The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing

Gerald Bergman

Introduction the truth,” she was always hopeful that they would
Dwight D. Eisenhower (October 14,1890-March someday again embrace the religion in which they
28, 1969), the thirty-fourth President of the United were raised. Nonetheless, their Watchtower upbring-
States, served for two terms, from 1953 to 1961. In ing in many ways influenced them throughout their
1952, he received the largest number of votes until lives. Even in later life, Dwight preferred “the infor-
then for a presidential candidate (Miller, Piety 3) and mal church service” with “vigorous singing and vigor-
in 1956 he topped his own record. Why he was so ous preaching” like he grew up with (Dodd, Early
popular involved many factors, one of them being his Career 233). Furthermore, Dwight’s mother, Ida was
personal appeal to the common people and their per- relatively supportive of her boys during most of their
ception of his “spiritual values” (Miller, Piety lo). careers, at times stating that she was proud of them
The story of the religious upbringing of Dwight and their accomplishments, even those achievements
Eisenhower is helpful in understanding both president that violated her Watchtower faith.
Eisenhower as a person and his presidency.
The dominant religious influence in the Eisenhower Family Background
Eisenhower home when the boys were young was Dwight and his five brothers, Arthur (b. 1886),
early Watchtower theology and beliefs. Both parents Roy (b. 1892), Earl (b. 1898), Edgar, and Milton (b.
were deeply involved and highly committed to the 1899) were raised in Abilene, Kansas. His parents,
Watchtower theology throughout most of their chil- David and Ida Eisenhower, owned a modest two-story
dren’s formative years. Ida took the lead religiously, white wood sided frame house on South 4th Street in
and her husband, David Eisenhower, later became dis- Abilene, Kansas. The Eisenhower family was never
illusioned with certain Watchtower teachings; well off financially and Ida, a frugal hard-working
nonetheless, while growing up this religion was a woman, planted a large garden on their three-acre lot
major influence, according to many sources including to raise much of the family’s produce needs. Their
the Eisenhower family’s published and unpublished small farm included cows, chickens, a smokehouse,
writings (Davis 40). In the words of one of the major fruit trees, and a large vegetable garden (Neal).
biographers of Eisenhower, Ida’s religion, which The values of Dwight “Ike” Eisenhower’s par-
came “dangerously close to intolerant dogma,” had a ents and their home environment were reflected in the
“real but difficult to assess” influence “on the charac- enormous success of all of their children. The most
ter development of her children” (Davis 40). Davis dominant influence in the Eisenhower home was
adds that “each boy was to retain all his life long a likely religion, primarily the Watchtower (known as
profound respect for the moral tenets that the parents Bible Students until 1931) and, to a niuch lesser
derived, or thought they derived, from their religion” extent, the River Brethren (Bergman, Jehovah’s
(49). Witnesses;Dodd letter). Both parents were very active
As adults, none of the Eisenhower boys were for- in the Watchtower during most of the Eisenhower
mally involved with the Watchtower, and even at children’s formative years. Eisenhower’s mother, Ida
times tried to skirt their Jehovah’s Witness upbring- Eisenhower, stated that she became involved with the
ing. The eldest Eisenhower boy, Arthur, even once Watchtower in 1895 when she was thirty-four and
stated that he could not accept the religious dogmas of Dwight was only five years old (Cole 190). Ida was
his parents although he had “his mother’s religion” in baptized in 1898 (Dodd 225), meaning she was then
his heart (Kornitzer 64). They also openly rejected the equivalent of a Jehovah’s Witness minister.
certain Watchtower medical conclusions and theology, Furthermore, Ida did not flirt with her involve-
especially its eschatology and millennia1 teachings. ment in the Witnesses as claimed by some but was an
Although as adults none of Mrs. Eisenhower’s boys active “faithful member of Jehovah’s Witnesses for 50
were what she and other Witnesses referred to as “in years” (Fleming 1). In Dwight’s words she had “an
89
90 . Journal of American and Comparative Cultures

inflexible loyalty to her religious convictions.” lay members or preachers in one of the Brethren or
According to a former Watchtower president Milton Holiness sects (Dodd, letter). Gladys Dodd concluded
G. Henschel, “Ida Eisenhower was one of the most the Brethren, whom Dwight joined on occasion for
energetic [Watchtower] preachers in Abilene” (Flem- worship, “were a clannish lot, glued together by
ing 1). Although he had many of the same interests of common ties of unique appearance and modes of bap-
young boys and at times resented the time he was tism, abhorrence of war, and the like” (Dodd, letter).
required to spend in Watchtower activities, the Evidence that Dwight may have occasionally
Watchtower Society had a major influence on Dwight attended Sunday school at Abilene’s River Brethren
until 1914 when he went to West Point (Lingerfedt, Church includes the claim by John Dayhoff (listed in
Interview; Dodd, Religious 221-22; Eisenhower, At the 1906 church records as a member of Dwight’s
Ease). class) that he went to Sunday school with him. Both
church records and oral history indicate that Dwight
The River Brethren Background of Ike’s Parents may have attended the Brethren Church only around
Ida grew up in Virginia’s Shenandoah Valley and 1906 for less than a year (Sider). When Dwight did
originally attended a Lutheran Church. Hutchinson attend, according to the regular teacher, Ida Hoffman,
concluded Ida showed a “deep interest in religion he evidently “never seemed to pay any attention or
from her earliest years” (364). As a school girl Ida take any interest in the lesson” (Davis 49).Three of
studied the Bible extensively and quoted freely from the Eisenhower children including Dwight were listed
it-once memorizing 1,365 Biblical verses in six in the 1906 Souvenir Report of the Brethren Sunday
months, a fact cited with pride by several of her sons School of Abilene, Kansas, as involved in the church,
(Neal 13). Her Bible memorizing record is included in and no mention is made of their parents. The atten-
the Sunday school records in the Lutheran Church at dance of the three boys was likely partly due to the
Mount Sidney near Staunton, Virginia (Dodd, influence of Jacob, Dwight’s grandfather, an active
Religious). River Brethren minister until his death in May of
Eisenhower’s parents met when they were both 1906 (Dodd, Religious). Dwight’s first cousin, who
students at Lane University, a small United Brethren also attended Sunday school with him, claimed that
college in Lecompton, Kansas. After they married at Dwight never became a “member” and never attended
Lecompton on September 23, 1885, they both any other church “to any degree” (Witter 22).
dropped out of college (Hatch). Although they each David was also loosely connected with the River
completed only one term, their desire for education Brethren through his employment at the church-
persisted-and reflected itself in their strong support owned Bella Springs Creamery. He worked at the
for their sons’ educations (Kornitzer). Evidently it was Creamery from the time he moved to Abilene until he
Ida’s husband who introduced Ida to the River retired (Ambrose, Eisenhower 19-20). When David’s
Brethren’ partly because many of his relatives were uncle Abraham, a self-taught veterinarian, decided to
involved in this community. become an itinerant preacher, he rented his house at
Neither David nor Ida ever became very involved 201 South Fourth Street to David and his family on
in this sect, although it is often incorrectly stated that the condition that Jacob could also live there (Lyon;
“Ida and David Eisenhower were River Brethren” Dodd, Early). David Eisenhower and his family then
(Miller, Ike 77-78). Jacob, David’s father, and his moved into Abraham’s house where David and Ida
brothers, Ira and Abraham, were all members, but lived for the rest of their lives.
Ike’s cousin, the Reverend Ray L. Witter, son of A. L.
Witter, claimed that, although Ida and David sporadi- Background of the Eisenhower’s Joining
cally attended Brethren services for several years, nei- the Watchtower Movement
ther was ever an actual member (Miller, Ike 77-78; A major catalyst that precipitated Dwight’s par-
Dodd, Religious 221). Close family friend R. C. ents leaving the River Brethren fellowship and joining
Tonkin even stated that he “never knew any of the the Watchtower involved Ike’s eight-month-old
family to attend the River Brethren Church” (Tonkin brother, Paul, who died of diphtheria in 1895 (Dodd,
48). Religious; Witter). This tragedy devastated the
The many other relatives and friends who were Eisenhowers, and the theological explanation that
River Brethren also likely had some influence on Paul was in heaven provided by the River Brethren
Dwight’s religious development. He was physically did not satisfy them. At this time, three neighborhood
and emotionally surrounded by aunts, uncles, grand- women-Mrs. Clara Witt, Mrs. Mary Thayer, and
fathers and a great-grandfather, most of whom were Mrs. Emma Holland-were able to comfort the
 The influence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing . 91

