NOTES -2020-2021

Section :BOYS’ &GIRLS’ Date :7-04-20

Class & Div. :XI (All divisions) Subject:CHEMISTRY
Lesson / Topic: ATOMIC STRUCTURE -1
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 Atom :
 It is the smallest particle of matter that takes part in a chemical reaction.
 Most of the elements are monatomic , oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and halogens are diatomic
.Phosphorous is tetra atomic and sulphur octa atomic

 Sub atomic particles : Electron , Proton and Neutron

 An electron : Discovered by J.J Thomson by studying cathode rays and name g electron is given by Stony
 It is that fundamental particles which carries 1 unit negative charge (1.6 x 10 -19 c) and has a mass
nearly equal to 1/1837 th  of that hydrogen atom(9.11x10-31 kg)
 J. Millika fund charge on electron by his Oil drop experiment
 e/m value calculated by J J Thomson is 1.758 x 1011 c/kg
 A proton : Discovered by E.Goldstein by studying cannal rays/anode rays .
 It is that fundamental particles which carries 1 unit Positive charge (1.6 x 10 -19 c) and has a mass
nearly equal to of that hydrogen atom(1.672× 10–27kg)
 e/m value calculated by J J Thomson is 9.58× 107 C/kg
 Neutron : Discovered by James Chadwick by bombardment of alpha rays on beryllium .
2He4 + 4Be9  6C12 + 0n1
 It is that fundamental particles which carries neutral charge and has a mass nearly equal to of that
hydrogen atom(1.672× 10–27kg)
 e/m value zero
 Representation of atom : Z XA
Where : A -> Mass number, Z Atomic number, X Symbol of atom
 Atomic Number : It is represented by Z. The number of protons present in the Nucleus is called atomic number
of an element. It is also known as nuclear charge.
 For neutral atom : Number of proton = Number of electron
 For charged atom : Number of e– = Z – (charge on atom}
 Mass Number : It is represented by capital A. The sum of number of neutrons and protons is called the mass
number. of the element. It is also known as number of nucleons because neutron & proton are present in
nucleus.
 A = number of protons + number of neutrons

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 PRACTICE :
1. Find number of p, e and n
6 C12 , 11 Na 23 , F- (Z=9 , A=19)
2. If no. of protons in X–2 is 16. then no. of e– in X+2 will be–
(a) 14 (b) 16 (c) 18 (d) None
 Isotopes : Given by Soddy
 They are the atoms of a same element which have the same atomic number (Z) but different mass number
(A)
 They have same Nuclear charge (Z) but different number of Neutrons (A–Z)
 Isotopes have same chemical property but different physical property.
 6C
12
6C
13
6C
14

 e=6 e=6 e=6

 p=6 p=6 p=6
 n=6 n=7 n=8

 Isobars : Given by Aston

 They are the atoms of different element which have the same mass number (A) but different Atomic
number (Z)
 They have different number of Electron, Protons & Neutrons But sum of number of neutrons & Protons i.e.
number of nucleons remains same.
 For Eg. 19 K40 20 Ca40
o THOMSON'S MODEL OF ATOM [1904] :- 'Plum-Pudding model'.
Thomson proposed that an atom consists of a uniform sphere of positive charge in which the electrons are
present at some places. However this idea was dropped due to the success of alpha ray scattering
experiments studied by Rutherford and Mardson
o RUTHERFORD's MODEL OF ATOM
 The positively charged heavy mass, which occupies only a small volume in an atom, is called nucleus. It is
supposed to be present at the centre of the atom
 Electrons revolve round the nucleus in closed orbits with high speeds. This model was similar to the solar
system, the nucleus representing the sun and revolving electrons as planets.
Exam notes: Thus radius (size) of the atom is 105 times the radius of the nucleus.
The radius of a nucleus is proportional to the cube root of the no. of nucleons within it.
R = R0A1/3 cm Where R0 = 1.33 x 10-13 A = mass number
 Drawbacks of Rutherford model :
1) This theory could not explain the stability of an atom. According to Maxwell electron loses it's energy
continuously in the form of electromagnetic radiations. As a result of this, the e- should loss energy at
every turn and move closer and closer to the nucleus following a spiral path. The ultimate result will be
that it will fall into the nucleus, thereby making the atom unstable.

