By

Anirudh. N,
Asst. Professor,
Dept of Civil Engg.,
JNN College of Engineering,
Shimoga-577204

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 INTRODUCTION
Aviation
 Started with the invention of Santos Dummont, Brazilian born scientist, who created the
14BIS and the very first motor powered airplanes in the world .
 During the 17th and 18th century, when scientists began analyzing the Earth's atmosphere,
gases such as hydrogen were discovered which in turn led to the invention of hydrogen
balloons.
 World War II saw a drastic increase in the pace of aircraft development and production.
 After the war ended, commercial aviation grew rapidly,
ANIRUDH using mostly ex-military aircraft
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to transport people and cargo.

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 Air Transport Agencies

 International Civil Aviation Organization

 Federal Aviation Administration

 Airport Authority of India

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 Air India International Corporation

 Indian Airlines Corporation

 Private Air Transport Agencies

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 Advantages of Air Transport
1. Speed – Up to 1000km/hr

2. Encourages tourism

3. Encourages Trade & Business

4. Ability to serve in Remote & Inaccessible areas

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5. Military use

6. Relief and rescue operations

7. Aerial photography

8. Agricultural spraying

9. Safety
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 Disadvantages of Air Transport
 High cost

 Noise pollution

 High energy consumption

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Layout of an Airport with component parts and
Functions :

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Main Components of Airport:
Airfield, which consists of
 Runway
 Shoulder
 Stop-ways
 Taxiways ANIRUDH N, JNNCE

 Apron
 Holding apron
 Gates
 Terminal building
 Hangers

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 COMPONENTS
Runway: Runway is a paved strip provided specially for landing
and take-off.

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 SHOULDERS

Shoulders are provided on either side of the runway to

serve as a safety zone for an aircraft when it happens to go
off the runway during landing or take off.

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 STOP WAYS
 Stop ways are provided at the end of the run way as a suitable
in which an aircraft can be stopped in case of interrupted or
aborted take off.

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 TAXIWAYS

 Taxiways are interior paths on an airport, connecting runways

with one another and also connecting other facilities such as
hangers, terminals, parking aprons etc..

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 APRON
 The apron is the area of an airport where aircrafts are parked,
unloaded or loaded.

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 HOLDING APRON (Run up area)

 It is a portion provided near the ends of a runway for engine

run-up. They also serve as area for aircraft waiting for take off.

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 HANGER
 It is the large shed constructed at the airport for servicing and
repairing of aircraft.

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 TERMINAL BUILDING

 It is a building at an airport where passengers can buy tickets,

leave or collect their baggage and be checked by security.

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AIRCRAFT CHARACTERSTICS

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 AIRCRAFT CHARACTERSTICS

1. Type of propulsion
2. Size of aircraft
3. Minimum turning radius
4. Minimum circling radius
5. Speed of an aircraft ANIRUDH N, JNNCE
6. Aircraft capacity
7. Weight of the aircraft
8. Wheel configuration
9. Jet blast
10. Fuel spillage
11. Noise
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Type of propulsion

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• The size of aircraft, its circling radius, speed characteristics, weight

carrying capacity, noise nuisance etc. depend upon the type of
propulsion of the aircraft.
• The basic runway length also depends on the type of propulsion
used in aircraft.

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https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sJqtrj5OrKI
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Size of aircraft
The Size of aircraft involves following important dimensions
 Wing span
 Fuselage length
 Height
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 Tail width
 Distance between the main gears

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ANIRUDH N, JNNCE

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Minimum circling radius

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• There is certain minimum radius with which the aircraft can take turn in space.
• Its radius depends upon the type of aircraft, air traffic volume & weather
conditions.
• The radii recommended for different types of aircraft are as follows.
• Small general aviation aircraft = 1.6 km
• Bigger aircraft = 3.2 km
• Piston engine aircraft = 13 km
• Jet engine aircraft = 80 km
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Minimum Turning radius:
 In order to decide the radius of taxiway, its very essential to study
the geometry of turning movement of aircraft.
 While taking a turn, the nose gear is steered and therefore, makes an
angle with the axis of the main gear, called angle of rotation. The
point of intersection of main gear and line through axis of steered
nose gear is called point of rotation.
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 The maximum angle of rotation is 50֯ - 60֯
 The line joining the center of rotation and the tip of the farthest
wing of the aircraft is known minimum turning radius.

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Speed of Aircrafts:
 The speed of aircraft can be defined in two ways. i.e. Cruising speed
or air speed.
 Cruising speed is the speed of aircrafts with respect to the ground,
when the aircrafts is flying in air at its maximum speed.
 Air speed is the speed of aircraft relative to the wind.
 If the aircraft is flying at a speed of 500 kmph & there is a head
wind of 50 kmph, air speed will be 450 kmph.
Aircraft capacity: ANIRUDH N, JNNCE
The number of passengers, baggage & fuel that can be accommodated
in the aircrafts depends upon the capacity of aircraft.
Weight of aircraft & wheel configuration:
Weight of the aircraft directly influence the length of the runway as
well as the structural requirements i.e. the thickness of the runway,
taxiway, apron & hangars.

