacement pumps. If the output port of a non-positive-displacement pump were
blocked off, the pressure would rise, and output would decrease to zero. Although the
pumping element would continue moving, flow would stop because of slippage inside the
pump.
  In a positive-displacement pump, slippage is negligible compared to the pump's
volumetric output flow. If the output port were plugged, pressure would increase
instantaneously to the point that the pump's pumping element or its case would fail
(probably explode, if the drive shaft did not break first), or the pump's prime mover
would stall.

Positive-displacement principle

 A positive-displacement pump is one that displaces (delivers) the same amount of liquid
for each rotating cycle of the pumping element. Constant delivery during each cycle is
possible because of the close-tolerance fit between the pumping element and the pump
case. That is, the amount of liquid that slips past the pumping element in a positive-
displacement pump is minimal and negligible compared to the theoretical maximum
possible delivery. The delivery per cycle remains almost constant, regardless of changes
in pressure against which the pump is working. Note that if fluid slippage is substantial,
the pump is not operating properly and should be repaired or replaced.

 Positive-displacement pumps can be of either fixed or variable displacement. The output

of a fixed displacement pump remains constant during each pumping cycle and at a given
pump speed. The output of a variable displacement pump can be changed by altering the
geometry of the displacement chamber.

 Other names to describe these pumps are hydrostatic for positive-displacement and
hydrodynamic pumps for non-positive-displacement. Hydrostatic means that the pump
converts mechanical energy to hydraulic energy with comparatively small quantity and
velocity of liquid. In a hydrodynamic pump, liquid velocity and movement are large;
output pressure actually depends on the velocity at which the liquid is made to flow.

1. Reciprocating pumps

 The positive-displacement principle is well illustrated in the reciprocating-type pump, the

most elementary positive-displacement pump. As the piston extends, the partial vacuum
created in the pump chamber draws liquid from the reservoir through the inlet check
valve into the chamber. The partial vacuum helps seat firmly the outlet check valve. The
volume of liquid drawn into the chamber is known because of the geometry of the pump
case, in this example, a cylinder.

 As the piston retracts, the inlet check valve reseats, closing the valve, and the force of the
piston unseats the outlet check valve, forcing liquid out of the pump and into the system.
The same amount of liquid is forced out of the pump during each reciprocating cycle.

 All positive-displacement pumps deliver the same volume of liquid each cycle
(regardless of whether they are reciprocating or rotating). It is a physical characteristic of
the pump and does not depend on driving speed. However, the faster a pump is driven,
the more total volume of liquid it will deliver.
 A reciprocating pump includes: piston pump, plunger pump and diaphragm pump.

1.1 Piston pump

 Axial-piston pumps

 The pistons in an axial piston pump reciprocate parallel to the centerline of the
drive shaft of the piston block. That is, rotary shaft motion is converted into axial
reciprocating motion. Most axial piston pumps are multi-piston and use check
valves or port plates to direct liquid flow from inlet to discharge.


Axial-
piston
pump
varies

displacement by changing angle of swashplate.

 The piston pump is a rotary unit which uses the principle of the reciprocating
pump to produce fluid flow. Instead of using a single piston, these pumps have
many piston-cylinder combinations. Part of the pump mechanism rotates about a
drive shaft to generate the reciprocating motions, which draw fluid into each
cylinder and then expels it, producing flow.

Inline piston pumps

  The simplest type of axial piston
pump is the swashplate design in
which a cylinder block is turned by
the drive shaft. Pistons fitted to bores
in the cylinder block are connected
through piston shoes and a retracting
ring, so that the shoes bear against an
angled swashplate. As the block turns, the piston shoes follow the swashplate,
causing the pistons to reciprocate. The ports are arranged in the valve plate so that
the pistons pass the inlet as they are pulled out and the outlet as they are forced
back in. In these pumps, displacement is determined by the size and number of
pistons as well as their stroke length, which varies with the swashplate angle.

 In variable-displacement models of the inline pump, the swashplate swings in a

movable yoke. Pivoting the yoke on a pintle changes the swashplate angle to
increase or decrease the piston stroke. The yoke can be positioned with a variety
of controls, i.e., manual, servo, compensator, handwheel, etc.

Bent-axis pumps

 This pump consists of a drive shaft which rotates the pistons, a cylinder block,
and a stationary valving surface facing the cylinder block bores which ports the
inlet and outlet flow. The drive shaft axis is angular in relation to the cylinder
block axis. Rotation of the drive shaft causes rotation of the pistons and the
cylinder block.