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 2) If the electrons loss energy continuously, the observed spectrum should be continuous but the actual
observed spectrum consists of well defined lines of definite frequencies (discontinuous). Hence, the
loss of energy by electron is not continuous in an atom.
 Continuous Spectrum/ Discontinuous Spectrum :
When sunlight (white light) is passed through a prism, it is dispersed or resolved into continuous
spectra of colours but Light emitted from atoms heated in a flame or excited electrically in gas
discharge tube, does not contain a continuous spread of wavelengths (or frequencies). It contains only
certain well-defined wavelengths (or frequencies). The spectrum pattern appears as a series of bright
lines (separated by gaps of darkness) and hence called as Line Spectrum. One notable feature observed
is, that each element emits a characteristic spectrum, suggesting that there is direct relation between the
spectrum characteristics and the internal atomic structure of an atom.
o Electromagnetic waves (EM waves) or Radiant Energy/Electromagnetic radiation
 It is the energy transmitted from one body to another in the form of waves and these waves travel in
the space with the same speed as light ( 3 × 10 8 m/s) and these waves are known as Electromagnetic
waves or radiant energy.
 Characteristics (i) All electromagnetic radiations travel with the velocity of light.
(ii) These consist of electric and magnetic fields components that oscillate in directions perpendicular
to each other and perpendicular to the direction in which the wave is travelling
 The radiant Energy do not need any medium for propagation

 A wave is characterized by following six characterstics

a) Wavelength  (Lambda) : It is defined as the distance between two nearest crest or nearest trough
. It is measured in terms of a A° (Angstrom), pm (Picometre), nm (nanometer), cm(centimetre), m
(metre)
1Å = 10–10 m, 1 Pm = 10–12 m, 1nm = 10–9 m, 1cm = 10–2m
b) Frequency  (nu )
Frequency of a wave is defined as the number of waves which pass through a point in 1 sec.
It is measured in terms of Hertz (Hz ), sec–1 , or cycle per second (cps) 1 Hertz = 1 sec –1 = 1 cps. .
c) Velocity (c)
Velocity of a wave is defined as distance covered by a wave in 1 sec
c = ( c(speed of light )=3 × 108 m/s, frequency , wave number)
d) Wave number ( nu bar) It is the reciprocal of the wave length that is number of waves
present

1. Chlorophyll absorbs radiations of wavelength 600 nm. What is the frequency and wave
number of this radiation ??

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 2. Arrange the following in the increasing order of their e/m values.
electron, proton and neutron.
3. An element atomic number 30 and mass number 66, what will be the number of
protons and neutrons in this atom?
 PLANCK'S QUANTUM THEORY
In 1901, Max Planck studied the distribution of the frequencies of radiations emitted from
the hot bodies. He proposed a bold hypothesis.
According to planck's quantum theory :
1) The radiant energy emitted or absorbed by a body not continuously but
discontinuously in the form of small discrete packets of energy and these packets are
called quantum.
2) In case of light, the smallest packet of energy is called as 'photon' but in general case
the smallest packet of energy called as quantum.
3) The energy of each quantum is directly proportional to frequency of the radiation i.e.
hhc/Planck’s constant (h)= (The value of h is 6.626 JS
4) Total amount of energy transmitted from one body to another will be some integral
multiple of energy of a quantum. E = nhWhere n is an integer
Questions :
 How much energy associated with radiation of wavelength 200nm?
 What is quanta?
 Photoelectric Effect
It was observed by Hertz and Lenard around 1880 that when a clean metallic surface is
irradiated by monochromatic light of proper frequency, electrons are emitted from it.
This phenomenon of ejection of the electrons from metal surface was called as
Photoelectric Effect.
work function: Minimum energy needed to eject electron=hv 0
V0- Threshold frequency
Incident energy = work function + Kinetic energy
hv=hv0 + K.E
Intensity increases number of electrons ejected
Frequency increases the K.E of ejected electron
 Black body radiation : perfect absorber and emitter of radiation
The above two phenomenon can’t be explained by wave nature of light , hence it is believed that it
has dual nature (wave and particle nature)

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  ATOMIC SPECTRA OF HYDROGEN AND BOHR’S MODEL
 It is observed that the atoms of hydrogen in gas discharge tube emit radiations
whose spectrum shows line characteristics (line spectra). The line spectra of
hydrogen lies in three regions of Electromagnetic Spectrum: Infra-red, Visible and
UV region. In all there are five sets of discrete lines
 The set of lines in the Visible region are known as Balmer Series, those in Ultra-
Violet as Lyman series and there are three sets of lines in Infra-red region :
Paschen, Brackett and Pfund series. Balmer and Rydberg gave an empirical
relation to define the wavelength of the lines in each series in terms of a parameter
called as Wave Number