Eisenhowers with the hope that they would soon see Religious 244). The composition of an early Russellite
their son (Dodd, Religious). This comfort was the group in Abilene is described by Dodd as follows:
Watchtower teaching that death was merely sleep, and
that many in the grave will be resurrected shortly. In Both Henry N. Engle and his daughter Naomi were school
1895, it was taught that this resurrection would occur teachers, and were somewhat more educated than the agrar-
in the new world that was expected to arrive before ian Brethren generally. They felt an intellectual and spiri-
1914, a mere nine years away at the time (Gruss). The tual affinity toward David and Ida Eisenhower (both had
three women also sold Ida a set of volumes that were been to college), and, a little later, for Dr. James L. Thayer,
then titled Millennial Dawn (later renamed Studies in dental surgeon, whose mother Mrs. Mary Thayer first intro-
the Scriptures) and a subscription to Zion’s Watch duced the Watch Tower to the Eisenhower’s. This company
Tower and Herald of Christ’s Presence, now named together with L. D. Toliver and the R. 0. Southworths con-
The Watchtower. Ida soon became involved and influ- stituted the nucleus of the Abilene congregation of
enced her husband to become involved a short time Russellites. From 1896 until 1915, the Bible Students...met
later (Dodd, Religious 244). on Sunday afternoons at the Eisenhower home for their
Dodd concluded from her extensive study of the meetings. During most of this twenty year period, David
Eisenhower family religious involvement that Ida Eisenhower (and occasionally L. D. Toliver) served the
soon became a “faithful and dedicated Witness and class as the Bible-study conductor, or “elder” as the group
actively engaged as [a] colporteur [missionary] for the called its leader. (Dodd, Religious 236)
Watch Tower Society until her death” (Dodd,
Religious 245). Soon the religion dominated the lives Ida remained active in the Watchtower her entire
of everyone who lived in the Eisenhower household life. In a letter to a fellow Witness, Ida stated she has
(Kornitzer 134). Dwight Eisenhower’s faith was “been in the truth since ninety six [1896 and I] ...am
“rooted in his parents’ Biblical heritage,” and the still in ...it has been a comfort to me ...Naomi Engle
Eisenhower boys’ upbringing was “steeped” in reli- stay [sic]with me and she is a witness too so my hope
gion (Fox 907; Lyon 38) and they had a “lusty influ- [sic]are good” (Fleming 3; Cole 192).
ence of the Bible in their lives” (High, “What” 2). David and Ida’s interest in Armageddon (the
The Eisenhowers held weekly Watchtower meet- battle the Watchtower teaches that God will use to
ings in their parlor where the boys took turns reading destroy all of the wicked, i.e., all non-Witnesses) and
from and discussing Watchtower publications and the imminent return of Christ was highly influenced
Scripture. Dwight Eisenhower was also involved in by the Watchtower preoccupation with end time
these studies-he claimed that he had read the Bible events, especially the date of Armageddon. Likely,
completely through twice before he was eighteen too, other acquaintances of the Eisenhowers, aside
(Jameson 9). Ambrose concluded that the degree of from Watchtower followers, shared an interest in end-
religious involvement of the Eisenhower boys was so times date predicting including Abraham and Ira, both
extensive that of whom were evidently influenced by the end-times
date speculation of the Tabor, Iowa evangelistic sect
David read from the Bible before meals, then asked a bless- called Hephzibah Faith Missionary Association
ing. After dinner, he brought out the Bible again. When the (Dodd, letter 2).
boys grew old enough, they took turns reading. Ida orga-
nized meetings of the ...Watchtower Society, which met on Dwight k Father’s Religious Background
Sundays in her parlor. She played her piano and led the Dwight was also influenced by the religious
singing. Neither David nor Ida ever smoked or drank, or ideas of his father, David Eisenhower. Although his
played cards, or swore, or gambled. (Ambrose, Eisenhower early upbringing was in the River Brethren and he
19-20) briefly attended the Lutheran, then later the Methodist
church before and during his college days. He con-
This upbringing no doubt had an influence on all of verted to the Watchtower a few years after his wife
the Eisenhower boys. R. G. Tonkin estimated that the did and actively served the Watchtower for many
size of a Watchtower meeting was “about fifteen years as an elder and Bible study conductor, a role
people” when the Eisenhower boys were young (48). that he occasionally alternated with L. D. Toliver
The church met in Eisenhower’s home until 1915 (Dodd, Religious 225).
when the group’s growth forced them to rent a local Neal even claimed that David Eisenhower’s reli-
hall. Later a large Watchtower meeting house (now gious quest led him into “mysticism” because of his
called a Kingdom Hall) was built in Abilene (Dodd, use of “an enormous wall chart” of the Egyptian pyra-
92 . Journal of American and Comparative Cultures

mids to predict the future. David taught his boys no longer locate it in either the family home or the
Watchtower last-days theology from this chart when Eisenhower museum nearby. She later learned that the
they were growing up (Dodd, Religious 242-43; see chart and other Watchtower effects were disposed of
also Davis 41). The ten-feet-high and six-feet-wide (Dodd, Religious 242-43). Dodd concluded the
chart “according to David.. .contained prophecies for Watchtower items were probably destroyed by the
the future as well as confirmation of biblical events. family to reduce their embarrassment over their par-
Captivated by the bizarre drawing, the sons spent ents’ Jehovah’s Witnesses involvement. Interestingly,
hours studying David’s creation” (Neal 13). around the time that Dwight Eisenhower became the
This pyramid chart was of the Pyramid of Giza in supreme commander of the Allied forces in Europe he
Egypt and was not in fact David’s creation but was a visited the Pyramids. Perret (243) mused that gazing
central Bible Student teaching (Dodd, Religious 242). upon the Pyramids surely awoke in Dwight “strong
The chart was first published by the Watchtower in memories of his father and the ten-foot chart” of the
Millennial Dawn, Vol. 1 in 1898 and a large, wall-size Pyramids and David’s belief that “within their geome-
version was available later. The chart played a promi- try lay the answers to the eternal questions of human
nent role in Watchtower theology for more than 35 existence” such as why humans are on earth.
years and was of such importance to David that his David’s commitment to the Watchtower eventu-
ally changed and later he evidentially became an
...religious beliefs materialized in the form of an impressive opposer. Dodd concludes that “by 1919 David
(five or six feet high, ten feet long) wall chart of the Eisenhower’s interest in Russell had definitely waned
Egyptian pyramids, by means of which he proved to his and before his death in 1942 he is said to have
own satisfaction that the lines of the pyramids-outer renounced the doctrine of Russell” (Religious 224).
dimensions, inner passageways, angles of chambers, and so One factor causing his disillusionment with the
on-prophesied later Biblical events and other events still Watchtower was the failure of their end of the world
in the future. As might be expected, this demonstration fas- prophecies including 1914 and 1915 (Lingerfedt).*
cinated his children; the chart came to be one of the Edgar Eisenhower stated that his father left the
family’s most prized possessions. (Lyon 38) Watchtower partly because he “couldn’t go along with
the sheer dogma that was so much a part of their
Russell obtained from the Pyramid many of his proph- thinking.” His sons later claimed that David accompa-
esies, especially the year 1914 when the end of the nied his wife on Watchtower activities primarily in an
world was expected to occur (Franz, Jehovah’s 20). effort to appease her. Watchtower accounts usually
The pyramid was also used to confirm Watchtower referred only to Ida as a Witness, supporting the con-
dispensational theology. Earl Eisenhower claimed that clusion that David had left the Watchtower after 1915.
his father used the chart when he was in the Watch- Arthur claimed that after he left the Watchtower fel-
tower to prove “to his own satisfaction that the Bible lowship, David remained a student of the Scriptures,
was right in its prophecies” (Komitzer 136). and his religious “reading habits were confined to the
The pyramid was of such major importance to Bible, or anything related to the Bible” but not Watch-
early Watchtower theology that a huge, ten-foot con- tower literature. Although, the Bible was central to
crete pyramid was selected for a memorial to David Eisenhower’s thinking, Milton added that his
Watchtower founder C. T. Russell when he died. It father also “read history, serious magazines, newspa-
still stands close to Russell’s grave near Pittsburgh, pers, and religion literature” (Kornitzer 261).
Pennsylvania. Russell specifically condemned mysti- David Eisenhower died in March of 1942 at the
cism as demonism and taught that the pyramid had age of 78. At this time Ida’s nurse, Naomi Engle, was,
nothing to do with mysticism but was a second revela- “a strong-willed Witness who arranged a Jehovah’s
tion, a “Bible in stone” that both added to and con- Witness funeral for David even though he had made it
firmed the Holy Scripture record (Russell, Studies clear before his death that he was no longer a [Watch-
3 13-76). tower] believer” (Miller, Zke 80). The service was con-
A few years after Russell died, the second presi- ducted by Witness James L. Thayer assisted by
dent of the Watchtower, Joseph F. Rutherford, made Witness Fred K. Southworth (Cole 192). When his
many doctrinal changes that initiated several Watch- father died Dwight wrote the following:
tower schisms, one of which condemned the pyramid
teaching as demonism (Rutherford, “Alter”; Dodd, My father was buried today. I’ve shut off all business and
Religious 243). Dodd noted that the chart was still in visitors for thirty minutes, to have that much time, by
the family home as late as 1944, but in 1957 she could myself, to think of him. He had a full life. He left six boys,
 The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing . 93