 In bent axis design, the displacement volume is dependent on the swivel angle:
the pistons move within the cylinder bores when the shaft rotates. In swash plate
design, the rotating pistons are supported by a swash plate; the angle of the swash
plate determines the piston stroke.

 Because the plane of rotation of the pistons is at an angle to the valving surface
plane, the distance between any one of the pistons and the valving surface
continually changes during rotation. Each individual piston moves away from the
valving surface during one-half of the shaft revolution and toward the valving
surface during the other half.
  The valving surface is so ported that its inlet passage is open to the cylinder bores
in that part of the revolution where the pistons move away. Its outlet passage is
open to the cylinder bores in the part of the revolution where the pistons move
toward the valving surface. Therefore, during pump rotation the pistons draw
liquid into their respective cylinder bores through the inlet chamber and force it
out through the outlet chamber. Bent axis pumps come in fixed and variable
displacement configurations, but cannot be reversed.

 Radial piston pump.

 Radial piston pump is a form of hydraulic pump. The working pistons extend in a
radial direction symmetrically around the
drive shaft, in contrast to the axial piston
pump.

 Pistons are arranged radially in a cylinder

block; they move perpendicularly to the
shaft centerline. Two basic types are
available: one uses cylindrically shaped
pistons, the other ball pistons. They may
also be classified according to the porting
arrangement: check valve or pintle valve.
They are available in fixed and variable
displacement, and variable reversible (over-center) displacement.

 In pintle-ported radial piston pump the cylinder block rotates on a stationary

pintle and inside a circular reacting ring or rotor. As the block rotates, centrifugal
force, charging pressure, or some form of mechanical action causes the pistons to
follow the inner surface of the ring, which is offset from the centerline of the
cylinder block. As the pistons reciprocate in their bores, porting in the pintle
permits them to take in fluid as they move outward and discharge it as they move
in.

 The size and number of pistons and the length of their

stroke determine pump displacement. Displacement
can be varied by moving the reaction ring to increase
or decrease piston travel, varying eccentricity.
Several controls are available for this purpose.

1.2 plunger pump

Plunger pumps are somewhat similar to rotary piston

types, in that pumping is the result of pistons
 reciprocating in cylinder bores. However, the cylinders are fixed in these pumps; they
do not rotate around the drive shaft. Pistons may be reciprocated by a crankshaft, by
eccentrics on a shaft, or by a wobble plate. When eccentrics are used, return stroke is
by springs. Because valving cannot be supplied by covering and uncovering ports as
rotation occurs, inlet and outlet check valves may be used in these pumps.

Because of their construction, these pumps offer two features other pumps do not
have: one has a more positive sealing between inlet and outlet, permitting higher
pressures without excessive leakage of slip. The other is that in many pumps,
lubrication of moving parts other than the piston and cylindrical bore may be
independent of the liquid being pumped. Therefore, liquids with poor lubricating
properties can be pumped. Volumetric and overall efficiencies are close to those of
axial and radial piston pumps.

1.3 Diaphragm pump.

 The most popular type of diaphragm pump is the Air-Operated Diaphragm Pump.
These pumps use compressed air as their power supply. They also include two
chambers with a diaphragm, inlet check valve and outlet check valve in each
chamber. The air supply is shifted from one chamber to another with an air spool
valve that is built into the pump. This continual shifting of air from one chamber
to another (to the backside of the diaphragm) forces liquid out of one chamber and
into the discharge piping while the other chamber is being filled with liquid.

2. Rotary pumps

 In a rotary-type pump, rotary motion carries the liquid from the pump inlet to the pump
outlet. Rotary pumps are usually classified according to the type of element that transmits
the liquid, so that we speak of a gear-, lobe-, vane-, or piston-type rotary pump.

2.1 gear pumps

 Can be divided into external and internal-gear types. These pumps come with a
straight spur, helical, or herringbone gears. Straight spur gears are easiest to cut
and are the most widely used. Helical and herringbone gears run more quietly, but
cost more.

 A gear pump produces flow by carrying

fluid in between the teeth of two meshing
gears. One gear is driven by the drive shaft
and turns the idler gear. The chambers
formed between adjacent gear teeth are
enclosed by the pump housing and side
plates (also called wear or pressure
plates).A partial vacuum is created at the
pump inlet as the gear teeth unmesh. Fluid
 flows in to fill the space and is carried around the outside of the gears. As the
teeth mesh again at the outlet end, the fluid is forced out.