 These observations led Bohr to conclude that electrons in an atom are not
randomly distributed, but were arranged in definite energy states. The energy of
each state (or level) was fixed or quantised (from characteristic nature of H-atom
spectra). The complete theory developed by him is organised in his postulates
The important postulates on which Bohr's Model is based are the following
a) An atom has a nucleus where all protons and neutrons are present. The size of
nucleus is very small and it is present at the centre of the atom.
b) Negatively charged electron are revolving around the nucleus in the same way
as the planets are revolving around the sun. The path of electron is circular. The
attraction force (Coulombic or electrostatic force) between nucleus and electron
is equal to the centrifugal force on electron.
Attraction force towards nucleus = centrifugal force away from nucleus.

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 c) Electrons can revolve only in those orbits whose angular momentum (mvr) is integral
multiple of nh/
d) The orbits in which electron can revolve are known as stationary Orbits because in
these orbits energy of electron is always constant.
e) Each stationary orbit is associated with definite amount of energy therefore these
orbits are also called as energy levels and are numbered as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .... or K, L, M, N, O,
..... from the nucleus outwards.
f) The emission or absorption of energy in the form of photon can only occur when
electron jumps from one stationary state to another & it is h Energy is
absorbed when electron jumps from inner to outer orbit and is emitted when electron
moves from outer to inner orbit
o For Hydrogen like species (He +, Li2+, Be 3+)
z2
1) Energy of the orbit is given by En = -2.18 x10 -18 x J/atom
n2
n2
2) Radius of the orbit is given by En = 52. 9 x pm
z
n
3) Calculation of velocity : 2.18 x10 8 x cm/s
z
1 1
4) Energy change when electron jumps from n1 to n2 is 2.18 x10 -18 - J/atom
n21 n22
Practice questions :
1.
Calculate the radius ratio of 2nd excited state of H & 1st excited state of Li+2
2.
Calculate the radius ratio of 3rd & 5th orbit of He+
3.
Calculate the energy 2nd orbit of hydrogen and 3rd orbit of Li+2
4.
Calculate the energy of a photon emitted during a transition from n = 5 state to the n = 2 state in
the hydrogen atom

 Limitations of Bohr’s Model of Atom

 Unable to explain the spectrum of multi-electron atoms (For example – helium atom
which contains two electrons)
 Unable to explain splitting of spectral lines in electric field (Stark effect) or in magnetic
field (Zeeman effect)
 Unable to explain the fine spectral lines in H atom.

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 THE DUAL NATURE OF MATTER (THE WAVE NATURE OF ELECTRON)
Light has the dual nature , same concept is applied to the matter . De Broglie was proposed dual
behavior to matter.
In 1924. a French physicist, Louis De Broglie suggested that every form of matter (electron
or proton or any other particle) behaves wave and particle nature .
That a particle of mass m moving with a velocity v should have a wavelength

Where p= momentum
Wavelengths of objects having large masses are so short that their wave properties cannot be
detected. Wavelengths of particles having very small masses (electron and other subatomic
particles) can be detected experimentally.
Q. Why don’t we observe the wave properties of large objects like cricket ball?
Because of their large mass, wavelength is small,hence cannot be detected.

 Bohr's theory considers an electron as a material particle. Its position and momentum can
be determined with accuracy. But, when an electron is considered in the form of wave as
suggested by de-Broglie, it is not possible to ascertain simultaneously the exact position
and velocity of the electron more precisely at a given instant since the wave is extending
throughout a region of space.
 In 1927, Werner Heisenberg presented a principle known as Heisenberg uncertainty
principle which states as : "It is impossible to measure simultaneously the exact
position and exact momentum of a body as small as an electron." The uncertainty of
measurement of positionx and the uncertainty of momentum p or mv, are related by
Heisenberg's relationship as

 Significance of Uncertainty Principle:Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle rejects the

existence of definite paths or trajectories of electrons and other similar particles.(orbit is
replaced by orbital)

1. What will be the wavelength of a ball of mass 0.1 kg moving with a velocity of 10 m s–1 ?
2. A golf ball has a mass of 40g, and a speed of 45 m/s. If the speed can be measured
within accuracy of 2%, calculate the uncertainty in the position

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 3. Prove the de Broglie n λ = 2 πr

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