and, most fortunately for him, mother survives him .... He emphasis on details of clothing as formerly, they were
was a just man, well liked, well educated, a thinker. He still comparatively strict in the 1800s. Marriage could
was undemonstrative, quiet, modest, and of exemplary be dissolved only by death, hard physical work was a
habits-he never used alcohol or tobacco. He was an prime virtue, and after the turn of the century mem-
uncomplaining person in the face of adversity, and such bers could not use or even grow tobacco.
plaudits as were accorded him did not inflate his ego. His The early Watchtower teachings were also simi-
finest monument is his reputation in Abilene and lar in some ways to the River Brethren, both of which
Dickinson County, Kansas. His word has been his bond have in major ways changed since the Eisenhowers
and accepted as such; his sterling honesty, his insistence became involved in 1895 (Dodd, Religious). Although
upon the immediate payment of all debts, his pride in his major differences existed, especially in doctrine,
independence earned for him a reputation that has profited many similarities existed including the fact that both
all of us boys. Because of it, all central Kansas helped me groups were pietistic Protestant conservative sects
to secure an appointment to West Point in 1911 , and thirty opposed to war, although on different grounds. Both
years later it did the same for my son, John. I’m proud he sects also stressed the importance of Biblical study,
was my father. My only regret is that it was always so dif- both condemned many worldly habits, and both were
ficult to let him know the great depth of my affection for then very concerned about last days prophesy and
him. (Eisenhower, Diaries 51) eschatology.
Conversely, the many major differences that
Problems Surface over the Eisenhower’s existed were seen as of such importance that when “a
Watchtower Involvement number of the River Brethren had become followers
The Eisenhower’s Watchtower involvement cre- of Russell” the River Brethren and other churches
ated many family conflicts. The Russellites taught that were very concerned (Dodd, Religious 234). Dodd
the Brethren and all other churches were not pleasing calls this development a “staggering blow to the
to God. Their second president, lawyer Joseph F. Kansas Church.” Climenhaga (History 243-44)
Rutherford (1 9 16-1942), viciously attacked all reli- remarked about one incident:
gion with slogans such as “religion is a snare and a
racket” (Dodd, Religious). The Watchtower under The Conference of 1896 made Henry N. Engle ...editor of
Rutherford even taught all priests and ministers are of the paper [then being printed in Abilene, Kansas].... Brother
Satan leading their flocks to eternal damnation Engle’s religious views changed during this period as
(Bergman, Jehovah’s). As a result of this and other editor. He contacted literature and persons of a cult whose
teachings, Dodd observed that the River Brethren and beliefs were directly opposite that of the Brethren in Christ.
other denominations at the turn of the century His gradual acceptance of views of this cult made a change
in editorship...necessary. The Conference of 1899 accepted
...were rabidly opposed to Russellism. As late as 1913...the Henry N. Engle’s resignation, and appointed Samuel Zook
Evangelical Visitor advertised a pamphlet entitled “The as editor.
Blasphemous Religion which teaches the Annihilation of
Jesus Christ” as the “best yet publication against Climenhaga did not name the literature, persons, or
Russellism” and the editor thought every River Brethren cult in question, but
minister should read it. In 1928, one of the Brethren minis-
ters, Abraham Eisenhower (David’s brother), wrote to the Bishop J. H. Wagaman and Professor Paul E. Engle, both
Evangelical Visitor concerning Russellism: “Oh, fool- of Upland, California, and a number of Brethren in
hearted nonsense. It is the devil’s asbestos blanket to cover California and Kansas identify the cult as “Russellism” and
up the realities of a hell fire judgment. The word of God the heretical doctrine as the “soul-sleeping” doctrine. The
will tear off this infamous lie and expose the realities of an writer learned from Miss Naomi Engle, herself a Witness
existence of life after death.” This strong statement would and companion to Ida Eisenhower in her last years, that her
reflect the general attitude of most of the Eisenhowers. father, Henry N. Engle, had read the Watch Tower from its
(Dodd, Religious 246) very beginning. She said the Engles were introduced to
Russell’s literature by a Dickinson County faimer by the
The River Brethren have much in common with name of Reading.... (Dodd, Religious 234-35)
the Mennonites, and both were once called “the plain
people” because of their simple lifestyle and dress. An editorial in the official River Brethren journal said
Although the sect has generally modernized and even about the Bible Students:
in the early 1900s they no longer placed as much
94 Journal of American and Comparative Cultures

Bishop S. R. Smith was authorized to edit a pamphlet, in lessons. Mother played the piano, and they sang hymns
which Russellism would be explained and refuted. Pressure before and after each meeting. It was a real old time prayer
of work has prevented Bro. Smith from completing this meeting. They talked to God, read Scriptures, and everyone
work, and since there is a pressing need for a work of this got a chance to state his relationship with Him. Their ideas
kind, the Messiah Bible School, to have reliable matter in of religion were straightforward and simple. I have never
reference to this subject, arranged...for the publication of forgotten those Scripture lessons, nor the influence they
f i v e hundred copies of Millennia1 Darwinism, “The have had on my life. Simple people taking a simple
Blasphemous Religion which teaches the Annihilation of approach to God. We couldn’t have forgotten because
Jesus Christ,” by I. M. Haldeman, D. D.... We believe this mother impressed those creeds deep in our memories. Even
pamphlet to be the best yet published against Russellism after I had grown up, every letter I received from her, until
(sic), and think that it should be in the hands of every min- the day she died, ended with a passage from the Bible.
ister, at least, of our church. (1913:2) (McCullun 21)

This 80-page booklet claims that virtually every major Many authors referred to the Watchtower faith only as
doctrine held by orthodox Christianity was rejected by “fundamentalists” or “Bible students,” the latter term
the Russellites, which Haldeman (78) calls a “wicked the Jehovah’s Witnesses used up until 1931 (Besch-
and blasphemous system.” Doctrines they denied loss; Knorr “Eisenhower book”). Lyon even stated
include the trinity, hell fire, the immortality of the “The specific nature of the religion is uncertain. The
soul, the deity of Christ, the hope of heaven for the parents appear to have left the River Brethren for a
faithful, the basis of salvation, and the bodily resur- more primitive and austere sect, something referred to
rection of Christ, among others. as the Bible Students, and they would later gravitate
to the evangelical sect known as Jehovah’s Witnesses”
Attempts to Hide Their Watchtower Background (Lyon 38).
Dwight’s religious background is discussed by Accounts of the Eisenhower family history com-
many writers, but most contain much misinformation. monly repeat the claim that Dwight’s parents were
Dwight’s first cousin, Rev. Ray Witter, in answer to River Brethren or were not directly involved with the
questions about the “quite a bit of writing and talking Watchtower (Miller, Eisenhower). Typical is a Time
about Ida Eisenhower’s connection with the Jehovah’s article that stated only that Ike’s “parents were mem-
Witnesses Church,” answered bers of the River Brethren, a Mennonite sect,” adding
that “along with their piety, the Eisenhower’s gave
I didn’t know what [religion] it was in the early years- their sons a creed of self-starting individualism”
they generally referred to that Sunday afternoon meeting as (Time, 4 Apr., 1969: 20).
a Bible Class but as that continued on and on, why, I dis- Another account claims that Eisenhower’s par-
covered it was Jehovah’s Witness meeting that they, the ents were members of the River Brethren and
parents, attended.
brought up their children in an old-fashoned atmosphere of
H e added that it was once held at the Eisenhower puritanical morals. Prayer and Bible reading were a daily
home, and, “later on it was held at other places and part of their lives. Violence was forbidden, though in a
while they didn’t have ordained ministers-they had family of six boys the edict was a bit hard to enforce.
their form of doctrine and interpretation of the Bible (Whitney 3 1 1)
that they followed” (qtd. in Witter 28).
T h e m i s i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e religion of Even President Eisenhower’s spiritual mentor and
Dwight’s parents is compounded by the fact that many close friend, Billy Graham, was led to believe that
Eisenhower biographies, and even writings by the Eisenhower’s parents “had been River Brethren, a
Eisenhower children often declined to fully and hon- small but devoutly pious group in the Mennonite tra-
estly acknowledge their parents’ actual religious affili- dition” (Grahm 190).
ation (Fleming 1; Eisenhower, 1969). In a collection Eisenhower official biographer Bela Kornitzer
of personal recollections, Edgar Eisenhower admitted mentions only that the Eisenhowers were “Bible
only that Students,” had “fundamentalist religious beliefs,” and
studied “the writings of ‘Pastor Russell’” but he does
Our parents’ religious interests switched to a sect known as not mention that Russell was the Watchtower founder
the Bible Students. The meetings were held at our house, (14, 22, 32). (When Russell died in 1916 his writings
and everyone made his own interpretation of the Scripture soon replaced those of the new president, “Judge”
 The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing 95