Internal gear pump

 Have an internal gear and an external gear. Because these pumps have one or two less
teeth in the inner gear than the outer, relative speeds of the inner and outer gears in these
designs are low. For example, if the number of teeth in the inner and outer gears were 10
and 11 respectively, the inner gear would turn 11 revolutions, while the outer would turn
10. This low relative speed means a low wear rate. These pumps
are small, compact units.

Internal-gear pumps - gerotor and crescent.

 The crescent seal internal-gear pump consists of an inner and outer gear separated by a
crescent-shaped seal. The two gears rotate in the same direction, with the inner gear
rotating faster than the outer. The hydraulic oil is drawn into the pump at the point where
the gear teeth begin to separate and is carried to the outlet in the space between the
crescent and the teeth of both tears. The contact point of the gear teeth forms a seal, as
does the small tip clearance at the crescent. Although in the past this pump was generally
used for low outputs, with pressures below 1,000 psi, a 2-stage, 4,000-psi model has
recently
become
available.

 The gerotor
internal-gear
pump
consists of a
pair of gears
which are
always in
sliding
contact. The
 internal gear has one more tooth than the gerotor gear. Both gears rotate in the same
direction. Oil is drawn into the chamber where the teeth are separating, and is ejected
when the teeth start to mesh again. The seal is provided by the sliding contact.

 Generally, the internal-gear pump with toothcrest pressure sealing has higher volumetric
efficiency at low speeds than the crescent type. Volumetric and overall efficiencies of
these pumps are in the same general range as those of external-gear pumps. However,
their sensitivity to dirt is somewhat higher.

External gear pump

External gear pumps are similar in pumping action to internal gear pumps in that two gears come
into and out of mesh to produce flow.  However, the external gear pump uses two identical gears
rotating against each other -- one gear is driven by a motor and it in turn drives the other gear. 
Each gear is supported by a shaft with bearings on both sides of the gear.

1.  As the gears come out of

mesh, they create expanding
volume on the inlet side of the
pump. Liquid flows into the
cavity and is trapped by the gear
teeth as they rotate.

2.  Liquid travels around the interior of the casing in the pockets between the teeth and the casing
-- it does not pass between the gears. 

3.  Finally, the meshing of the gears forces liquid through the outlet port under pressure.

 Volumetric efficiencies of gear pumps run as high as 93% under optimum

conditions. Running clearances between gear faces, gear tooth crests and the
housing create an almost constant loss in any pumped volume at a fixed pressure.
This means that volumetric efficiency at low speeds and flows is poor, so that
gear pumps should be run close to their maximum rated speeds.
  Although the loss through the running clearances, or "slip," increases with
pressure, this loss is nearly constant as speed and output change. For one pump
the loss increases by about 1.5 gpm from zero to 2,000 psi regardless of speed.
Change in slip with pressure change has little effect on performance when
operated at higher speeds and outputs. External-gear pumps are comparatively
immune to contaminants in the oil, which will increase wear rates and lower
efficiency, but sudden seizure and failure are not likely to occur.

Screw pump

 Is an axial-flow gear pump, similar in operation to a rotary screw compressor. Three

types of screw pumps are the single-screw, two-screw, and three-screw. In the single-
screw pump, a spiraled rotor rotates eccentrically in an internal stator. The two-screw
pump consists of two parallel intermeshing rotors rotating in a housing machined to close
tolerances. The three-screw pump consists of a central-drive rotor with two meshing idler
rotors; the rotors turn inside of a housing machined to close tolerances.

 Flow through a screw pump is axial and in the direction of the power rotor. The inlet
hydraulic fluid that surrounds the rotors is trapped as the rotors rotate. This fluid is
pushed uniformly with the rotation of the rotors along the axis and is forced out the other
end.
 The fluid delivered by a screw pump does not rotate, but moves linearly. The rotors work
like endless pistons, which continuously move forward. There are no pulsations even at
higher speed. The absence of pulsations and the fact that there is no metal-to-metal
contact results in very quiet operation.

2.2 lobe pump

 is a rotary, external-gear pump. It differs from the conventional external-gear pump in the
way the "gears" are driven. In a gear pump, one gear
drive the other; in a lobe pump, both lobes are driven
through suitable drives gears outside of the pump
casing chamber.

2.3 vane pumps

 A number of vanes slide in slots in a rotor which rotates in a housing or ring. The housing
may be eccentric with the center of the rotor, or its shape may be oval, Figure 5. In some
designs, centrifugal force holds the vanes in contact with the housing, while the vanes are
forced in and out of the slots by the eccentricity of the housing. In one vane pump, light
springs hold the vanes against the housing; in another pump design, pressurized pins urge
the vanes outward.