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Jet blast
 At relatively high velocities, the aircraft eject hot exhaust gases.
 The velocity of jet blast may be as high as 300kmph.
 Thus high velocity causes inconvenience to the passengers.
 Since, the bituminous pavements are affected by the jet blast,
therefore it is desirable to provide cement concrete pavement at least
at the touchdown portion to resist the effect of the blast in preference
to the bituminous pavement. ANIRUDH N, JNNCE

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DFP
4xl0V0mk 26
Fuel spillage
 At loading aprons & shelter it is difficult to avoid spillage
completely, but effort should be made to bring it within
minimum limit.
 The flexible pavements are seriously affected by the fuel
spillage.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BVzd47FCClg

Noise: ANIRUDH N, JNNCE

 Noise of an aircraft is mainly depend upon
the type propulsion used.
 Jet engine makes more noise than propeller
engine.

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 AIRPORT CLASSIFICATION
1. General classification
 International airport
 National airport
 Military Aviation
2. Classification based on the type of landing and take-off
 STOL ( Short Take-Off and Landing )
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Runway length has 500m to 1000m
 VTOL ( Vertical Take-Off and Landing )
Operational area 25 to 50sqm
 CTOL ( Conventional Take-Off and Landing )
Runway length has >1500m
 RTOL ( Reduced Take-Off and Landing )
Runway length has 1000m to 1500m
3. BASED ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN
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STOL VTOL

CTOL RTOL

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 BASED ON GEOMETRIC DESIGN
 Properly designed airport geometry provides optimum efficiency in
traffic operation with maximum safety.
 Geometric design of runway is considered as the major part of the
design of runway.

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 AIRPORT SITE SELECTION
1. Regional plan
2. Airport use
3. Proximity to other airport
4. Ground accessibility
5. Topography ANIRUDH N, JNNCE

6. Obstructions
7. Visibility
8. Wind
9. Noise nuisance

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1. Regional plan
The site selected should fit well into the regional plan, thereby it
should be an integral part of the airport network of the country.
2. Airport use
The site selection depend upon
the use of the airport i.e. whether
for civilian airport or for military
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use. During emergencies civilian
airport are taken over by military
aircraft for military operation.
Hence the site should be selected
for an airport should provide
natural protection from air raids.

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3. Proximity to other airport
The selected site should be at a considerable distance from the
existing airport so that the aircraft operation in one airport
doesn’t interfere with other airport.
4. Ground accessibility
The site selected should be easily accessible to the road users,
the time required to reach an airport
ANIRUDH N, JNNCEfrom business or
residential centers should not be more than 30min.

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5. Topography
Topography should also be considered while selecting a site
topographical survey includes collection of wind data, drainage
condition data etc. Site selected such that it is free from obstructions
due to presence of mountains and fog, smog, mist etc.
6. Obstructions
Long clearance areas are provided on either ends of a runway
known as approach areas. Obstructions can be in the form of tall
trees, poles, towers. Buildings or other man
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7. Visibility
Poor visibility not only reduces the capacity of an airport but
sometimes also leads to accidents. Hence an airport site selected
should be free from fog , smoke, & mist.
8. Wind
The aircraft landing and take-off operation are always done by
heading into the wind i.e. in a direction opposite to the direction of
wind. Hence before selectingANIRUDH
a site wind data should be collected
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for a minimum period of five years.
9. Noise nuisance
The noise generated by an aircraft depends upon the type of
propulsion, gross weight of the aircraft etc. Jet engine aircraft
such as military aircraft produce even higher intensity of sound
therefore the airport site selected should be free from residential
and industrial areas.
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Regional planning
The planning of an airport should be done considering the air
traffic needs of the country and not that of an individual
locality. If the planning is not done properly than it seriously
affects the air traffic services of the country . The following
data should be collected for planning of an air port .

1. Topography and geographical features

2. Population ANIRUDH N, JNNCE
3. Existing airport in the vicinity
4. Air traffic characteristics

1. Topography and geographical features

Some times hilly terrains and mountainous areas, are
accessible only by air services is the only mode of transport
hence while preparing a regional plan such places which are
not accessible by other mode should be considered.
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 Population
The population growth rate & present population should be
studied before preparing a regional plan. The income of the
people, their spending power, affordability of a air ticket etc.

 Existing airport in the vicinity

The population and economical characteristics of two nearby
areas having an airport should studied.
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Two nearby airport should be separated by a sufficient
distances so that the aircraft operation in one airport doesn't
effect the other airport.

