KAMRAN

GC
UNIVERSITY
FAISALABAD

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NAME:
MUHAMMAD KAMRAN
ROLL No:
4256
SUBMITTED To:
SIR SHERAZ MALIK

4TH SEMESTER BSIT ( MORNING)

COMPUTER

NETWORK

TOPIC: 1

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SUMMARIZING CELL SWITCHING (ATM )

ATM is a technology which has some event in the development of broadband ISDN in 1970s
and 1980s, which can be considered an evolution of packet switching. Each cell is 53 bytes
long – 5 bytes header and 48 bytes payload. Making an ATM call requires first sending a
message to set up a connection.

Subsequently all cells follow the same path to the destination. It can handle both constant rate
traffic and variable rate traffic. Thus it can carry multiple types of traffic with end-to-end quality
of service. ATM is independent of transmission medium, they maybe sent on a wire or fiber by
themselves or they may also be packaged inside the payload of other carrier systems. ATM
networks use “Packet” or “cell” Switching with virtual circuits. It’s design helps in the
implementation of high performance multimedia networking.

ATM CELL FORMATE

As information is transmitted in ATM in the form of fixed size units
called cells. As known already each cell is 53 bytes long which consists of 5 bytes header and
48 bytes payload.

Asynchronous Transfer Mode can be of two format types which are as follows:
1. UNI Header:
 which is used within private networks of ATM for communication between ATM
endpoints and ATM switches. It includes the Generic Flow Control (GFC) field.
2. NNI Header:
 is used for communication between ATM switches, and it does not include
the Generic Flow Control(GFC) instead it includes a Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) which
occupies the first 12 bits.

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ATM vs DATA Networks (Internet)

 ATM is a “virtual circuit” based: the path

is reserved before transmission. While, Internet Protocol (IP) is connectionless and end-to-end
resource reservations not possible. RSVP is a new signaling protocol in the internet.
 ATM Cells: Fixed or small size and Tradeoff is between voice or data. While, IP packets
are of variable size.
 Addressing: ATM uses 20-byte global NSAP addresses for signaling and 32-bit locally
assigned labels in cells. While, IP uses 32-bit global addresses in all packets.

ATM Layers:

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TOPIC: 2
TEXT BOOK QUESTIONS ON STP, BRIDGING:

What is STP?

Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) is a switching protocol that prevents layer 2 loops
created by the redundant links. STP enables switches to become well-informed of each other so
that they can negotiate a Loop-Free path through the network.

How Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) works?

STP chooses one of the switches in the network as a Root Bridge, which will be used as a
reference point. Then calculates all the redundant paths to that root bridge, picks one path
which is best to forward frames, and blocks other redundant paths. 

Due to this redundant path blocking happens, switching Loops are prevented.

What are the different port states in STP?

1. Disabled – A port in the disabled state does not take part in the STP.

2. Listening – A port in the listening state sends and listens to BPDU messages to make sure no
loops occur on the switched network. The port also arranges to forward data frames without
populating the MAT – MAC address table.

3. Learning– A port in the learning state populates the MAC address table (MAT) but doesn’t
forward data frames. The port still sends and receives BPDU messages as in the listening state.
4. Forwarding – The port in the forwarding state can send and receive data frames, collect MAC
addresses in its address table, send and receive BPDU messages. This port is now a fully
functioning switch port within the spanning-tree topology.

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5. Blocking – A port in the blocking state does not forward frames. It only listens to BPDU
messages. The function of the blocking state is to prevent the use of looped paths.

What are BPDU messages?

All the switches switch over information to select the root bridge and for configuration of the
network. This is done through the messages called Bridge Protocol Data Unit (BPDU). Each
switch compares the parameters in the BPDU messages that it sends to one neighbor switch
with the one that it receives from another neighbor switch.

Explain different types of STP Timers?

STP uses three timers – 1) Hello 2) Forward Delay 3) Maximum Age timer. These timers make
sure that a switched network converges properly before a bridging loop can form due to
redundant links.
Hello timer – The time interval between configuration BPDU messages sent by the root bridge.
It is 2 seconds by default

.
Forward Delay timer – This is the time interval that a switch port spends in both the Listening
and Learning states before going to forward state. The default value is 15 seconds.
Max (Maximum) Age timer – Maximum length of time a BPDU information can be stored before
discarding it. It can also be defined as a time interval that a switch stores BPDU information
without receiving an update. By default, it is 20 seconds. 

Explain different types of STP Port Roles?

Root port – The root port is always on Non-Root Bridge. It is always the port on the link directly
connected to the root bridge, or the port on the link which is the shortest path to the root bridge.
It is always in the forward state.
Designated port – A designated port can be on both the root Bridge & non-root Bridge. Also, all
ports of the root bridge are designated port. A designated port is one that has the best (lowest)

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cost to the root bridge. It will be marked as a forwarding port. 

Forwarding port – A forwarding port can send and receive i.e. forwards frames.
Blocked port – A blocked port is the port that is used to avoid the switching loops. It is also
called a Non-designated port. It only listens to BPDU messages. Any port other than root &
designated port is a blocked port.

What is the destination MAC address used by BPDUs (Bridge

Protocol Data Units)?

BPDUs (Bridge Protocol Data Units) frames are sent out as multicast frames. The destination
MAC address for BPDUs is 01:80:c2:00:00:00.

For Free, Demo classes Call: 7798058777

Registration Link: Click Here!

What are the Types of BPDU?

Thereare two types of BPDUs as below:-

1) Configuration – This Configuration BPDU is used for spanning-tree protocol (STP)
assessment.
2) Topology Change Notification (TCN) – This TCN BPDU is used to state the changes in the
network topology.

What are the steps of STP working?

Following are the steps of STP working:

1. Elect Root Bridge in the Network Topology.

o Calculate Path cost and Root Path cost for every bridge. (Optional)
2. Assign the Root Ports on Non-Root Bridges.
3. Assign the Designated Ports on all the bridges.
4. Assign the Non-Designated Ports.

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What is the Bridge ID?

Bridge ID is 8 bytes long. It includes both the priority and the MAC address of the device. In the
STP domain, this bridge ID is used to elect the root bridge.

How Root bridge is elected in the STP domain?

In the STP domain, the bridge with the lowest Bridge ID is elected as the root bridge. This
means a switch with the lowest priority will elect as the root bridge, and if two or more switches
have the same priority then switch with the lowest mac address will elect as the Root Bridge.
 

What is Path or Link or STP Path Cost value?

The Spanning Tree Path Cost Value is inversely correlated to the bandwidth of the link means
low cost represents high bandwidth. Therefore a path with a low cost value is superior than a
path with high cost value.

For Free, Demo classes Call: 7798058777

Registration Link: Click Here!

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