MEASURING CLIMATE-

RELATED RISKS IN
INVESTMENT PORTFOLIOS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. CLIMATE-RELATED RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES
3. COMMON MEASURES OF CLIMATE-RELATED
RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES
4. CONDUCTING CLIMATE-RELATED RISKS SCREENING
5. DATA PROVIDERS
APPENDIX

1 INTRODUCTION

Issues surrounding climate change pose a myriad of challenges and

opportunities for actors in the financial sector. With the 2015 Paris
Agreement, the global community agreed to substantially reduce an-
thropogenic emissions within the next three decades to keep global
warming below the defined 1.5 ° C 1 target (UNFCC, 2015). This will bring
about major structural economic transitions around the world and
require extensive mitigation and adaptation efforts by consumers,
governments and businesses alike.
A diverse set of national policies 2 has already been implemented.
More and more companies are also adopting so-called science-based
targets (SBT), vowing to comply with specific targets 3 and establishing
new business models to do so. Nonetheless, as recent reports have
indicated (IPCC, 2018), a rapid intensification of these efforts is
required to prevent temperature rises with potentially catastrophic
effects. Increased awareness by civil society and changes in consumer
behaviour in response to the urgency of climate change put further
pressure on governments and corporations.
As a result, this transition can manifest itself in countless ways,
such as new regulatory environments or paradigm shifts for the econ-
omy. Investors thus face considerable uncertainties when taking
investment decisions. Moreover, since the Paris Agreement specifically
demands that “ financial flows [be made] consistent with a pathway

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 1

towards low greenhouse gas emissions and climate-resilient develop- 2 CLIMATE-RELATED RISKS AND OPPORTUNITIES
ment ” 4, investors also face a responsibility to include climate change
concerns in their investment decisions. The performance of an investment portfolio and its risk-return profile
It is therefore paramount that investors and asset managers have are closely linked to the value of its underlying assets. This value is
a clear understanding of the climate-related risks and opportunities increasingly affected by climate-related risks and opportunities result-
linked to their portfolios. To assist with this, the Task Force on Climate- ing from the effects of climate change and the adaptation and mitiga-
related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) was established in 2015. It pro- tion measures that are taken to respond to these effects and to pre-
vides key recommendations for investors to identify risks and oppor- vent their further intensification.
tunities from climate change and for organisations to improve the For investors, the assessment of climate-related risks and oppor-
standard of climate-related financial disclosures. Currently, however, tunities is therefore crucial, given their potential effect on a portfolio’s
the measurement of climate-related risks for investors is still an valuation. These risks are not necessarily reflected in standard risk
emerging field. metrics, however, due to their long-term effects. In addition, climate-
This publication aims to shed light on existing practices to measure related risks are still not fully priced in by stock markets (Tan et al.,
climate-related risks of investments in listed equity and corporate fixed 2018), which Mazzacurati et al. (2017) described as a “ massive market
income 5 and describe the landscape for providers of such measurement failure ”.
services. We introduce the different types of climate-related risks and
opportunities that investors and their portfolios face (Section 2) and a 2.1 OVERVIEW OF CLIMATE-RELATED RISKS
range of available methodologies to assess any identified risks and op- The TCFD (2017) defines two main categories of climate-related risks
portunities (Section 3). The publication then establishes recommenda- that may have financial implications for a company that need to be
tions for investors seeking to implement climate-related risk measure- considered in investment decisions  : physical and transition-related
ment, based on available guidance and interviews that were conducted. risks. Table 1 introduces these categories, along with the specific
It also provides an outlook on possible and desirable future develop- sub-categories, and illustrates how these risks could manifest for in-
ments (Section 4). Finally, a detailed overview of data providers that assist vested companies, and their possible financial implications.
investors in applying risk assessment measures is given (Section 5).

TABLE 1 :
Climate-related risks for companies
CLIMATE-RELATED RISKS

Physical risks Transition-related risks

Acute risks Chronic risks Policy and legal risks Technology risks Market risks Reputation risks

Increased risk of Changes in Imposition of Investment and Uncertainty Stigmatisation of

extreme weather climate and mitigation policies transition costs regarding industry
events landscape, e.g. or regulation to low-carbon consumer
coastal areas and exposure to technology behaviour, Changes in
Examples of potential risks
or rain forests litigation market signals consumer
Uncertainty and supply chain preferences and
of investment stakeholder
decisions expectations

Reduced revenue from negative impacts on Increase in Value loss of Reduced demand Reduced revenue
production facilities, sales and workforce operating and / existing assets due to decrease
or litigation costs Increased costs in demand,
Increased operating, capital and insurance Reduced demand from unexpected production,
Examples of possible
costs, as well as asset depreciation due to Forced capital for products market changes capital availability
financial implications
damages depreciation and services in supply chains and employee
due to policies attractiveness
Costs of
developing and
procuring
new technology

Source  : Adapted and simplified from Taskforce on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (2017a)

1 The initial text of the Paris Agreement sets the temperature goal at staying “ well below
2 ° C ” and “ pursue […] 1.5 ° C ” (UNFCCC, 2015, p. 3).
4 The Paris Agreement : UNFCCC, 2015, p. 3
2 E.g. the Energy Strategy 2050 and the CO₂ law for Switzerland (Swiss Confederation, 2013)
5 Other asset classes, such as real estate or sovereign bonds, are not considered due
3 An example of such an SBT is the commitment of Procter & Gamble “ to reduce emissions to their different methodological characteristics and to keep this paper compact.
from operations 30 % by 2020 from a 2010 base-year ” (Science Based Targets, 2017). However, their climate-related risks can be substantial and merit separate treatment.