J. F. Rutherford, resulting in several major schisms in the sect and perhaps stirring up charges of religious preju-
the movement and their transformation into the dice. (Pearson, “Eisenhowers” 6)
Jehovah’s Witnesses). Even works that include exten-
sive discussions of Eisenhower’s religious upbring- Pearson also adds the often repeated claim that “Ida
ing, such as the aforementioned Bela Kornitzer’s was influenced in her old age by a nurse who
baok, discuss primarily his River Brethren religious belonged to the sect. Being Bible-minded, old Mrs.
background that had influenced Dwight primarily Eisenhower cheerfully agreed to help the Jehovah’s
during his preschool years, if at all. A Drew Pearson Witnesses peddle Bible tracts. Actually, both of
column stated only that President Eisenhower’s Dwight’s parents were staunch members of a small
mother “once sold Bible tracts for the Jehovah’s sect called River Brethren” (“Eisenhowers” 6).
Witnesses,” implying that she only flirted with the Ironically in a Drew Pearson column published only
Watchtower and was never deeply involved (Pearson, three months earlier, Jack Anderson said, “Ike is
“Eisenhowers” 6). strangely sensitive about his parents’ religion. They
Even more common is to totally omit the pre- were Jehovah’s Witnesses, though the authorized
dominant religion that Dwight was raised in and its biographies call them ‘River Brethren....’ ’’
importance in the Eisenhower boy’s formative years Both Dwight and his brother Milton checked the
(for example, see Larson). In one of the most detailed manuscript of Bela Kornitzer’s book, The Story of the
histories of Eisenhower’s early life, Davis said only Five Eisenhower Brothers. Afterward “Milton pri-
that Ida later “sought out an even more ‘primitive’ and vately asked Kornitzer to delete a reference to their
rigid Christianity” than River Brethren, leaving the parents’ membership in the Witnesses sect” (Anderson
reader up in the air as to what this group might be 16b). In one of the last interviews given by the family,
(1 11). Edmund Fuller and David Green, after claiming Milton said only that “we were raised as a fundamen-
that Eisenhower’s parents were River Brethren, noted talist family. Mother and father knew the Bible from
that the President’s grandfather was the Reverend one end to the other” (qtd. in Freese 25). The Watch-
Jacob Eisenhower, a Brethren minister, and that “the tower’s response to this common omission was as fol-
Eisenhower boys’ religious training was strict, funda- lows:
mentalist, and somewhat Puritanical. They were well
schooled in Scripture” (213). An extensive search of Though Time magazine claimed Ida Stover Eisenhower was
the major depositories of President Eisenhower’s let- a member of the River Brethren, a Mennonite sect, Time
ters and papers indicate that he wrote almost nothing was merely continuing its consistent policy of slander in all
about his feelings about the Watchtower (Keller). that pertains to Jehovah’s witnesses. She was never a River
The Eisenhower boys‘ Watchtower background is Brethren. She was one of Jehovah’s witnesses. The first
not widely known or acknowledged likely in part due study in the Watchtower magazine in Abilene, Kans.,
to the antagonism many people had then, and still started in her home in 1895. Her home was the meeting-
have today, against the Watchtower (Sellers). This place till 1915, when a hall was obtained. She continued a
antagonism is illustrated in the wording of a quote regular publisher with Jehovah’s witnesses till 1942, when
noting that “late in life” Ida became, “of all things, a failing health rendered her inactive; but she remained a
member of the sect known as Jehovah’s Witnesses...” staunch believer. (Knorr, “Religion” 7)
(Gunther 52).
Dwight’s concerns about the Watchtower were
Why the Eisenhower Boys Tried to Hide revealed when his mother died:
Their Watchtower Past
According to Pearson, when confronted with his In September 1946, Ida died, at the age of eighty-four. At
religious ancestry, David Eisenhower looked for a David’s death in 1942, the Jehovah’s Witnesses had taken
over the arrangements, to the intense anger of Dwight and
delicate way to clear the family name of this affiliation. He Milton, who felt they had really hijacked the occasion to
is sensitive about the fact that the Jehovah’s Witnesses do generate publicity for their faith. During the war, there were
not believe in saluting the flag or serving under arms. At newspaper stories from time to time that claimed the
the same time, he doesn’t want to appear prejudiced against Supreme Allied Commander was-the irony of it!-the son
any religious sect. Both Ike and his brother, Milton, have of Jehovah’s Witnesses. These stories infuriated Eisen-
discussed the problem with spiritual advisors. But they hower, to whom they were an attempt to undermine the
haven’t quite figured out how to disclaim Ida Eisenhower’s prosecution of the most righteous war in history. He made
relations with the Jehovah’s Witnesses without offending sure there was no repetition of what had happened with
96 . Journal of American and Comparative Cultures

David. Ida’s funeral service was held in the family home on ...committed herself even to the pointed question “why he
South East Fourth Street, conducted by an Army chaplain ever took up such a vocation” and her belief it was not of
from Fort Riley. All six brothers were there, as was Mamie. God and that it was Satan, she was much opposed to [the]
(Perret 364-65) military and wasn’t too happy, naturally. (Witter 32)

The Influence of the Watchtower on Dwight Many reporters termed Dwight’s mother “a reli-
Kornitzer specifically endeavored to determine gious pacifist” (for example see Life magazine, 1969)
the source of Dwight Eisenhower’s “greatness,” con- as Dwight did. The Watchtower has established in the
cluding that it came from his family and their values. courts that they are not pacifists but conscientious
In Dwight’s words, his mother was “deeply religious,” objectors, opposed only to wars initiated and carried
and he once stated that his mother out by humans. The Watchtower teaches that involve-
ment in war, except those that God demands we fight
had gravitated toward a local group known as The Bible in, is not only a violation of God’s law that “thou shalt
Class. In this group, which had no church minister, she was not kill” and “thou shall love thy neighbor” but is also
happy. Sunday meetings were always held in the homes of wrong because Watchtower doctrine considers it an
members, including ours. The unusual program of worship improper use of time in these last days before
included hymns, for which mother played the piano, and Armageddon. They taught their followers to be dedi-
prayers, with the rest of the time devoted to group discus- cated to converting others before the end, which since
sion of a selected chapter of the Bible. (Eisenhower, At the late 1800s has been taught by the Watchtower to
Ease 305) be “just around the corner.” They are in their words
“conditional pacifists” even though the Watchtower
Although the group preferred the label Bible Students often argues against all war on pacifist grounds. In
before 1931, when they met they usually did not study Dwight’s words, his mother “was opposed to mili-
the Bible but primarily Watchtower publications. In tarism because of her religious beliefs” (Kornitzer
the early 1900s the study focus was a set of books 87).
called Studies in the Scriptures written by C . T. Jehovah’s Witnesses then also eschewed all polit-
Russell and his wife, and also the current issues of ical involvement because they felt-and still teach
The Watchtower magazine. Although the Eisenhower today-that the soon-to-be-established kingdom of
boys usually skirted around the issue of their religious God on earth called the millennium was the only solu-
upbringing, Dwight Eisenhower once openly tion to all human kind’s problems (Kornitzer 276). In
acknowledged that the group his parents were Milton Eisenhower’s words, his parents were, as good
involved with was the Jehovah’s Witnesses: Jehovah’s Witnesses, “more concerned with the mil-
lennium that, unfortunately, hadn’t come in their day,
there was, eventually, a kind of loose association with simi- than they were with contemporary social institutions”
lar groups throughout the coun try...chiefly through a sub- (Kornitzer 278). All of the Eisenhower boys disagreed
scription to a religious periodical, The Watchtower.After I with the Watchtower view in this area. Milton also
left home for the Army, these groups were drawn closer stated his parents were aloof from politics but “...as I
together and finally adopted the name of Jehovah’s became older, I used to hold many conversations with
Witnesses. (Eisenhower,At Ease 305) them in a futile attempt to show them that they were
wrong” (Kornitzer 277). Of course, as Watchtower
Eisenhower then adds: followers, Ida and, until he left, David were not
allowed to be involved in politics-even voting
They were true conscientious objectors to war. Though became a disfellowshipping offense after the 1940s.
none of her sons could accept her conviction in this matter, Often Ida’s alleged pacifism is given as the
she refused to try to push her beliefs on us just as she reason for her opposition to Ike’s military career when
refused to modify her own. (At Ease 305) the actual reason was Watchtower theology. An exam-
ple was her reaction to his leaving for West Point in
Conversely, Dwight’s mother was not happy about her the summer of 1911. At this time Dwight’s
son’s violation of Watchtower beliefs, especially his
choice of a military career. According to Dwight’s ...mother and twelve-year-old brother Milton were the only
first cousin, Ida family members there to see him off. His mother was
unable to say a thing. Milton remembered, “I went out on
the west porch with mother as Ike started uptown, carrying
 The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing 97