Balanced vane pump Basic (unbalanced) vane pump

 During rotation, as the space or chamber enclosed by vanes, rotor, and housing
increases, a vacuum is created, and atmospheric pressure forces oil into this space,
which is the inlet side of the pump. As the space or volume enclosed reduces, the
liquid is forced out through the discharge ports.

Vane pumps maintain their high efficiency for a long time, because compensation for
wear of the vane ends and the housing is automatic. As these surfaces wear, the vanes
move further out in their slots to maintain contact with the housing.

Vane pumps, like other types, come in double units. A double pump consists of two
pumping units in the same housing. They may be of the same or different sizes.
Although they are mounted and driven like single pumps, hydraulically, they are
independent. Another variation is the series unit: two pumps of equal capacity are
connected in series, so that the output of one feeds the other. This arrangement gives
twice the pressure normally available from this pump. Vane pumps have relatively
high efficiencies. Their size is small relative to output. Dirt tolerance is relatively
good.

Selection criteria of hydraulic pump

Pump selection is made on:

 Process Liquid Properties     

 Liquid viscosity
 Temperature
 Specific gravity
 Vapor pressure
 Solids present & concentration
 Shear sensitive
 Abrasive or Non-abrasive

 Materials of Construction

What materials of construction are compatible with the process liquid or any other liquids the
pump might come into contact with? Chemical compatibility charts are available to help you
identify the most appropriate materials of construction for the pump. 

 Is the Pump Critical to Plant Operation?

In critical applications, where downtime is NOT an option, more expensive, heavy-duty pumps
with special features can be chosen. If pumps can be removed from service for maintenance, less
expensive options could be considered. 
  Pump Inlet Conditions

You don’t want to starve a pump. System Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) available is
calculated by knowing pump inlet pressure and liquid vapor pressure. Always make sure NPSHA
exceeds pump Net Positive Suction Head (NPSH) required.  

 Pump Environment

If your pump will be outside, special construction or installation considerations may need to be
made for freezing temperatures. If the environment is hazardous, contains explosive vapors or
dust, special motor features will be required. These are just a few examples of environmental
conditions to consider.

 Power Source Availability

The most common power source in the United States is 115-230 Volts/60 Hertz/1-phase or 230-
460 Volts, 60 Hertz/3-phase. Special motors can be specified for operation outside of the United
States or by using DC batteries. Compressed air or pressurized hydraulic oil can also be used for
power. 

 Flow Rate and Pressure

Hydraulic pump specifications

Pumps are commonly rated by:

 horse power

 temperature

 volumetric flow rate

 outlet pressure in meters (or feet) of head

 inlet suction in suction feet (or meters) of head.

The head can be simplified as the number of feet or metres the pump can raise or lower a column
of water at atmospheric pressure.

From an initial design point of view, engineers often use a quantity termed the specific speed to
identify the most suitable pump type for a particular combination of flow rate and head.
Types of pressure
Absolute pressure

The clearest reference pressure is the pressure zero, which exists in the air-free space of the
universe. A pressure which is related to this reference pressure is known as absolute pressure.
For the required differentiation from other types of pressure, it is denoted with the index “abs”,
which is derived from the Latin “absolutus”, meaning detached, independent.

Atmospheric pressure

The probably most important pressure for life on earth is the atmospheric pressure, p amb (amb =
ambiens = ambient). It is created by the weight of the atmosphere which surrounds the earth up
to a height of approx. 500 km. Up to this altitude, at which the absolute pressure p abs = zero, its
magnitude decreases continuously. Furthermore, the atmospheric pressure is subject to weather-
dependent fluctuations, as is only too well known from the daily weather report. At sea level,
pamb averages 1,013.25 hectopascal (hpa), corresponding to 1,013.25 millibar (mbar). With
“cyclones” and “anticyclones”, this pressure varies by about 5 %.

Differential pressure

The difference between two pressures, p1 and p2, is known as the pressure differential, Δp = p 1 -
p2. In cases where the difference between two pressures itself represents the measured variable,
one refers to the differential pressure, p1,2.

Overpressure (gauge pressure)

The most frequently measured pressure in the technological field is the atmospheric pressure
differential, Pe (e = excedens = exceeding). It is the difference between an absolute pressure,
pabs, and the relevant (absolute) atmospheric pressure (pe = pabs - pamb) and is known, in short, as
the overpressure or gauge pressure.

A positive overpressure is referred to when the absolute pressure is greater than the atmospheric
pressure. In the opposite case, one speaks of negative overpressure.