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 2

Companies that fail to account for these climate-related risks pose 2.2 OVERVIEW OF CLIMATE-RELATED OPPORTUNITIES
further risks for investors, specifically. As described earlier, the main Climate change also unlocks opportunities which companies and indus-
types of risk for investors are changes in the valuation of shares and tries will be able to realise due to the transition to a low-carbon econ-
corporate bonds held in portfolios, and default risks for bond holders. omy. This can lead to a higher valuation of investment portfolios con-
Further risks are of a reputational nature, due to the public’s growing taining shares or bonds of companies profiting from climate-related
awareness of carbon-intensive industries and their detrimental climate opportunities (see Table 2). Forward-looking companies that choose to
impacts. This has led to a call for divestments from fossil fuel compa- increase the resource efficiency of production processes and reduce
nies, with some insurance companies (Unfriend Coal, 2017), public in- dependence on fossil energy sources can strengthen their competitive-
stitutions and pension funds (Ansar et al., 2013) already having re- ness, for instance by lowering their comparative cost structure. Fur-
sponded to this public pressure by implementing exclusions for fossil thermore, investing in new low-carbon products and services allows
fuel related investments. companies to establish themselves as market leaders, access new cus-
On a systemic level, future climate policies or technological de- tomer segments and improve their economic and physical resilience
velopments influence the relative prices of assets and could even cre- concerning climate change.
ate stranded assets 6, in particular in the fossil fuel sector. Due to the
very large amounts of capital tied up in such investments, this could
lead to potentially dangerous systemic financial imbalances (Schoen-
maker and van Tilburg, 2016). The market and reputational risks from
stranded assets in the fossil fuel sectors are expected to be further
exacerbated, as it is estimated that “ less than half the proven econom-
ically recoverable oil, gas and coal reserves can still be emitted up to
2050 ” to achieve the necessary emission reductions 7.

TABLE 2 :
Climate-related opportunities for companies

CLIMATE-RELATED OPPORTUNITIES

Resource efficiency Energy source Products and services Markets Resilience

Improved production Access to new Development of new Access to new markets, Reduced energy and
processes and technologies and products, low-emission assets and public resource dependency
operating efficiency energy sources goods and services sector incentives
and climate adaptation
Examples of
Access to incentive measures
potential
schemes and carbon
opportunities
markets

Increased production Increased capital Increased revenue and Increased revenue Increased resilience
capacity and reduced availability and positive better competitive through access to new leads to higher market
operating costs returns from position through new markets valuation
low-carbon technology products and new
Possible financial
Value gains of fixed investments solutions to adaptation Better diversification Increased reliability of
implications
assets needs of financial assets production processes
Reduced operational
costs and exposure to
future carbon policies

Source  : Adapted and simplified from Taskforce on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (2017)

6 Stranded assets are “ fossil fuel supply and generation resources which, at some
time prior to the end of their economic life […], are no longer able to earn an econo-
mic return, as a result of changes associated with the transition to a low-carbon
economy ” (Carbon Tracker, 2017).
7 Meinshausen et al., 2009, p. 1158.

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 3

3 COMMON MEASURES OF CLIMATE-RELATED RISKS 3.1 IMPACT METRICS : CARBON FOOTPRINT
AND OPPORTUNITIES AND CARBON INTENSITY
Carbon footprint and carbon intensity measure the carbon impact of a
Investors may have different objectives when looking at climate risks portfolio through its investee companies and are by far the most com-
related to their investments. In broad terms, these goals can be de- mon methods used by investors to quantify the environmental implica-
scribed as follows 8  : tions of their portfolio. The carbon footprint – also called “ financed
emissions ” – is calculated in tons of CO₂ equivalents per million USD
1) Reduce exposure to climate-related risks (financial risk) invested (tCO₂e/mUSD) 1². It expresses the amount of annual GHG emis-
2) Reduce the climate impact of assets under management sions which can be allocated to the investor per million USD invested
(reputational risk) in a portfolio and is therefore probably the most intuitive carbon met-
3) Contribute to the transition to a low-carbon economy ric available at the portfolio level. The carbon intensity puts the total
(financial and reputational opportunities) GHG emissions that can be attributed to an investor in relation to the
total share of revenue attributed to an investor. It is expressed in tons
The currently available methods for looking at climate-related risks in of CO₂ equivalents per million USD revenue (tCO₂e/mUSD). By intro-
investment portfolios mainly address objectives 1) and 2) directly, as ducing revenue, the metric is adjusted for company size and is there-
they often aim at divestments from greenhouse gas (GHG) intensive fore a measure of how carbon-efficient the portfolio is in producing
sectors and/or investments in “ green ” technologies 9. By doing so, they revenue through its investee companies.
affect relative share prices on secondary markets and in this way also While the two indicators do not measure climate-related risk per
indirectly address objective 3) 10. se, they are proxies that provide valuable information for investors by
Depending on the intended outcome, different methods can be identifying assets that potentially pose climate-related risks in the fu-
applied. When incorporating climate-related risks in a portfolio it may ture 13. So they should complement a climate risk analysis, in particular
make sense to implement one or a combination of the following three for sectors where no green/brown shares (see Section 3.3) can be cal-
strategies 11 : culated. They are usually calculated based on historical data and allow
for benchmark comparison, attribution analysis and portfolio decom-
— Reduce GHG emissions of investee companies, e.g. by excluding position. They also rely on an equity ownership approach, which means
or underweighting companies from utility or energy sectors that all GHG emissions of a company are attributed to its market cap-
from the portfolio italisation only (debt and own capital are not included). They are there-
— Reduce exposure to climate-related changes in regulation, fore sensitive to changes in the portfolio company’s share price and
e.g. by excluding companies with fossil fuel reserves which may its form of capitalisation.
become stranded due to tighter regulation on emissions
— Focus on substitution, e.g. with higher investments in renewable
energies and other promising new technologies which may
profit from a transition to a low carbon economy