his suitcase, to take the train. Mother stood there like a Why were the Eisenhowers (and the press) so ret-
stone statue and I stood right by her until Ike was out of icent about openly revealing the religion of their par-
sight. Then she came in and went to her room and bawled.” ents? One reason is revealed in an article published in
(Pickett 8) the official Watchtower magazine Awake! that noted
that when Ida died
Alden Hatch, after recounting the consternation Ida had
over Dwight attending West Point-to the extent that Private services were conducted at the home, and public
she hoped he would fail the entrance exam-claims services were handled by an army chaplain from Ft. Riley.
that the reason was her “abhorrence to war” (Hatch 21). Was that in respect for Mrs. Eisenhower? Pallbearers were
Ida’s opposition actually involved several reasons, and three American Legionnaires and three Veterans of Foreign
consequently she hid from her sons her “weakened Wars. Was that appropriate? ... In 1942 her husband, also
faith” and “grief” that resulted from Ike’s pursuing a one of Jehovah’s witnesses, died. One of Jehovah’s wit-
military career. The Eisenhower sons’ embarrassment nesses preached the funeral service. Mrs. I. S. Eisenhower,
about their parents’ involvement in the Watchtower was like all Jehovah’s witnesses, believed religion a racket and
vividly revealed in the following account: the clergy in general, including army chaplains, to be hyp-
ocrites. She harbored no special pride for “General Ike;”
Both Ida and David, but especially Ida, were avid readers she was opposed to his West Point appointment. It was
of The Watchtower, and at the time of Ida’s death there was gross disrespect to the deceased for an army chaplain to
a fifty-year collection in the house on South East Fourth officiate at the funeral.
Street. The publication had arrived by mail from 1896 to The American Legion particularly, and also the
1946. It was Milton who bundled up the fifty-year collec- Veterans of Foreign Wars, are repeatedly ringleaders in
tion of the presumably embarrassing magazines and got mob violence against Jehovah’s witnesses. Hundreds of
them out of the Eisenhower house and away from the eyes instances could be cited, but illustrative is the one occurring
of reporters. He gave them to a neighbor and Witness. the Sunday before Mrs. Eisenhower’s death, in near-by
(Miller, Zke 79) Iowa. There war veterans broke up a public Bible meeting
of Jehovah’s witnesses, doing much physical violence.
The neighbor was Mrs. James L. Thayer, one of Hardly appropriate, then, was it, for such to act as pallbear-
the women that originally converted Mrs. Eisenhower. ers? Only death could keep the body of Mrs. Eisenhower
The disposal of Dwight’s parent’s Watchtower litera- from walking away from a funeral so disrespectful of all
ture, charts and other Watchtower items was only one that she stood for. (Knorr, “Religion” 7)
indication of the many conflicts the Eisenhower boys
likely experienced over their parent’s esoteric reli- Unfortunately, this article did not discuss how the
gion. These conflicts may be one reason why none of Watchtower’s teachings on military service, education
them ever became formally involved in the Watch- and involvement in “false religion” contributed to the
tower or even another fundamentalist church. conflicts noted in the above quote. Dwight’s religious
Another account illustrates the press’s tendency orientation as an adult was described as “moderate
to avoid revealing the Eisenhower parents’ Watch- and tolerant, simple and firm,” quite in contrast to the
tower involvement. When Ike graduated from West confrontative, pugnacious Watchtower sect of the first
Point Military Academy in 1915, his mother presented half of this century (Fox 907).
to him a copy of the American Standard version of the Other reasons for the press’s and the Eisenhower
Bible used by the Watchtower then because it consis- boys’ lack of openness about their Watchtower back-
tently used the term “Jehovah” for God. When Ike ground include embarrassment over the Watchtower’s
was sworn in as president for his second term, this staunch opposition to the flag salute and all patriotic
Bible was used (see the London Daily News, 2 Feb. activities, the use of all aluminum cooking utensils,
1957: 1). The press reports of this account, though, fluoridation of drinking water, vaccinations and medi-
usually did not quote the words in the translation the cine in general, the germ theory and their advocating
President read from, which were “Blessed is the many ineffectual medical “cures” including phrenol-
nation whose God is Jehovah” but instead substitute ogy, radio solar pads, radiesthesia, radionics, iridiag-
the word “Lord” for “Jehovah.” The Watchtower con- nosis, the grape cure, and others. Dwight Eisenhower
cluded that not using the term that was at this time had good reasons to hide his Watchtower background
intimately connected with the Jehovah’s Witnesses when he ran for president. Some persons argued that
was an attempt to distance President Eisenhower from Eisenhower’s religious background was used to argue
his parents’ faith (Knorr, “Appreciated” 323-24). that he was not fit to become president:
98 . Journal of American and Comparative Cultures

Both Eisenhower and Stevenson were vigorously chal- her intimate friends and relatives and ...no stranger should
lenged by some Protestant[s]...for their religious ties. The be permitted to live in the house regardless of who he may
association of Eisenhower’s mother with the Jehovah’s be ... (Kornitzer 139)
Witnesses was exploited to make the COP candidate appear
as an ‘‘anti-Christian cultist” and a “foe of patriotism.” This problem was eventually solved by removing
(ROY) from Ida’s home the Jehovah’s Witness who was then
caring for Ida Eisenhower, and replacing her with a
One reason for the Eisenhower boys’ concern Mrs. Robinson, a non-Witness. The Witness was
was because Jehovah’s Witnesses were generally Naomi Engle, a lifelong friend and certainly no
scorned by most churches and society in general, stranger to Ida. Would Edgar have objected if Ida was
especially at the turn of the century. Virtually no col- allowed to use the Eisenhower name for a cause such
lege-educated people were members, and the educa- as education, health, or even to advance a church such
tion level even today is still among the lowest of all as the Lutherans or Methodists? Most of what he
religious denominations (Cosmin and Lachman). likely objected to was what he felt was the Watch-
Eisenhower’s own one time speech writer, Stanley tower exploiting her to spread a set of beliefs with
High, said “Jehovah’s Witnesses make hate a religion” which he and his brothers openly disagreed.
and that “for conscientious cussedness on the grand
scale, no other aggregation of Americans is a match Did Ida Eisenhower Later Leave
for Jehovah’s Witnesses” and “on the rest of U.S. ... the Jehovah’s Witness?
they look down their spiritual noses” (High, “Arma- When researching Eisenhower’s religion “since
geddon” 18). so little original documentation exists, most historians
The thesis that the Eisenhower boys were embar- have relied on interviews with persons who knew
rassed by their parents’ Watchtower involvement is David and Ida” (Branigar 1). Dodd’s thesis is one of
supported by the problem that developed when the the most reliable sources because she used scores of
Watchtower tried to exploit Mrs. Eisenhower’s name. personal interviews with the family, many of whom
In the 1940s, according to Edgar Eisenhower, “the she was personally acquainted with, to study the reli-
deep, sincere and even evangelical religious fervor” of gious background of the Eisenhower family in the late
their mother was used by the Watchtower “to exploit 1950s. Unfortunately, some Watchtower sources are
her in her old age” (Kornitzer 139). very questionable.
This concern prompted Edgar to write a letter in Dr. Holt, the director of the Dwight D. Eisen-
1944 to the Jehovah’s Witness who was caring for his hower library in Abilene, Kansas, indicated that the
mother when she was 82. As was the practice then for Watchtower may be involved in passing documents
all members, young and old-and as Jehovah’s off as real that are evidently forgeries (1999). This
Witnesses today are well known for-Witnesses go charge stems from interviews with family members by
from door-to-door and “witness” on the street corners, J. Earl Endacott, a former Eisenhower library curator,
primarily by selling Watchtower literature. Edgar felt whom concluded that a 1944 incident led to the dis-
that the Eisenhower name was being exploited in this missal of Ida’s nurse, Mrs. Engle, who was then an
work and objected to his mother “being taken out of active Jehovah’s Witness.
the home and used for the purpose of distributing Endacott’s source for this information was Mrs.
[Watchtower] religious literature” (Kornitzer 139; Robinson, who became Ida’s nurse after Engle’s dis-
Lingerfedt). Edgar added that he was “willing to missal. She claimed that Engle and another Witness
fight” for his mother’s “right to continue to believe as had Ida write her name several times on a blank sheet
she saw fit, but ...she could be easily and mistakenly of paper under the pretense of giving her “practice.”
be influenced in performing any service that would be According to Mrs. Robinson, the most legible signa-
represented to her as helpful to the advancement of ture was then physically cut from the sheet and pasted
religious beliefs” of the Watchtower (Kornitzer 139). on the bottom of the letter to Mr. Boeckel that was not
He then requested that his mother should no longer written by Mrs. Eisenhower but by Engle. Endacott
concluded Engle had “more loyalty to the Witnesses”
be taken from place to place and exhibited as the mother of than to the Eisenhowers, to whom she was distantly
Genera1 Eisenhower-solely for the purpose of attempting related. Later
to influence anyone [to accept the Watchtower beliefs] ...I
want mother shielded and protected and not exposed or in one of her lucid moments Ida told Mrs. Robinson what
exhibited ...mother’s home should be maintained solely for had happened and gave the sheet with the cut out name to
 The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing 99