 Air traffic characteristics

Air traffic characteristics such as present air traffic volume,
future expected volume of air traffic should be studied the
future expected volume in terms of number of passenger,
cargo.
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 RUNWAY DESIGN

 Runway Orientation

 Cross wind
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 Wind Coverage

 Wind Rose Diagram

 Runway configurations

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 RUNWAY ORIENTATION
 The orientation of a runway depends upon the direction of wind & to
some extent on the area available for development.

 Runway are always orientated in the direction of prevailing wind.

 Determination of a runway orientation is a critical task in the planning

& design of an airport.
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 The direction of the runway controls the layout of the other airport
facilities, such as passengers terminals, taxiways/apron configurations,
circulation roads & parking facilities.

Data Required

1) Wind Direction 2)Wind intensity

3) Wind duration 4)Fog characteristics of the Area 39

 WIND DIRECTION

 Wind Direction changes in a year.

 Wind acts as:

1. Head Wind: Reduce 10% ANIRUDH N, JNNCE

of runway

2. Tail Wind: Push, Increase stopping distance

3. Cross wind: No safety, should be within limits, depends on

size of aircraft, wing configuration, condition of pavement.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7P9OAng32F0

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WIND DIRECTION

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 Cross wind component
• It is not possible to obtain the direction of wind along the direction
of the centre line of runway throughout the year, On some day of
the year or hour of the day, the wind may blow making certain
angle with the centre line of runway.

• The normal component of the wind is called cross wind

components.

The maximum permissible cross wind component

It depends upon the size of the aircraft and the wind configuration.
• FAA - 15 kmph for small aircrafts
- 25 kmph for mixed traffic

• ICAO – 35 kmph for big aircrafts 42

 WIND COVERAGE
 The percentage of time in a year during which the cross wind
component remains within limits 15kmph is called wind
coverage.
 Calm period: The period for which wind intensity remains
below 6.4 Kmph.
 Calm period = 100-Total wind coverage
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 WIND ROSE DIAGRAM
 The wind data i.e direction, duration & intensity are graphically
represented by a diagram called wind rose diagram.
 To find the orientation of the runway to achieve wind coverage.
 The Area is divided into 16 parts using an angle of 22.5 ͦ .
 Average wind data of 5 to 10 Years is used for preparing wind
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rose diagrams.
Types:
1. Type 1: Showing direction and duration of wind
2. Type 2: Showing Direction, duration and intensity of wind

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ANIRUDH N, JNNCE

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 Type 1: Showing direction and duration of wind

 The radial lines indicate the wind direction and each circle
represents the duration of wind.
 This value is plotted along the north direction in figure.
 Similarly other values are ANIRUDH N, JNNCE
also plotted along the respective
directions.
 All plotted points are then joined by straight lines.
 The best direction of runway usually along the direction of the
longest line on wind rose diagram.
 In the figure the best orientation of runway is NS direction.

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WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

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WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

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 WIND ROSE DIAGRAM

 The direction which gives maximum wind coverage is

selected as runways.
 In case single runway does not provide 95% of wind. 2
runways can be given. ANIRUDH N, JNNCE

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 RUNWAY CONFIGURATION

 Single Runways

 Parallel Runways
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 Intersecting Runways

 Non Intersecting Runways

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52
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Open V or Non intersecting runways

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 Basic runway length
 Length of runway under assumed condition.

➢ Airport altitude is at sea level.

➢ Temperature at the airport is

standard (15˚c).
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➢ Runway is leveled in the longitudinal

direction.
➢ No wind is blowing on the runway.

➢ Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity.

➢ There is no wind blowing enroute to the destination.

➢ Enroute temperature is standard.

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 The basic runway length is determined from the
performance characteristics of the taxiway using the airport.
1. Normal landing case
2. Normal take off case
3. Engine failure case
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Normal landing case

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 The aircraft should come to a stop within 60% of landing distance

assuming that the pilot makes an approach at the proper speed and
crosses the threshold of the runway at a height of 15m.
 The runway of full strength is to be provided for the entire landing
distance.
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Normal take off case

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Normal take off case

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 The take-off distance must be 115% of the actual distance the aircraft
uses to reach a height of 10.5 m.
 It requires a clearway at the end of the runway in the direction of
take-off. This should not be less than 150m wide. The upward slope
of clearway from the end of the runway shall not exceed 1.25%
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Engine failure case

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Require either clearway or a stopway, or both. (Stopway: Used for

decelerating the aircraft and bringing it to a stop during an aborted
take-off.)