The following metrics and approaches can support investors and asset
managers in integrating climate risks and opportunities into their in-
vestment decisions, as well as monitoring and reporting on them.

8 Natixis (2016) : p. 48

9 Tan et al. (2018) : p. 4
10 Research on the impact of sustainable investments on the economy shows that capital
allocation has an indirect impact, especially if investors engaging in capital allocation
“ hold a large market share, deviate strongly from the market portfolio, and focus
on assets that are hard to substitute. The capital allocation impact is also more likely
when companies depend on external financing for growth, and when the cost
of conforming with the expectations of SI [Sustainable Investment] investors is low ”
(Kölbel et al., 2018). In contrast to capital allocation, active engagement as well as
investments in private markets can have a more direct influence on company activities
than secondary market investments. Even so, this publication focuses on investor
activities to address the first two goals described in section 3.
11 Blackrock (2016) : p. 9
12 All formulas can be found in Appendix 2 on page 10.
13 A high carbon intensity potentially constitutes a reputation risk. It may also present
a financial risk, if the carbon intensity is financially relevant (high carbon exposure)
and cannot easily be reduced in the near future (high carbon dependency) (Hoffmann
et al., 2008).

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 4

3.2 MEASURING THE EXPOSURE TO 3.3.1 Green Share
CARBON-INTENSIVE COMPANIES So far, there is no globally agreed-upon definition of which activities are
For calculating a portfolio’s exposure to carbon-intensive companies, classified as “ low carbon ” 18. The taxonomies used today 19 broadly include
TCFD (2017b) suggests calculating the weighted average carbon inten-
sity in tons of CO₂ equivalents per million USD revenue (tCO₂e/mUSD). — renewable energy ;
Unlike the carbon intensity described above, which estimates how car- — energy efficiency (e.g. energy-efficient buildings) ;
bon-efficient the portfolio revenues are overall, the weighted average — low emission public transport ;
carbon intensity calculates the carbon intensity of each portfolio com- — vehicles with alternative powertrains (e.g. electric cars) ;
pany and scales it based on its weight in the portfolio. This metric can — water (e.g. water treatment and recycling) ;
be used for the comparison with a benchmark, for the definition of — waste management and
reduction targets and potential ways to decarbonise a portfolio, as — sustainable use of natural resources.
well as for reporting purposes 14.
Compared to the impact metrics, the weighted average carbon Data providers exist which can report green (and brown) activities on
intensity does not rely on the equity ownership approach. This means a company level as a percentage of annual sales in various levels of
that it can be better applied across equities and bonds. Similar to the granularity (see overview in Table 3 and with more detail in UNEP FI et
carbon intensity indicator, it allows for portfolio decomposition and al. (2015)). A green share calculated for an investment portfolio there-
attribution analysis. This metric is more sensitive to outliers, and it fore shows the portfolio’s exposure to “ climate-friendly ” activities or
favours companies with higher pricing levels than their peers. It can be technologies. However, it does not quantify the green share’s contri-
used as a proxy for transition-related risk, but as stated by Raynaud et bution in terms of tons of GHG reduced.
al. (2015), it only provides a snapshot, and no outlook into the future. To measure the contribution of a green share of a portfolio to re-
This is a disadvantage which is shared by both impact and expo- duce GHG emissions, the “ avoided emissions ” would need to be calcu-
sure metrics : they are static and inform about the exposure or impact lated. Today, calculating avoided emissions compared to a business-as-
of a portfolio at a specific point in time, usually based on the last re- usual scenario is standard practice at a project level, especially for
porting period’s emissions and sales, albeit without including for- projects which are dedicated to carbon offsetting. However, no standard
ward-looking data. exists so far on how to account for avoided emissions at the company
level, which would in turn also enable an aggregation at the portfolio
3.3 GREEN/BROWN SHARE APPROACH level. The TCFD (2017b) asks that “ avoided GHG emissions through the
Green/brown share approaches aim at identifying both low-carbon ac- entire product life cycle ” should be disclosed by companies but does not
tivities that contribute to the transition to the low-carbon economy specify any guidance on how exactly this should be reported. Measuring
(green share) and activities with a negative effect on climate change avoided emissions at a portfolio level therefore needs profound knowl-
(brown share). Green/brown shares can either be calculated at a tech- edge of ongoing and future energy efficiency and emission reduction
nological level, where different industry-specific metrics are relevant projects within the investee companies, as well as an understanding of
(e.g. average gCO₂e/km of the fleet in the logistics sector), or by using the relevant business-as-usual scenarios, which, in theory, could be dif-
industry classification data, such as GICS 15, ICB 16 or ISIC 17. According ferent for every company. An estimation of avoided emissions for spe-
to UNEP FI et al. (2015), these classifications can be useful when con- cific portfolios is offered by various data providers (see Table 3).
sidering the high-carbon sector. However, they offer less detail regard-
ing new “ green ” activities, such as energy efficiency measures or 3.3.2 Brown Share
low-carbon technology. The exposure to “ carbon-related assets ” (TCFD, 2017b) is a simple met-
ric which can provide an initial idea of how big the brown share in a
portfolio could potentially be. It represents the percentage of car-
bon-related assets, based on the current portfolio value. In this case,
the term “ carbon-related assets ” refers to the industries that are con-
sidered the most carbon intensive. Consequently, this metric can be
calculated without knowing the specific GHG emissions of the portfolio
holdings. Also, it can be applied across asset classes, as it does not
require any additional GHG data. It is therefore easy to calculate, but
it does not provide as much insight, since it does not go beyond the
sector classification used to establish the exposure.