her. When the Eisenhower foundation took over the home, Surely ths portends that very soon the glorious Theocracy,
Mrs. Robinson told me the story and gave me the sheet the long promised kingdom of Jehovah...will rule the entire
which I still have. (Endacott) earth and pour out manifold blessings upon all peoples who
are of good will towards Him. All others will be removed
The letter she allegedly wrote was to a Richard [killed at Armageddon]. Again, may I urge your ever faith-
Boeckel, a young man who had become a Jehovah’s fulness to these ‘Higher Powers’ and to the New World
Witness while still in the “ m y (Boeckel). In August now so very near.
of 1944, Boeckel attended a Watchtower assembly in
Denver where he met Lotta Thayer, Ida’s neighbor The letter dated August 20, 1944, according to Enda-
from Abilene. In his conversations with her, Boeckel cott contained the taped on signature “Ida Eisen-
explained the difficulty of being a Witness in a mili- hower” affixed to it and closed with “Respectfully
tary environment. Thayer then reportedly told him yours in hope of and as a fighter for the New World”
that her neighbor was General Eisenhower’s mother, (Cole 191).
and added that “she’s one of Jehovah’s Witnesses” This Ida Eisenhower letter, Endacott concluded,
and asked Boeckel if he would like her to write to him was “not in the words of Ida, who at the time could
(Boeckel 24-29). Boeckel wrote Ida, and part of the hardly write her own name” and evidentially she was
letter Ida allegedly wrote back to him stated, not always mentally alert although her physical health
was good. Her memory started to fail soon after her
A friend returning from the United Announcers Convention husband died and was at times so poor that she could
of Jehovah’s Witnesses, informs me of meeting you there. I not even remember her own son’s names (Eisen-
rejoice with you in your privilege of attending such conven- hower, “President” 188). Furthermore, this letter is
tion. It has been my good fortune in the years gone by to very well written, quite in contrast to the letter she
attend these meetings of those faithfully proclaiming the wrote in her own hand dated 1943, only one year ear-
name of Jehovah and his glorious kingdom which shortly lier (see Cole). When the Eisenhower sons found out
now will pour out its rich blessings all over the earth. My about this event (evidentially a reporter published the
friend informs me of your desire to have a word from letter putatively written by Ida Eisenhower to Mr.
General Eisenhower’s mother whom you have been told is Boeckel) and other similar incidences, they wrote to
one of the witnesses of Jehovah. I am indeed such and what Engle about her exploiting Ida (Kornitzer). The letter
a glorious privilege it has been in associating with [other was evidentially ignored by Engle, and consequently
Witnesses].... Generally I have refused such requests Milton was given the task of dismissing her. It was at
because of my desire to avoid all publicity. However, this t i m e that M i l t o n h i r e d non-Witness M r s .
because you are a person of good will towards Jehovah Robinson to help take care of Ida.
God and His glorious Theocracy I am very happy to write It would appear that Richard Boeckel would
you .... It was always my desire and my effort to raise my immediately be suspicious when he received the letter
boys in the knowledge of and to reverence their Creator. with Mrs. Eisenhower’s signature obviously taped on
My prayer is that they all may anchor their hope in the New it. He should have confirmed that the letter was gen-
World, the central feature of which is the Kingdom for uine before he made claims about receiving a letter
which all good people have been praying the past two thou- from Ida Eisenhower. His story and a photo reproduc-
sand years. I feel that Dwight my third son will always tion of the letter was published in Marley Cole’s book
strive to do his duty with integrity as he sees such duty. I Jehovah j. Witnesses and other sources, and Boeckel
mention him in particular because of your expressed inter- repeated the claims about the letter in his life story
est in him. And so as the mother of General Eisenhower published in the October 15, 1980, Watchtower. An
and as a Witness of and for the Great Jehovah of Hosts (I inquiry to the Watchtower about this matter produced
have been such for the past 49 years) I am pleased to write the following reply:
you and to urge you to faithfulness, as a companion of and
servant with those who “keep the commands of God and You inquire about allegations made by the director of the
have the testimony of Jesus.” (qtd. in Cole 194-95) the Eisenhower Library in Abilene, Kansas, that a letter
published as being from Ida Eisenhower may be a forgery.
To encourage Boeckel to accept Watchtower doc- We have no reason to believe that Sister Eisenhower was
trines, the letter mentioned several current events that coerced into signing her name, or that she signed her name
the Watchtower, in 1944, taught were evidence that to something that she did not agree with. It could be, of
Armageddon would occur very soon, concluding that course, that Sgt. Boeckel’s letter was read to Sister Eisen-
hower, and she may have asked for assistance in drafting a
I00 . Journal of American and Comparative Cultures

reply. Mrs. Engle or someone else may have drafted the Nonetheless, no evidence exists that either parent
letter and read it to Mrs. Eisenhower for approval, much as was not a devoted Watchtower adherent when the
a manager may ask a secretary to draft a letter that conveys Eisenhower boys were growing up, or that Ida no
certain thoughts. The content of the letter is certainly not longer saw herself as a Witness. Her grandson, John,
out of character for her. Therefore, even if it were true recalls attending Watchtower services when he was
(which we do not know) that Sister Eisenhower did not age 16 with her in Abilene as late as 1938 (Eisen-
directly dictate a11 of the words of the letter, that would not hower letter). Ida Eisenhower mailed other letters at
be evidence that the letter lacked authenticity. If the direc- about the same time that she allegedly mentioned her
tor of the Eisenhower Library is concerned about the Witness commitment to Boeckel, including a hand-
matter, he can no doubt contact the Watchtower Bible and written letter to fellow Witness Mrs. H. I. Lawson of
Tract Society directly. (Watchtower, 15 Apr. 1999) Long Island, New York., in 1943 (Cole). No evidence
exists that only a year later she rejected Watchtower
Merle Miller related an experience involving teachings or had resigned.
Boeckel and this letter that reveals the irony of In addition, a front-page Wichita Beacon (April
Eisenhower’s mother’s faith: 1943) article about Ida’s Watchtower assembly atten-
dance gave no indication that she was at this time dis-
...one time when Boeckel refused, as a good Witness must, enchanted with Jehovah’s Witnesses (Fleming 1). The
to salute his superior officers at Fort Warren, he said that he article stated that
was a Witness and that his refusal to salute was “based on
my understanding of the Bible.” One officer reportedly the 82 year old mother of Americas famous military leader
said, “General Eisenhower ought to line you Jehovah’s ...was the center of attraction at the meeting Sunday, and
Witnesses up and shoot you all!” Boeckel then, again her name was heard in just about every conversation,
according to The Watchtower, said, ‘“Do you think he speech and discussion. The program’s subject was “how to
would shoot his own mother, sir?’ “ ‘What do you mean by become a good Jehovah’s Witness.”
that?’ “Reaching i n my pocket and taking out Sister
Eisenhower’s letter, I handed it to him ...He read the letter... These facts do not prove the letter is not a forgery, nor
[and] handed it back to me. ‘Get back to ranks,’ he said, ‘I do they demonstrate the commonly alleged view that
don’t want to get mixed up with the General’s mother.”’ she became a Witness only when she was becoming
(Miller 79; see also Boeckel) senile as often implied by some authors.
Conversely, only vague hints exist that Mrs.
Suspicion that the letter was a forgery is also Eisenhower’s loyalty to the Watchtower may have
supported by a Watchtower teaching called The waned as she grew older. All of her sons left the
Theocratic Warfare Doctrine introduced in 1936 Watchtower, as did her husband, all of whom became
(Rutherford). The Theocratic Warfare doctrine essen- opposed to some of their teachings. Furthermore,
tially teaches that it is appropriate to withhold the when J. F. Rutherford became the Watchtower presi-
truth from “people who are not entitled to it” to fur- dent in 1916, many of their teachings changed.
ther the Watchtower’s interests (Reed; Franz, Aid Rutherford introduced many-if not most-of their
1060-61). Reed defines Theocratic War Strategy as more objectionable teachings such as their opposition
the approval to lie “to outsiders when deemed neces- to orthodox medicine, flag salute, vaccines, blood
sary” and also to deceive outsiders to advance the transfusions, and all other religions, all of which
Watchtower’s interests (Reed 40). In the words of Rutherford regarded as “a snare and a racket,” and of
Kotwall, the Watchtower teaches that “to lie and Satan. If Rutherford had retained the teachings of the
deceive in the interest of their religion is Scripturally first president, C. T. Russell, the Eisenhower family
approved” (Kotwall 1). Jehovah’s Witnesses do not concerns about the Watchtower would likely not have
always lie outright, but they often lie according to the been nearly as great.
court’s definition-not telling “the whole truth and Also, when Rutherford took over the Watch-
nothing but the truth”-which means the court tower, many if not most of the original Bible Students
requires the whole story, not half-truths or deception left the Watchtower, and for Ida to leave would not be
(Bergman, Theocratic). In the words of Raines, theo- unusual or unexpected. Furthermore, Ida would prob-
cratic warfare in practice means “deceiving” to pro- ably be much more at home in the Bible Student split
tect and advance the interests of “God’s people” and that formed after Rutherford began to introduce his
God’s “organization the Watchtower” (Raines 20). objectionable teachings. Although these events no
doubt affected Mrs. Eisenhower’s beliefs, no direct
 The Znfluence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing . 101

