A PROJECT

ON
AUTOMATIC HOUSE-HOLD POWER SAVING
DEVICE
A project submitted by partial fulfillment of the requirement for the
degree of B-TECH in Electrical Engineering from Modern Institute
of Engineering & Technology (affiliated to MAKAUT).

Guided by
Mr. SUMAN ADHIKARY
Submitted by
SOUMYA SETT (26901613021)
SOURAJIT DEY (26901613023)
ARPAN CHATTERJEE (26901613004)
SAMIRAN BANIK (26901613016)
TANMOY DAS (26901614061)
SOURAB BAG (26901614054)
DHURJOTI PRASAD MITRA (26901614035)
KAUSHIK SAHA (26901614038)

Department of Electrical Engineering

Modern Institute of Engineering & Technology
(Approved by AICTE & Affliated to MAKAUT)
Rajhat, Bandel, Hooghly
West Bengal
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very much thankful to our respected teachers for providing us with
the opportunity to present this project report on AUTOMATIC HOUSE-
HOLD POWER SAVING DEVICE. Professor Suman Adhakary is our mentor
of this project, we convey special regard to him. We pay our gratitude to
prof. Debdyuti Mukherjee (HOD of Electrical Engg. Dept.) for her active
contributions and guidance in making this report resourceful and
successful.

Signatures:

3
CONTENTS:

Certificate......................................................................................1
Recommendation………………………………..........................2
Acknowledgement……………………………………………….3
Contents…………………………………………........................4-6
List of Symbols…………………………………………………...7
Pictures of the Prototype……………………...............................8-9
Abstract…………………………………………………………...10

Chapters Page(S)
Chapter 1: Introduction 11-12
1.1. Introduction……………………………………………..11
1.2. Background……………………………...........................12

Chapter 2: Past Research Work 13

Chapter 3: Theory 14-29

3.1. Introduction…………………………………………………….14
3.2. Power Factor………………………………………………….14-18
3.3. Ac response of inductor, Capacitor and Resistor…………...18-21
3.3.1. Inductor……………………………………………… 18-19
3.3.2. Capacitor………………………………………………19-20
3.3.3. Resistor………………………………………………...20-21
3.4. Causes of Low Power Factor…………………………………...21
3.5. Disadvantage of Low Power Factor…………………………...22
3.5.1. Large Copper Loss……………………………………..21
3.5.2. Large Kva Rating of equipment and Switch gear……21
3.5.3. Generator conductor size and cost…………………….22
3.5.4. Poor voltage regulation and large voltage drop……...23
3.5.5. Low efficiency…………………………………………...23
3.5.6. Penalty from power supply company…………………23
3.6. Need for power factor controller……………………………..23-24

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 3.7. Types of power factor controllers…………………………………24
3.7.1. Passive PFC…………………………………………………24
3.7.2. Active PFC…………………………………………………..25
3.7.3 Synchronous PFC…………………………………………...25
3.8. Capacitive Power Factor correction……………………………..25-26
3.9. Demerits of Capacitive Power Factor correction……………… 27-28
3.9.1. Capacitor Selection…………………………………………..27
3.9.2. Supply Harmonics……………………………………………27
3.9.3. Detuning Reactors……………………………………………28
3.9.4. Supply Resonance…………………………………………..28-29
3.10. Application of Power Factor controllers……………………………29
3.10.1. Electric Industry……………………………………………..29
3.10.2. Switch-mode power supply.…………………………………29

Chapter 4: Principle of design 30

4.1. Circuit Description and Block Diagram……………………………30

Chapter 5: Modules 31-45

5.1. Power Supply………………………………………………………..31
5.1.1. Apparatus Details……………………………………………….31
5.1.1.1. Current Sensor………………………………………….31-32
5.1.1.2. Diode……………………………………………………33-34
5.1.1.3. Resistors………………………………………………..34-35
5.1.1.4. LED……………………………………………………35-36
5.1.1.5. Electrolytic Capacitor………………………………...36-38
5.1.1.6. Voltage Regulators……………………………………38-39
5.1.1.7. Relay Module………………………………………….....39
5.1.1.8. Smps………………………………………………………40
5.2. Capacitor Bank………………………………………………………41
5.3. Arduino Uno (Microcontroller)…………………………………..41-45
5.3.1. Introduction…………………………………………………..41
5.3.2. Overview……………………………………………………41-42
5.3.3. Summary……………………………………………………...43

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 5.3.4. Power……………………………………………………………43
5.3.5. Memory…………………………………………………………44
5.3.6. Input and Output……………………………………………..44-45
5.3.7. Programmimg…………………………………………………..45
5.3.8. USB overcurrent protection……………………………………45
5.3.9. Physical Characteristics………………………………………...45

Chapter 6: Software Development 46-47

6.1. Software Development …………………..…………………………..46
6.2. Program .……………………………………………………………...47

Chapter7: Conclusion 48-50

7.1. Conclusion………………………………………………………………48
7.2. Bill of materials…………………………………………………………49
7.3. Reference………………………………………………………………...50