14 Natixis (2016) : p. 127

15 Global Industry Classification Standard
16 Industry Classification Benchmark
17 UN International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities
18 In its “ Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council on
the establishment of a framework to facilitate sustainable investment ”
(COM/2018/353 final), the European Commission proposes establishing a so-called
“ EU taxonomy for climate change and environmentally and socially sustainable
activities ”. This proposal is still in consultation.
19 See Natixis (2016) or UNEP FI (2015)

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 5

3.3.3 Stranded Assets 3.6 ESG DATA
To better understand the brown share of a portfolio, this metric should Traditional ESG indicators can further complement the analysis of a port-
be complemented by an evaluation of possible stranded assets. Ac- folio’s transition-related risks. Indicators that collect data on companies’
cording to the Carbon Tracker Initiative (2011), 80 % of the world’s
fossil fuel reserves can no longer be extracted if the global average — climate change policies,
temperature rise were limited to 2 ° C. Furthermore, high-value equip- — GHG reduction strategies,
ment and infrastructure with long time horizons which are used for — specific GHG reduction measures,
extraction and transportation of fossil fuels, such as mining equipment — scope 1, 2 and 3 GHG emission reporting or
and pipelines, could become stranded in the process as well. — target setting
So far, no simple metric has been proposed to evaluate the
stranded asset risk within a portfolio. One possible explanation for this can help to estimate their preparedness for dealing with these risks.
could be that a variety of additional data is needed to assess this risk, Among the companies that report GHG emissions, the level of detail of
such as the type and amount of proven fossil fuel reserves and the their scope 3 GHG emission reporting can be an indicator of how serious
involvement in fossil-fuel-related infrastructure projects. Moreover, it the company considers carbon management. Most traditional ESG data
is still the subject of ongoing debate whether – and under which sce- providers offer carbon management related ESG indicators and/or so-
nario – assets could get stranded (see e.g. Koehler et al., 2016). How- called “ climate scorings ” (Raynaud et al., 2015), i.e. company ratings which
ever, there are data providers which can provide a stranded asset risk focus specifically on climate change management practices. Some data
metric on a company level (see Table 3). providers also combine metrics from several data sources in a carbon port-
folio analysis to provide a detailed view on the topic from different angles.
3.4 CLIMATE SCENARIO COMPATIBILITY ANALYSIS
Climate scenario compatibility analysis is based on the idea that a “ car-
bon budget ” (i.e. the amount of emissions which can be safely emitted
until 2050 to stay below a certain threshold of global warming), can be
allocated to sectors and companies. Based on these assumptions and
other reported company-specific data, it is then calculated whether a
portfolio’s future emission path is in line with the emission reduction
path of the respective scenario 20. This method takes data on future
developments (i.e. investment plans) into account and thus has a
forward-looking character. Interpreting the results in cases where a
portfolio “ overperforms ” in certain sectors can be complex.