evidence exists that she wavered in her allegiance to admit that any other is born with equal rights to himself?
the Watchtower, and all the evidence, including inter- Each of us instinctively recognizes, and our forefathers so
views with individuals who knew her, indicate that stated, that an individual, because he was born, possesses
she died a Watchtower believer. Even if Mrs. Eisen- certain rights. And to prove that we must go back and
hower’s allegiance to the Watchtower waned as she depend upon faith, and faith alone; and I say it is a faith,
got older, this would not affect the fact that her boys akin to religion, to most of us. (qtd. in Taylor 50)
were raised in the Watchtower, but would help us to
better understand Ida Eisenhower. Dwight Eisenhower and his brothers, as is true of
On the other hand, very good reasons existed for about half of those who are raised in the Watchtower
the Eisenhower family to attempt to distance them- sect, did not continue in it when they became adults
selves from the Watchtower-reasons that were made (Stark), yet they were no doubt influenced by the
clear by some of Eisenhower’s opponents, some evi- Watchtower belief structure and many of its ideals.
dently who planned to use this information to hurt Neal concluded that by setting high standards and
Eisenhower’s political career. As noted above, Roy teaching the value of high moral principles, their par-
(1953) noted that Eisenhower’s religious background ents had given their sons a “quiet strength” that stayed
was used by some to argue that he was not fit to with them their entire lives (Neal 13). As is true of
become president. many persons raised Witnesses, though, they could
not accept some of the Watchtower’s major theologi-
The Claim That Dwight Was Irreligious cal teachings. One of the primary Watchtower beliefs
Although the Eisenhower brothers tried to con- that the Eisenhower boys evidently did accept later in
ceal their Watchtower background, they did not hide life was the value of the Bible. Dwight once stated
the fact that their home environment was dominated
by “Biblically literalistic” values and “all” the Eisen- if each of us in his own mind would dwell upon the simple
hower children were “fundamentalists” and the Bible virtues-integrity, courage, self-confidence, and unshak-
was for them the able faith in his Bible-would not some of our problems
tend to simplify themselves? (Fuller and Green 2 16)
...one authoritative guide, read every morning at family
prayers, quoted again and again when family decisions According to General Andrew Goodpaster (letter),
were in the making. Both father and mother could quote the Eisenhower often noted in conversations the impor-
Bible for any occasion and almost from beginning to end.... tance of what he called the “spiritual factor,” stressing
They owned a concordance, but the sons remember that on that “security is the product of economic, political,
the rare occasion when reference to it became necessary military, and spiritual strength.”
both parents were almost furtive in seeking its aid. (Hutch- A major part of Jehovah’s Witness doctrine is a
inson 364) required belief in creationism. The first book that they
published against evolution was the 1898 work The
Ida and David Eisenhower’s religious beliefs Bible Versus the Evolution Theory and the most recent
clearly had a major influence on their children, and book they published on this topic was in 1985 called
their “unorthodox if not eccentric” religious views Life-How Did I t Get Here? By Evolution or By
were not forced upon them. Neal claims that, in viola- Creation? The latter book was published in 27 lan-
tion to Watchtower policy, the Eisenhower boys were guages and as of 2001 had a total printing of over 30
“encouraged to reach their own conclusions,” regard- million copies. This teaching may have influenced
ing religion and this may have influenced them to certain statements Eisenhower made such as the con-
have “later joined more conventional Protestant clusion that America is a
denominations” (Neal 13). Eisenhower even once said
that “the American people will have to get back to ....religious nation today because in the Declaration of
Biblical Christianity” (qtd. in Hopper 141-42). In a Independence they stated their full reliance on “the laws of
talk he gave on June 26, 1948, at Poughkeepsie, New nature and nature’s God” and because they published
York. Eisenhower said: before the world the self-evident truths: “that all men are
created equal, that they are endowed by their creator with
The political freedoms we know, the American concept of certain unalienable Rights....” In contrast with this concept
democracy, certainly include a faith, related to some reli- of the sacredness of life, modern atheistic dictatorships treat
gion, that man is more than an animal, that he possesses a men as nothing more than animals or educated mules. How
soul. If we have not that faith, then why should any of us many materialistic psychologists and smart-alec professors
102 . Journal of American and Comparative Cultures

sneer that men invented God in a childly search for secu- A major motivation to hide their Watchtower
rity; yet I have noticed that men in the foxholes or at the background was likely an attempt to overcome the
moment of death turn to some higher Power for comfort stigma of being raised in a fundamentalist sect, yet
and courage .... although I have seldom displayed or dis- Dwight repeatedly stated that he accepted many of his
cussed my religious philosophy with anyone, a deep Bible- parents’ beliefs. In Dwight’s words, the Eisenhower
centered faith has colored my life since childhood. Devout “boys are all religious but we don’t go around saying
parents, who loved the Bible as dearly as life itself, made ‘I am a religious man’ any more than we would say, ‘I
sure of that. Indeed, before I was eighteen, I had read am an honest man,’ or ‘I am a clean man’ ” (Miller,
through the entire Bible and discussed it, chapter by chap- Zke 77). John Bonnell put it this way: “To the very
ter, with my mother. (qtd. in Gamman 3-4) close of his life Dwight Eisenhower carried in his
mind and heart the indelible imprint of his parents’
Dwight then cites a number of times where he turned religion’’ (219). Gustafson claims that one evidence of
to God, and the events that occurred after he did so this imprint was that, “within a few months” after
provided evidence to support his conclusion that God taking the oath of office, because of his policies
intervened in response to his prayer. During his World Eisenhower was popularly known as the “most reli-
War I1 campaigns, Dwight constantly asked for gious President in our history.” Examples of Eisen-
“God’s guidance in making the right decision,” and hower’s religious actions that earned him this title
during the eight years that he was president he “never include the fact that he
opened a cabinet meeting without a minute of silent
prayer” (qtd. in Gamman 3; also Patterson). Of ...helped sponsor a nationwide moral crusade and religious
course, how sincere his outward display of piety was revival, and in general he sought to encourage the cause of
is difficult for outsiders to judge. Miller claims that as American religious interests. During his administration the
a candidate Eisenhower went “well beyond the stan- highly publicized Prayer Breakfasts were begun and
dard obeisances to God of a public figure” and he evi- “Under God” was placed in the pledge of allegiance to the
dently did not use God terminology simply as a politi- flag. He proclaimed Days of Prayer for the nation [a tradi-
cal device, but as a result of his “deeply felt religious tion followed by every president since], backed the organi-
faith” a phrase that he “constantly used” (Miller, Piety zation known as Foundation for Religious Action and
34). Perret concluded that invited Billy Graham and other prominent religious leaders
to the White House. And he delivered hundreds of mes-
Even before Eisenhower left the White House, he had sages, both written and oral, to religious organizations.
gotten into the habit of going to church nearly every (Gustafson 610-13)
Sunday. Both during his presidency and later he asked Billy
Graham whether he truly believed in the existence of Other “religious actions” of Eisenhower’s administra-
heaven and whether people met up there again with those tion included the “pray for peace” mail cancellation
they had loved in this world. Graham told him that such stamp, and an inclusion of a float titled “God’s float”
was Christ’s promise and he believed it implicitly. The ter- in the 1953 inaugural parade (Miller, Piety). Soon
rors of death were undoubtedly assuaged for Eisenhower by after the postmaster general issued a stamp bearing
the prospect of being reunited with Ikky and Ida. (603) the motto “In God We Trust” that was then imprinted
on all U.S. Currency. Eisenhower also once said that
His last words before he died were, “I want to go, he believed one of the reasons he was elected presi-
God take me!” (Perret 608). dent was “to lead this country spiritually....we need a
As is also true of many Witness children, the spiritual renewal” (Hendon and Kennedy 390-91).
Eisenhower boys did not accept the Watchtower Eisenhower’s stress on religion was so great that
teaching against attending college and pursuing a Perret claimed that soon after he was elected president
career (the reasons for discouraging college included
the belief that this experience may damage one’s he managed to convince himself that the government of the
faith), and the end of this world was expected very United States was based on religious belief, a conclusion
soon. Nor could they accept the Watchtower teaching that would have surprised the eighteenth-century men of
that all world events are strictly under God’s control, the Enlightenment who had created it and considered faith a
and it is futile to try to interfere with them because strictly private affair. He also developed an interest in
life and world affairs are like a movie script that has prayer. The first manifestation that prayer would be part of
already been written, and can be played out only the new administration came in a private dining room at the
according to the script. Commodore Hotel in New York on January 12, 1953.
 The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing . 103

Eisenhower had called his cabinet members, and Nixon, to without some reference to the nation’s need for spiritual
meet with him there for two days to discuss various aspects strength. He attends church more frequently than most of
of the transition, to finalize inaugural arrangements and to his predecessors. He goes to prayer-meeting breakfasts. His
hear the draft of his inaugural address. As the waiters cabinet sessions begin with a prayer. He is never too busy
cleared the table after lunch, he asked Ezra Taft Benson to to receive church delegations and several of his most
open what amounted to his first cabinet meeting with a important speeches have been delivered at church gather-
prayer. A surprised and delighted Benson did so. (429) ings. (Hutchinson 362)

