tems nor complexes of ecosystems but shaped phenomena

LETTER
like mountains, lakes, forests, and symbolic landscapes (4, 5).
A lake’s shimmering surface that invites us to contemplation is
Pivotal cultural values of nature not an ecological object. Landscapes are basically life-worldly
aesthetic unities with symbolic meanings, arrangements of
cannot be integrated into the symbolic objects but not systems of interacting biophysical ob-
ecosystem services framework jects. Similarly, the sense of a poem results from a meaningful
arrangement of words and not from a pattern of ink on pa-
In a recent issue of PNAS, Daniel et al. (1) attempted to advance per. Instrumental and cultural values of nature adhere to
the integration of cultural values and cultural ecosystem ser- categorically different objects: the former to ecosystems and
vices (ES) into the ES framework. Although I agree with the the latter to aesthetic-symbolic objects. Wood and roses are
authors that cultural values are of eminent importance, I see two both products of ecosystems; however, although the instru-
flaws in their argument. mental values of wood result from properties produced by na-
The range of cultural values correlating to ecological struc- ture, this is not true of the cultural value of roses in the US
tures and functions is much more limited than they claim. Many national floral emblem. Admittedly, ecosystems produce the
cultural values attaching to the natural/cultivated environment plants and animals that we perceive as parts of landscapes;
cannot be addressed in this way. An area’s appropriateness for however, the object “cultural landscape” is a product of a spe-
recreational activities like fishing or walking can be assessed cific way of seeing within the cultural framework of symbolic
in this way, but not its value with respect to feelings of belonging, experience (4, 5).
cultural heritage, and other symbolic meanings. These essentially Thus, pivotal cultural values attaching to the natural/cultivated
rely on an area’s unique character; thus, only an increase in environment cannot be integrated into the ES framework, and
characteristic elements will augment a landscape’s cultural value, should not be called cultural ES.
whereas addition of uncharacteristic ones will diminish it. This
Thomas Kirchhoff 1
value can be assessed only through hermeneutic approaches that
Department of Theology and Science, Protestant Institute for
determine how far an actual landscape reflects the idea of this Interdisciplinary Research, 69118 Heidelberg, Baden-Württemberg,
landscape and that judge how far the given arrangement corre- Germany
sponds to the specific meaningful scenery expected in this geo-
1. Daniel TC, et al. (2012) Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services
graphical region by the users (2, 3). Because the assessment
agenda. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 109:8812–8819.
of elements and their arrangement relates to this specific idea, 2. Eisel U (2006) Scenic diversity with and without meaning. On the utility of a method in
parameters cited by the authors like “species richness,” “habitat landscape planning and nature conservation. Landscape in a Culture of Sustainability.
The Scientification of Cultural Quality, eds Eisel U, Körner S (Universität Kassel, Kassel,
diversity,” and “percentage of green trees retained” are in- Germany), Vol 1, pp 92–119 (in German).
3. Kirchhoff T, Brand F, Hoheisel D (2012) From cultural landscapes to resilient social-
appropriate. Although each landscape may be identifiable by
ecological systems: Transformation of a classical paradigm or a novel approach?
a combination of general parameters, these are not suited to Resilience and the Cultural Landscape: Understanding and Managing Change in
Human-Shaped Environments, eds Plieninger T, Bieling C (Cambridge Univ Press,
operationalize the assessment of its cultural meanings and values
Cambridge), pp 49–64.
(as is true for, say, Thomas Cole’s paintings). 4. Kirchhoff T, Trepl L, Vicenzotti V (2012) What is landscape ecology? An analysis and
evaluation of six different conceptions. Landscape Research, 10.1080/01426397.2011.
If a natural/cultivated environment has symbolic meanings,
640751.
and thus is associated with emotions and moods, ecosystems are 5. Cosgrove DE (1984) Social Formation and Symbolic Landscape (Croom Helm, London).
typically neither the object of these values nor do they con-
tribute significantly to them. Ecosystems consist of an ecological
community and its abiotic environment, which, together, form Author contributions: T.K. designed research, performed research, and wrote the paper.
a system of causally interacting components. However, the The author declares no conflict of interest.
objects of cultural meanings in this regard are neither ecosys- 1
E-mail: [email protected].

E3146 | PNAS | November 13, 2012 | vol. 109 | no. 46 www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1212409109