3.5 CLIMATE-RELATED VALUE AT RISK

There are also data providers which adapt the common risk measure-
ment concept “ value-at-risk ” (VaR) to climate-related risk. These ap-
proaches aim at expressing the effect of climate-related risks on the
value of a portfolio in a single figure. They include physical risks as
well as transition risks and can be modelled for several different alter-
native climate scenarios. Similar to the climate scenario compatibility
analysis, such metrics are based on both historical and forward-look-
ing data. Forward-looking data includes, for example, forecasts of
revenues based on patents related to low-carbon technology (on a
company level), policy scenarios (on a market level) or climate change
scenarios (on a global level).

20 The most frequently used scenario for such analyses is the 2 degree scenario
based on the International Energy Agency (IEA), while other scenarios (e.g. 1.5 degree
scenario) could also be used.

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 6

4 CONDUCTING CLIMATE-RELATED RISKS SCREENING Including fossil fuel reserves (possible stranded assets) adds a for-
ward-looking element to the risk analysis, which can be transformed
Many different authors and institutions have published instructions on into potential future GHG emissions by multiplying with the respective
how climate-related risks should be analysed in the context of an in- emission factor. Carbon management related ESG indicators, although
vestment portfolio 21. A generic process for conducting a screening of based on historical data, can give a sense of a company’s ability to face
climate-related risks could include the following steps. future transition-related risks.
All further predictive analysis such as avoided emissions or sce-
4.1 SHORT GUIDANCE nario analysis, require, in addition to the GHG data, very detailed
— Define the main objective you aim to achieve : As mentioned at the information at the company level on research and development activ-
beginning of section 3, the choice of metrics depends on the in- ities in “ green ” products as well as capex data for “ green ” or “ brown ”
dividual goals of investors. While the objectives can be divided projects, which is not easily available or may be unreliable.
into risk mitigation, impact mitigation and contribution to the
transition, the metrics available cannot be allocated strictly to the 4.3 OUTLOOK
individual objectives. Selecting a set of metrics that fits your In its Status Report, the TCFD (2018) acknowledges that today “ the
goals is therefore key. Climate change is often addressed in sus- majority ” of a sample of 1750 large cap companies “ disclose some
tainable investment policies as well. It should therefore be veri- climate-related information ”. Yet very few companies report on the fi-
fied whether the goal is in line with this policy 22. nancial implications of climate change on their business model. With
— Select a research provider : As Table 3 displays, there are many regards to the assessment of climate-related risks and opportunities
research providers offering different types of services. It makes at a portfolio level, further improvement in the quality and scope of
sense to compare research providers based on services, coverage the data reported is needed, especially to meet the requirements set
and costs, and select the one(s) which best suit your objective. by the TCFD (TCFD, 2017b) : “ Asset managers should describe metrics
— Apply screening to the portfolio : The next step is to calculate the used to assess climate-related risks and opportunities in each product
relevant metrics for a defined portfolio. If the respective re- or investment strategy. Where relevant, asset managers should also
sources are available, this can be carried out in-house, or else a describe how these metrics have changed over time. Where appropri-
research provider can provide this service. ate, asset managers should provide metrics considered in investment
— Monitor climate-related risks : You then compare your portfolio(s) decisions and monitoring ”.
to the relevant benchmark(s) and aim to understand which invest- To fulfil these requirements entirely, investors need more stand-
ments are responsible for deviations from the benchmark. Since ardised and consistent company-level data on ongoing and planned
most reporting companies update their GHG emission data once investments in “ green/brown ” research and development and products
a year, annual monitoring should be sufficient. to be available for investment universes. Also, the availability, scope,
— Define subsequent action : Based on what you have learned from consistency and reliability of reported GHG emissions data should be
the previous steps, you can then define which findings of your further improved. Investors must be aware as well that climate-related
carbon risk screening should be considered in future investment risks also include several physical risks (such as extreme weather
decisions. events or rising sea levels) that companies and investors face. Their
— Report on climate-related risks : In the light of increasing demand relevance is only expected to grow in the future.
for transparency from different stakeholders, you should then While the debate on whether and when transition-related risks
define which items of your internal monitoring should be commu- will become material goes on, France has already acted. Since January
nicated to investors and/or the public. 2016, French asset owners and investment managers are obliged by
Article 173 of the “ Law on Energy Transition for Green Growth ” to ei-
Asset owners can also delegate some of the steps mentioned above to ther report on GHG emissions and climate-related risks or to explain
their asset managers. why reporting is not necessary 23.

4.2 COMBINING METRICS FOR BEST RESULTS

As concentrating on single metrics may not provide a full picture, it 5 DATA PROVIDERS
may make sense to combine different measures for better effects. For
example, the weighted average carbon intensity indicates the level of The following Table 3 gives a short overview of providers which offer
exposure and can be used as a proxy, but it needs to be complemented data for measuring and/or services for assessing climate-related risks
by other metrics to better understand what drives the result. For in investment portfolios. The information on the providers has been
instance, an investor can analyse the influence of sector allocation and compiled based on the authors’ own research and based on similar
stock selection effects on transition-related risks in an investment compilations published elsewhere (see below for sources).
portfolio. Alternatively, more data, such as green/brown shares as
a percentage of annual sales can be added. However, they do not
exist for every sector and most of the metrics available rely on historical
data and inform impact or exposure at a given point instead of over time.

