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Dynamics of Being A Polymer

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Engel Quimson
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26 views4 pages

Dynamics of Being A Polymer

Uploaded by

Engel Quimson
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© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
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Synthesis

Main article: Polymerization

A classification of the polymerization reactions

Polymerization is the process of combining many small molecules known as monomers into a


covalently bonded chain or network. During the polymerization process, some chemical groups may
be lost from each monomer. This happens in the polymerization of PET polyester. The monomers
are terephthalic acid (HOOC—C6H4—COOH) and ethylene glycol (HO—CH2—CH2—OH) but the
repeating unit is —OC—C6H4—COO—CH2—CH2—O—, which corresponds to the combination of the
two monomers with the loss of two water molecules. The distinct piece of each monomer that is
incorporated into the polymer is known as a repeat unit or monomer residue.
Synthetic methods are generally divided into two categories, step-growth polymerization and chain
polymerization.[20] The essential difference between the two is that in chain polymerization,
monomers are added to the chain one at a time only,[21] such as in polystyrene, whereas in step-
growth polymerization chains of monomers may combine with one another directly, [22] such as
in polyester. Step-growth polymerization can be divided into polycondensation, in which low-molar-
mass by-product is formed in every reaction step, and polyaddition.

Example of chain polymerization: Radical polymerization of styrene, R. is initiating radical, P. is another


polymer chain radical terminating the formed chain by radical recombination

Newer methods, such as plasma polymerization do not fit neatly into either category. Synthetic
polymerization reactions may be carried out with or without a catalyst. Laboratory synthesis of
biopolymers, especially of proteins, is an area of intensive research.
Biological synthesis
Main article: Biopolymer

Microstructure of part of a DNA double helix biopolymer

There are three main classes of biopolymers: polysaccharides, polypeptides, and polynucleotides. In


living cells, they may be synthesized by enzyme-mediated processes, such as the formation of DNA
catalyzed by DNA polymerase. The synthesis of proteins involves multiple enzyme-mediated
processes to transcribe genetic information from the DNA to RNA and subsequently translate that
information to synthesize the specified protein from amino acids. The protein may be modified
further following translation in order to provide appropriate structure and functioning. There are other
biopolymers such as rubber, suberin, melanin, and lignin.

Modification of natural polymers


Naturally occurring polymers such as cotton, starch, and rubber were familiar materials for years
before synthetic polymers such as polyethene and perspex appeared on the market. Many
commercially important polymers are synthesized by chemical modification of naturally occurring
polymers. Prominent examples include the reaction of nitric acid and cellulose to
form nitrocellulose and the formation of vulcanized rubber by heating natural rubber in the presence
of sulfur. Ways in which polymers can be modified include oxidation, cross-linking, and endcapping.

Structure
The structure of a polymeric material can be described at different length scales, from the sub-nm
length scale up to the macroscopic one. There is in fact a hierarchy of structures, in which each
stage provides the foundations for the next one. [23] The starting point for the description of the
structure of a polymer is the identity of its constituent monomers. Next, the microstructure essentially
describes the arrangement of these monomers within the polymer at the scale of a single chain. The
microstructure determines the possibility for the polymer to form phases with different arrangements,
for example through crystallization, the glass transition or microphase separation.[24] These features
play a major role in determining the physical and chemical properties of a polymer.
Monomers and repeat units
The identity of the repeat units (monomer residues, also known as "mers") comprising a polymer is
its first and most important attribute. Polymer nomenclature is generally based upon the type of
monomer residues comprising the polymer. A polymer which contains only a single type of repeat
unit is known as a homopolymer, while a polymer containing two or more types of repeat units is
known as a copolymer.[25] A terpolymer is a copolymer which contains three types of repeat units. [26]
Polystyrene is composed only of styrene-based repeat units, and is classified as a
homopolymer. Polyethylene terephthalate, even though produced from two
different monomers (ethylene glycol and terephthalic acid), is usually regarded as a homopolymer
because only one type of repeat unit is formed. Ethylene-vinyl acetate contains more than one
variety of repeat unit and is a copolymer. Some biological polymers are composed of a variety of
different but structurally related monomer residues; for example, polynucleotides such as DNA are
composed of four types of nucleotide subunits.

Homopolymers and copolymers (examples)

Homopolymer p Homopolymer polydim The Copolymer styrene-


olystyrene ethylsiloxane, homopolymer polyethyl butadiene rubber:
a silicone. The main ene terephthalate has The repeat units
chain is formed of only one repeat unit. based
silicon and oxygen on styrene and 1,3-
atoms. butadiene form two
repeating units,
which can alternate in
any order in the
macromolecule,
making the polymer
thus a random
copolymer.

A polymer molecule containing ionizable subunits is known as a polyelectrolyte or ionomer.

Microstructure
Main article: Microstructure

The microstructure of a polymer (sometimes called configuration) relates to the physical


arrangement of monomer residues along the backbone of the chain. [27] These are the elements
of polymer structure that require the breaking of a covalent bond in order to change. Various
polymer structures can be produced depending on the monomers and reaction conditions: A
polymer may consist of linear macromolecules containing each only one unbranched chain. In
the case of unbranched polyethylene, this chain is a long-chain n-alkane. Linear polymers may
fold into diverse conformations with distinct circuit topology. There are also branched
macromolecules with a main chain and side chains, in the case of polyethylene the side chains
would be alkyl groups. In particular unbranched macromolecules can be in the solid state semi-
crystalline, crystalline chain sections highlighted red in the figure below.
While branched and unbranched polymers are usually thermoplastics, many elastomers have a
wide-meshed cross-linking between the "main chains". Close-meshed crosslinking, on the other
hand, leads to thermosets. Cross-links and branches are shown as red dots in the figures.
Highly branched polymers are amorphous and the molecules in the solid interact randomly.

semi- highly
linear, slightly cro
crystalline cross-
unbranche branched
structure of ss-linked p linked
d macromole
an olymer polymer
macromole cule
unbranched (elastomer) (thermoset
cule
polymer )

Polymer architecture

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