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 CORRECTIONS FOR RUNWAY LENGTH

 Corrections for elevation

 Corrections for temperature
 Check for total corrections for elevation plus temperature
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 Corrections for gradient

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Correction for Elevation
• As the elevation increases, the air density reduces. This in turn
reduces the lift on the wings of the aircraft and the aircraft requires
greater ground speed before it can rise into the air. To achieve
greater speed, longer length of runway is required.
• ICAO recommends that the basic runway length should be
increased at the rate of 7% per 300m rise in elevation above MSL.
Correction for Temperature
• The rise in airport reference temperature has the same effect as that
of the increase in elevation. Airport reference temperature is
defined as the monthly mean of average daily temperature (Ta ) for
the hottest month of the year plus one third of the difference of this
temperature and the monthly mean of the maximum daily
temperature (Tm)
• Airport reference temperature = Ta + [(Tm – Ta )/3]
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• ICAO recommends that the basic runway length after having been
corrected for elevation, should be further increased at the rate of 1%
for every 1֯ C rise of airport reference temperature above the standard
atmospheric temperature at that elevation.
• The standard atmospheric temperature at the site can be determined
by reducing the standard sea level temperature of 15֯ C at the rate of
6.5֯ C per 1000 m rise in elevation.
Check for Total Correction for Elevation and Temperature
• ICAO further recommends that, if the total correction for elevation
plus temperature exceeds 35% of the base runway length, these
corrections should then be further checked up by conducting specific
studies at the site by model tests.
Correction for Gradient
• Steeper gradient results in greater consumption of energy and as
such longer length of runway is required to attain the desired ground
speed. FAA recommends that the runway length after having being
corrected for elevation and temperature should be further increased at
the rate of 20% for every 1% of effective gradient.
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RUNWAY CROSS SECTION

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Geometric design of runway

➢Runway length
➢Runway width
➢Width of the safety area ANIRUDH N, JNNCE
➢Transverse gradient
➢Longitudinal and effective gradient
➢Rate of change of longitudinal gradient
➢Sight distance
➢Shoulders

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 ICAO airport Code designation
ITEMS
A B C D E
Runway length under
>2100 1500-2100 900-1500 750-900 600-750
standard conditions, m
Width of runway, m 45 45 30 23 18
Width of the safety area, m 150 150 150 78 78
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Maximum longitudinal
1.25 1.25 1.5 2.0 2.0
gradient, %
Maximum effective gradient,
1.0 1.0 1.0 2.0 2.0
%
Max transverse gradient, % 1.5 1.5 1.5 2.0 2.0
Min distance between centre
210 210 150 120 120
lines of parallel runway, m

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Taxiways

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 Factors affecting the layout of Taxiways
1. Aircraft which just landed and taxing towards the apron do
not interfere with the aircraft taxing for take-off.
2. At busy airports, taxiways should be located at various points
along the runways, so that the landing aircraft clears space
for other aircraft,. i.e Exit taxiways
3. The route of taxiway should ANIRUDHprovide
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distance from the apron to the runway end.
4. As far as possible the intersection of taxiway and runway
should be avoided.
5. Exit taxiways should be designed for high turnoff speeds. –
Increase runway capacity - Decrease runway occupancy
time.

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 Geometric standards of Taxiways

1. Length of taxiway –Short as possible

2. Width of taxiway – Lesser than runway, because speed is

lesser - 7.5-22.5m
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3. Width of safety area – Shoulders – paved

4. Longitudinal gradient – Level gradient desirable or it will

consume fuel, 1.5-3%

5. Transverse gradient – Drain, 1.5-2%

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6. Rate of change of longitudinal gradient: Affects the sight
Distance, shall not exceed 1-1.2% for 30m length of vertical
curve.
7. Sight Distance: Since speed is less, lower sight distance is
enough, Taxiway must be visible from 3m height for a distance
of 300m
8. Turning radius: R = V2/125f where f – 0.13
According to Horonjeff, the radius is given
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R=0.388W2/(T/2-S)
Where R – radius of taxiway
W – Wheel base of the aircraft in m
T – Width of the taxiway,
S – Distance between midway point of the main gears and edge of
taxiway pavement

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Exit Taxiways

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 Location of Exit Taxiways

 Number of exit taxiways

 Exit speed

 Type of aircraft

 Weather conditions
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 Topographical features

 Pilot variability

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Passenger facilities and services at Terminal Building

 It is portion of an airport other than landing area.

 It serves as a focal point for the activities on the airport.
 Terminal area includes
 Terminal and operational buildings
 Vehicle parking area
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 Aircraft service hangars
 Facilities for cargo handling and storage
 Facilities for passengers

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74
 Terminal building usually refers to a building mainly, used for
passengers, airline and administration facilities.
 Its layout is such as to offer the enplaning passengers, the
convenient and direct access from the vehicle platform or street side
of the building, through booking and waiting rooms, to the aircraft
loading positions on the apron.
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 Deplaning passengers are also provided with a direct route from the
aircraft to the baggage claim counter and then to the vehicle
platform.

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