21 Hörter (2017), Blackrock (2016), Natixis (2016), Mercer et al. (2015), UNEP FI (2015)
or Raynaud et al. (2015)
22 For further information on how to establish a sustainable investment policy :
Handbook on Sustainable Investments, Swiss Sustainable Finance, 2017.
23 See Annex, Chapter “ Reporting : Examples ”

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 7

TABLE 3 :
Data providers 24

Organisation

GHG Scopes

related Risk

related Risk
hyperlink)
(including

GHG Data

GHG Data

Company
coverage

Climate-

Climate-

Services
covered

History

related
Type 25

Other
Name

Type

Data
GHG
2DegreeInvesting NGO — — — — Publicly available reports tackling a wide range Portfolio scenario alignment
of issues around climate-related risks analysis 26

Beyond Ratings Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2009 ~10,000 — Portfolio scenario alignment
estimated CO₂e Scope 3 supply chain for analysis
all sectors and product use for Carbon portfolio analysis
car manufacturers

Bloomberg Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–3 since 2010 ~10,000 Green/Brown Metrics Carbon portfolio analysis
estimated (Scope 3 only if reported) Carbon management ESG indicators

Carbon Delta Company estimated CO₂e Scopes 1–3 since 2013 ~22,000 Climate-related risk rating Portfolio climate risk assessment
Warming potential scenarios Portfolio scenario alignment
Green/Brown Metrics analysis

Carbon Market Data Company reported CO₂e Scopes 1–3 since 2005 ~9,000 GHG data on ~18,000 installations —
(Scope 3 only if reported)

Carbon Tracker NGO — — — — Publicly available reports tackling a wide —

range of issues around climate-related risks

Carbon4 Finance Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2007 ~10,000 Alignment with 2 ° C scenario Carbon portfolio analysis
estimated CO₂e Scope 3 supply chain and Avoided emissions Portfolio climate risk assessment
product use Climate Strategy indicator Portfolio 2 ° C scenario analysis
Green/Brown Metrics Climate indices
Physical risk data

CDP NGO reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2003 ~3,600 Carbon management ESG indicators Carbon portfolio analysis
estimated CO₂e Scope 3 supply chain and
product use

Engaged Tracking Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2009 ~30,000 Avoided emissions Carbon portfolio analysis
estimated CO₂e Scope 3 supply chain and Fossil fuel reserves Low carbon indices
product use Portfolio scenario alignment
analysis

Fossil Free Indexes Company — — since 2013 ~300 Fossil fuel reserves Low carbon indices

Inrate Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2009 ~3,000 Carbon management ESG indicators Carbon portfolio analysis
estimated CO₂e Scopes 3 supply chain and Fossil fuel reserves
product use Green/Brown Metrics

ISS ESG Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2005 ~25,000 Avoided emissions Portfolio scenario alignment
estimated CO₂e Scopes 3 supply chain and Carbon management ESG indicators analysis
product use Carbon risk rating Carbon portfolio analysis
Climate-related risk rating Portfolio climate risk assessment
Fossil fuel reserves
Green/Brown Metrics
Physical risk data

MSCI Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2008 ~8,900 Carbon management ESG indicators Carbon portfolio analysis
estimated CO₂e Scopes 3 supply chain and Fossil fuel reserves Portfolio climate risk assessment
product use only when Green/Brown Metrics Low carbon indices
reported

Refinitiv Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–3 since 2002 ~7,000 — —
estimated (Scope 3 only if reported)

South Pole Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 only forward- ~20,000 Alignment with 2 ° C scenario Portfolio scenario alignment analysis
estimated CO₂e Scopes 3 supply chain looking data Adaptive capacities Portfolio climate risk assessment
available Physical risk data Avoided emissions portfolio analysis
Portfolio 2 ° scenario analysis

Sustainalytics Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2012 ~13,000 Carbon risk rating Carbon portfolio analysis
estimated Carbon management ESG indicators Portfolio carbon risk assessment
Fossil fuel reserves
Green/Brown Metrics

Trucost (S&P Global) Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2005 ~14,000 Alignment with 2 ° C scenario Carbon portfolio analysis
estimated CO₂e Scope 3 supply chain and Avoided emissions Portfolio scenario alignment
product use for some industries Carbon management ESG indicators analysis
Climate-related risk rating Low carbon indices
Fossil fuel reserves
Green/Brown Metrics

Vigeo Eiris Company reported and CO₂e Scopes 1–2 since 2013 ~4,500 Carbon management ESG indicators Carbon portfolio analysis
estimated (Scope 3 only if reported) Climate-related controversies Portfolio carbon risk assessment
Fossil fuel reserves
Green/Brown Metrics
Physical risk performance

24 Table 3 has been validated by the providers themselves. Regarding the selection of
providers, no guarantee for exhaustiveness can be given. For more detailed information,
please check with the publicly available sources mentioned above.
25 see Chapter 5.2 for further explanations
26 The 2° Investing Initiative and its partners currently offer such analysis to investors
Source  : Own research, Providers, Natixis (2016), Raynaud et al. (2015), UNEP FI (2015) online for free : http://www.transitionmonitor.com