In 1952, Drew Pearson reported Eisenhower stressed According to Milton Eisenhower, Dwight believed
his idealism once by pulling a coin from his pocket America is a religious nation, and that “all of our
and handing it to him. The coin “had a cross on one basic documents are political expressions of certain
side with the word ‘freedom,’ and the word ’God’ on cardinal religious concepts” (qtd. in Kornitzer 137).
the other side ...’ That coin represents my religion. The role of religion in Dwight’s life was evi-
Somebody gave it to me out in Kansas some years dently so central that “again and again, as he wrestles
ago’ ” (Pearson 21 1). with the requirements of the presidency,” his religious
A major goal of Eisenhower’s presidency was to upbringing shows through and
fight for “moral and religious” goals (Gustafson 612).
Eisenhower’s one time speech writer Stanley High most of the time it helps to steady his thinking and give his
concluded Dwight “hoped to inspire a spiritual leadership confident direction. Occasionally, it betrays him
reawakening in America” (High, “What” 1 ; Miller, into a belief that some problems are simpler than they are,
Piety 18). His goal for America was a “moral and and their solutions quickly to be found. (Hutchinson 362)
spiritual” revival, a revival of religious faith that will
produce a rededication to religious values. He ex- An example of how Dwight’s religious background
pected his Cabinet members and their families to be showed through occurred on January 20, 1953. After
active in church, and Eisenhower was sworn in as President before Chief
Justice Vinson, he said:
stressed that the founding fathers wrote their religious faith
into our founding documents, stamped their trust in God on “My friends, before I begin the expression of those
the face of their coins and currency, and put it boldly at the thoughts that I deem appropriate ...[to] ask that you bow
base of our institutions. (High, “What”) your heads.” Low exclamations of surprise rippled along
the press tables, for this prayer was not a scheduled part of
And the pastor of the church Eisenhower attended in the program. Turning the “inaugural platform into an alter
Washington, Edward Elson, stated that Dwight, “by of worship,” the President, the first ever to open his inau-
personal example and public utterance,” gave strong gural address with a plea for divine guidance, addressed his
testimony to America’s spiritual foundation (Elson 1). first words, not to the nation, but to God .... the prayer,
The reticence of the Eisenhower’s to reveal their which he had composed himself ...was as follows:
full religious background also produced a number of “Almighty God ...my future associates in the executive
ironies. Many of those who attacked Eisenhower reli- branch of the Government join me in beseechmg that Thou
giously did so on the grounds that he “never joined a wilt make full and complete our dedication to the service of
church until after he became President” implying that the people ...regardless of station, race, or calling. May
his Sunday worship as President “smacked of cooperation be permitted and be the mutual aim of those
hypocrisy” (Fuller and Green 218). Although most of who, under the concept of our Constitution, hold to differ-
Eisenhower’s adult years “were spent outside orga- ing political beliefs, so that all may work for the good of
nized religion,” and he was 63 before he formally our beloved country and for Thy glory. Amen. (Dodd,
joined a church, his lifelong behavior, personal state- Religious 1-2)
ments, and beliefs on religion must be evaluated
before judging him in this area (Dodd, “Early” 233). Eisenhower also ardently defended the convic-
When he did attend church he told his son, John, that tions of his parents even though he disagreed with
“I enjoy going to church. You always get an idea or some of them. This conclusion is apparent in a letter
two” (Eisenhower letter). Eisenhower mailed during the last week of one of his
Hutchinson concluded that Eisenhower seldom major World War I1 campaigns. Dictated to his brother
wrote a speech Arthur on May 18, the letter is a response to a story
about his mother’s Jehovah’s Witness faith, stressing
104 . Journal of American and Comparative Cultures

her alleged “pacifism” and the irony of Mrs. Eisen- Headquarters in Brooklyn, the Eisenhower’s visited
hower’s son being a general (Ambrose, Supreme 187). their son at West Point (Fleming 1). Nor is there evi-
Eisenhower ignored the claim that Jehovah’s Wit- dence that Ida Eisenhower experienced problems with
nesses are pacifists and simply told Arthur that his the Watchtower because of associating with a son who
mother’s happiness in her religion “means more to me obviously violated a major Watchtower policy (Dodd,
than any damn wise crack that a newspaper man can Religious).
get publicized” (Miller, Zke 79). His respect for his Possibly the most incongruous example of spe-
mother is also vividly revealed in these words: cial treatment was Ida’s funeral service that was con-
ducted by Witnesses, yet was officiated by a lieu-
I should like so much to be with my Mother these few days. tenant colonel. Ida Eisenhower died on September 11,
But we’re at war. And war is not soft, it has no time to 1946, in Abilene, Kansas, after a four-year illness.
indulge even the deepest and most sacred emotions. I loved The pall bearers wore “the uniform caps of the
my Dad. I think my Mother [is] the finest person I’ve ever American Legion and the Veterans of Foreign Wars”
known. She has been the inspiration for Dad’s life and a (Hutchinson 365). Military involvement including
true helpmeet in every sense of the word. (Eisenhower, funerals had been forbidden by the Watchtower for
Diaries 50-5 1) decades, and, although grounds for expulsion, Ida was
still spoken of highly after she died.
The value that Dwight most strongly developed Although Dwight Eisenhower stated that his
later in his life,which may have had its roots in his mother was highly “individualistic” and “not able to
mother’s religion, was his strong opposition to war as accept the dogma of any specific sect or denomina-
a solution to human conflicts. He even stated he tion,” Miller notes that “that is what Eisenhower
doubted that people who hated war because of acade- wanted to believe and perhaps at times actually did,
mic or dogmatic reasons detested it as much he did but Ida herself contradicted it” (Miller, Zke 78). The
because he hated war as only Witnesses are normally required to rigidly conform to
Watchtower beliefs, and little deviance is allowed
“a soldier who has lived it can, as only one who has seen its even in areas most people regard as very minor.
brutality, its futility, its stupidity.... War is the least accept- Violation of this requirement results in total cutting
able solution of our problems.... War settles nothing.” He off, and not even Witness relatives can normally asso-
stated the same conviction in an address at Pittsburgh in ciate with those who are disfellowshipped. Another
October 1950, when he said “Possibly my hatred of war factor may have been her easy going personality. Ida
blinds me so that I cannot comprehend the arguments that was, in the words of her grandson John “a very good-
its advocates adduce. But, in my opinion, there is no such humored person” (Eisenhower letter).
thing as a preventive war .... the fact [is] that war begets
conditions that beget further war. (qtd. in Taylor 91)
Notes
One reason that he detested war was because his mili-
tary career forced him to experience “bodies rotting I wish to thank the Dwight Eisenhower Presidential
on the ground,” to smell “ decaying human flesh,” and Library staff in Abilene, Kansas, for their help and encour-
to visit field hospitals where he was exposed to “des- agement in this research. I also thank the Eisenhower Room
perately wounded” war victims. Dwight added that staff at Defiance College in Defiance, Ohio for their critical
although he hated war, he hated the Nazis even more research assistance (Defiance College had an interest in
(qtd. in Taylor 9). Eisenhower’s religious activities because the college is a
Nor did Ida cut her son off because he became denominational school and a past president was a former
part of the military. Watchtower policy, until recently, Eisenhower speech writer. Furthermore, the bond between
required disfellowshipping baptized members who the college and Eisenhower resulted in the college’s archive
became involved in the military, even as an employee having fairly good holdings on Eisenhower). I also wish to
for a war armament plant. In spite of her son’s viola- thank Craig Keller for providing several of the documents
tion of these Watchtower norms, Ida evidently never quoted in this paper, and Dr. Morris Sider of the Brethren
shunned him. (Since no record exists that Dwight was in Christ Church Archives at Messiah College, Grantham,
baptized, he would not have been formally disfellow- Pennsylvania, and the help of Gladys Dodd, who used
shipped, but many Witnesses would have shunned extensive primary sources to produce the definitive study of
him). After attending a Witness convention in Wash- the Eisenhower religious background. Last, I wish to thank
ington in 1913 and spending a week in Watchtower Dwight Eisenhower’s son, General John Eisenhower and
 The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing 105

General Andrew J. Goodpaster of the Eisenhower World Davis, Kenneth S. Soldier of Democracy: A Biography of
Affairs Institute for their encouragement and insight. Dwight Eisenhower. 1945. Garden City, NY: Double-
day, 1952.
‘The term River Brethren is commonly used in the lit- Dodd, Gladys. “The Early Career of Abraham L. Eisen-
erature that discusses President Eisenhower, but the offi- hower, Pioneer Preacher.” Kansas Historical Quarterly
cially registered name during the Civil War and after was 29 (Autumn 1963).
The Brethren in Christ Church. The term River Brethren -. Letter from author dated Oct. 8, 1994.
caught on because the first church was located near a river -. The Religious Background of the Eisenhower Family.
and the group baptized in the river (Witter). This term is Merriam, KS: Bachelor of Divinity Thesis, Nazarene
used here because most references to Eisenhower’s religion Theology Seminary, 1959.
use this term. Eisenhower, Abraham. “Life, Death.” Evangelical Visitor
*The Lingerfedt family were also Witnesses and were 9 July 1928: 4-7.
personal friends of the Eisenhowers. Mr. Lingerfedt, Senior Eisenhower, Dwight D. At Ease, Stories I Tell to Friends.
used to stay at their home in the summer and even taught Garden City, NJ: Doubleday, 1967.
one of the boys how to use a gun, which upset Ida. They -. The Eisenhower Diaries. Ed. Robert H. Ferrell. New
were from North Carolina. York: Norton, 1981.
Eisenhower, John. Letter dated Sept. 2001.
Eisenhower, Milton S . The President Is Calling. Garden
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 The Influence of Religion on President Eisenhower’s Upbringing . 107

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Christendom or Christianity, Which Is the Light of the