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 8

APPENDIX

A.1 COMMENTS ON DATA QUALITY

A.1.1 GHG Data Types A.1.2 Scope 3 Data

Reported Data Several data providers have methodologies in place for estimating
When using company-level GHG emission data, investors should bear scope 3 data at company level. From a theoretical point of view, it is
in mind that it is either reported by companies and/or based on esti- essential to incorporate the upstream and downstream scope 3 emis-
mations by specialised data providers if companies do not report car- sions in a transition-related risk assessment, as it covers emissions
bon emissions. Reporting has steadily increased in the past years, cov- which arise from a company’s suppliers and from the use of its prod-
ering around 1,900 companies 27 worldwide in 2017, which at least ucts and services. However, from a practitioner’s point of view, the
report scope 1 or scope 2 to CDP. Reporting on scope 3 emissions is benefit of scope 3 data is under discussion. Some argue that data
increasing as well, but at a much lower level. This development is en- quality does not allow conclusions to be made. Others argue that for
couraging, but it needs to continue, as current figures show that less industries with significant upstream or downstream emissions, having
than 5 % of over 40,000 listed companies worldwide reported at least a proxy for scope 3 GHG emissions is beneficial given the potential size
scope 1 and 2 in 2017 28. of those emissions compared to scope 1 and 2. It is therefore important
Although data is provided by companies directly, reported data that data providers disclose their methods and data sources to inves-
contains errors and biases, as there is no global mandatory framework tors for evaluation.
which defines how GHG emissions should be accounted for, or manda-
tory third-party verification. Companies decide which GHG emissions A.1.3 Double Counting
are within their system boundaries, and therefore reported, and which Aggregating GHG emissions at portfolio level also raises the question
are not. This means that an investor can never be quite sure if a com- of how to deal with double counting. If a portfolio holds equities from
pany really reports all GHG emissions that it should. A bias is also in- an airplane manufacturing company as well as from an airline, chances
troduced by the fact that reporting companies are not evenly distrib- are that some emissions are counted twice : the airline’s scope 1 emis-
uted between markets. Lastly, it is important to understand that sions, which arise from burning fuel by operating airplanes, are also
reported data as well often contains estimations made by the report- accounted for in the manufacturer’s scope 3 downstream emissions, if
ing companies. A full set of scope 3 data always contains estimations, the airline operates an airplane from that manufacturer. However,
since it is impossible to measure, for example, the emissions of prod- Raynaud et al. (2015) argue that GHG data should not be adjusted for
ucts sold during their use. double counting when screening for climate-related risks. According to
them, investing in a company and its supplier in fact doubles cli-
Estimated Data mate-related risks, which is then also reflected in the double-counted
GHG data can be estimated with different methodologies, which can GHG emissions.
roughly be grouped as follows :

— bottom-up extrapolation based on reported data

(regressions and/or sector averages)
— bottom-up calculation based on reported energy data
(e.g. energy consumption)
— top-down modelling via Economic Input-Output – Life Cycle
Assessment (EIO-LCA)

Data providers often use a combination of these methodologies to

estimate data. Each group of methods has its advantages and disad-
vantages, whose discussion is beyond the scope of this publication 29.
In general, it can be said that all three types of approaches can be used
for estimating scope 1 and 2 GHG emissions. For the estimation of
scope 3 emissions, EIO-LCA approaches offer advantages through their
top-down and holistic view based on economic input-output and life
cycle data which are independent of the potentially limited quality and
coverage of company-reported data.

27 https://www.greenbiz.com/article/cdp-data-reveals-shortfall-carbon-disclosu-
re-north-american-companies
28 https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/cm.mkt.ldom.no
29 See Raynaud et al. (2015) or Natixis (2016) for further details.

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 9

A.2 FORMULAS FOR COMMON CLIMATE-RELATED RISK METRICS

METRIC FORMULA

current value of investmentⁱ company’s GHG emissionsⁱ

Weighted Average Carbon Intensity ( × )
current portfolio value company’s mUSD revenueⁱ

current value of investmentⁱ

Carbon Footprint ( × company’s GHG emissionsⁱ )
company’s market capitalisationⁱ

current portfolio value in mUSD

current value of investmentⁱ

Carbon Intensity ( × company’s GHG emissionsⁱ )
company’s market capitalisationⁱ

current value of investmentⁱ

( × company’s mUSD revenueⁱ )
company’s market capitalisationⁱ

DEFINITIONS :
Current value of investmentⁱ : Market value of an amount of equity of a company i held in an investment portfolio
Current portfolio value : Market value of all the equities (or other financial instruments) held in an investment portfolio

Source s : TCFD (2017b), Natixis (2016), Raynaud et al. (2015), UNEP FI (2015)

A.3 EXAMPLES OF CLIMATE REPORTING

Fonds de réserve pour les retraites (FRR) : 2016 reporting of France’s

biggest pension fund in terms of AuM. Available at :
http://www.fondsdereserve.fr/documents/Report-2016-article-173-lte.pdf

Norges Bank Investment Management : Responsible Investment Report.

Available at :
https://www.nbim.no/en/transparency/reports/

Pensionskasse Stadt Zürich : Climate change strategy for equities of

the pension fund of the employees of the City of Zurich, 2018 edition.
Available at :
https://www.pkzh.ch/content/dam/stzh/pkzh/de/04b_Nachhaltigkeitspolitik/Umset-
zung_der_Nachhaltigkeitsstrategie/2018_PKZH_Klimastrategie_Internet.pdf

PGGM : Annual Responsible Investment Report. Available at :

https://www.pggm.nl/english/what-we-do/Pages/Responsible-investing-reports.aspx

SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 10

A.4 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING

Ansar, A., Caldecott, BL. and Tilbury, J., 2013. Stranded assets and the Mercer, International Finance Corporation and UK Department for In-
fossil fuel divestment campaign : what does divestment mean for the ternational Development, 2015. Investing in a Time of Climate Change.
valuation of fossil fuel assets ? Smith School of Enterprise and the New York : Mercer. Available at :
https://www.mercer.com/our-thinking/wealth/investing-in-a-time-of-climate-change.html
Environment, University of Oxford. Available at :
http://www.smithschool.ox.ac.uk/publications/reports/SAP-divestment-report-final.pdf
Natixis, 2016. Challenges and tools for incorporating climate themes into
Blackrock, 2016. Adapting portfolios to climate change. Implications investment strategies – Deep dive into carbon footprinting. Paris : Natixis.
and strategies for all investors. New York : Blackrock. Available at :
https://www.blackrock.com/corporate/literature/whitepaper/bii-climate-chan- Raynaud, J. ; Mary, S. ; Voisin, S. ; Hazra, S. (2015) : Carbon Compass.
ge-2016-us.pdf
Investor guide to carbon footprinting. Paris : Kepler Cheuvreux, Insti-
tutional Investors Group on Climate Change (IIGCC), 2 Degree Investing
Carbon Tracker Initiative (2011) : Unburnable carbon – Are the world’s
Initiative (2 ° II), Deloitte. Available at :
financial markets carrying a carbon bubble ? London : Carbon Tracker http://www.iigcc.org/files/publication-files/Carbon_Compass_final.pdf
Initiative. Available at :
https://www.carbontracker.org/reports/carbon-bubble/
Schoenmaker, D. and van Tilburg, R. 2016. Financial risks and opportu-
nities in the time of climate change. Bruegel policy brief 2016/02.
Carbon Tracker Initiative, 2017. Stranded Assets. Available at :
https://www.carbontracker.org/terms/stranded-assets/ Available at :
http://bruegel.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/04/pb-2016_02.pdf

Hörter, S., 2017. Integration of climate risks into portfolio strategy.

Science Based Targets, 2017. Science Based Targets Case Study :
Frankfurt am Main : Allianz Global Investors. Available at :
https://www.allianzgi.com/-/media/allianzgi/eu/germany/greenwich/download-glo/1131- Procter & Gamble. Available at :
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Swiss Sustainable Finance, 2017. Handbook on Sustainable Investments.
Hoffmann, V.H.  ; Busch, T., 2008. Corporate Carbon Performance Indi- Available at :
cators : Carbon Intensity, Dependency, Exposure, and Risk. Journal of http://www.sustainablefinance.ch/upload/cms/user/201712_Handbook_on_Sustainable_
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Tan, K. S. ; Wirjanto, T. S. ; Fang, Mingyu, 2018. Managing Climate and
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Financial Disclosures. New York : TCFD. Available at :
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SWI S S S US TAINABLE F INANCE Focus: Measuring Climate-Related Risks in Investment Portfolios 11

 Zurich, March 2019

Interviews :
The authors would like to thank the following persons for their
time and input :

Alexander Zanker, Senior ESG/Quantitative Strategist,

LGT Capital Partners Ltd.
Claudia A. Bolli, Head Responsible Investing,
Group Asset Management, Swiss Re Management Ltd.
Jürg Tobler, Head of Investments, City of Zurich Pension Fund
Pascal Dudle, Team Head, Fund Manager Clean Technology,
Vontobel Asset Management
Ulla Enne, Head of Investment Operations & Responsible Investing,
Nest Sammelstiftung

Publisher  :
Swiss Sustainable Finance (SSF). SSF strengthens the position of Swit-
zerland in the global marketplace for sustainable finance by informing,
educating and catalysing growth. The association, founded in 2014,
currently unites 110 members and network partners from financial
service providers, investors, universities and business schools, public
sector entities and other interested organisations. An overview of SSF’s
current members and network partners can be found online at
www.sustainablefinance.ch

Authors :
This issue of “ SSF Focus ” has been written by Michel Zimmermann,
Tobias Hurst, Regina Schwegler, and Jürg Füssler at Inrate. The text was
edited by Sabine Döbeli and Kelly Hess, SSF.

Inrate is an independent sustainability ratings provider based in Swit-

zerland. Since 1990, we have been linking our in-depth sustainability
analysis with innovative solutions for the financial markets. Inrate sus-
tainability ratings provide a measure of the impacts that a corporation
has on society and the environment with its conduct and its products.
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