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 LIST OF SYMBOLS
A - Ampere
V - Volt
P - Real Power
Q - Reactive Power
S - Apparent Power
PCB - Printed Circuit Board
PIC - Peripheral Interface Controller
IEEE - Institution of Electrical and Electronics Engineering
IC - Integrated Circuit
SPI - Serial Peripheral Interface
R - Resistor or resistance
L - Inductor
C - Capacitor
X - Reactance
Z - Impedance
kW - kilo-Watt
kVA - kilo-volt-ampere
kVAR - kilo-volt-ampere-reactive
P.F - Power Factor
I - Current
CFL - Compact Fluorescent Lamp

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8
9
 ABSTRACT
Electricity supply system and on the consumer’s bill. A poor power factor is
usually the result of a significant phase difference between the voltage and
Current at the load terminals or it can be due to a high harmonic content
or a distorted current waveform. A poor power factor i s generally the result
of an inductive load such as an induction motor, a power transformer,
ballast in luminaries, a welding set or an induction furnace. A distorted
current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, an inverter, a variable
speed drive, a switched mode power supply, discharge lighting or other
electronic loads.

In our project, we are going to monitor the power of the system especially
known as industries and controlling the power line using power factor. Here
the current transformers and potential transformers are widely used for
analyzing the performance of the power plant and it is given to the circuit.
Then it gives to an ADC circuit for giving to the micro -controller. The
capacitor bank is powered and the power factor which produces fro m the
power plant is gathered first and depending upon that one, the capacitor
banks are used to power the power plant to the uninterrupted working of
the industries. Everything will be monitored using a LCD display. Power
factor correction method is used only for inductive load not for resistive
load. So when system is off state at that time capacitor bank produce back
current and its damage the system. So, automatic power factor correction
method is used to control this back current.

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 CHAPTER 1

1.1. Introduction:
In the present technological revolution, power is very precious and the power system is
becoming more and more complex with each passing day. As such it becomes necessary to
transmit each unit of power generated over increasing distances with minimum loss of power.
However, with increasing number of inductive loads, large variation in load etc. the losses have
also increased manifold. Hence, it has become prudent to find out the causes of power loss and
improve the power system. Due to increasing use of inductive loads, the load power factor
decreases considerably which increases the losses in the system and hence power system losses
its efficiency. An Automatic power factor correction device reads power factor from line
voltage and line current by determining the delay in the arrival of the current signal with respect
to voltage signal from the source with high accuracy by using an internal timer. It determines
the phase angle lag (φ) between the voltage and current signals and then determines the
corresponding power factor (cosφ). Then the microcontroller calculates the compensation
requirement and accordingly switches on the required number of capacitors from the capacitor
bank until the power factor is normalized to about unity. Automatic power factor correction
techniques can be applied to industrial units, power systems and also households to make them
stable. As a result the system becomes stable and efficiency of the system as well as of the
apparatus increases. Therefore, the use of microcontroller based power factor corrector results
in reduced overall costs for both the consumers and the suppliers of electrical energy.Power
factor correction using capacitor banks reduces reactive power consumption which will lead to
minimization of losses and at the same time increases the electrical system‘s efficiency. Power
saving issues and reactive power management has led to the development of single phase
capacitor banks for domestic and industrial applications. The development of this project is to
enhance and upgrade the operation of single phase capacitor banks by developing a micro-
processor based control system. The control unit will be able to control capacitor bank
operating steps based on the varying load current.Current transformer is used to measure the
load current for sampling purposes. Intelligent control using this micro-processor control unit
ensures even utilization of capacitor steps, minimizes number of switching operations and
optimizes power factor correction. The Choke used in the Compact Fluorescent Lamp (CFL)
will be used as an Inductive load.

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1.2. Background:
Electrical energy efficiency is of prime importance to industrial and commercial companies
operating in today's competitive markets. Optimum use of plant and equipment is one of the
main concerns that industries try to balance with energy efficiency for both economic and
environmental reasons. As society becomes increasingly conscious of its impact on the
environment, reduced energy consumption becomes more desirable, which is an achievable
goal for everyone. Through the use of measures such as power factor correction, electricity
consumption is optimized, which ultimately leads to reduced energy consumption and reduced
CO2 greenhouse gas emissions.Within a cost conscious market, payback considerations are
also important. This report identifies the most appropriate application for power factor
correction based on energy consumption, tariff metering,cost payback and emission reduction.
Power factor correction is an appropriate means by which to improve the power quality of an
installation. Its application is dependent though on the size of the installation and the extent
that power factor correction needs to be applied. The opportunity however exists to make a
significant environmental contribution whilst simultaneously providing economic
benefit.Currently, the effective use of the capacitor bank as power factor correction device has
been its use as acapacitor bank for domestic use. Also known as energy stability, it will correct
power factor based on the concept of employing a capacitor as a compensator of reactive
current in the single phase electric circuit. However, this device proves to be less efficient
because of its static operation i.e. the compensation does not vary with changes in the load.The
project titled ―Automatic Power Factor Correction‖ was developed to enable operation of a
single phase capacitor bank to control the power factor such that it follows the change in the
load. The present single phase capacitor bank was not able to operate with an increase or
reduction in the load on the power system. Because the present system could not detect load
rating that changed, its operation was inefficient and power factor correction thus obtained was
not optimum. This project is using fluorescent magnetic ballast as the load.

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 CHAPTER 2

PAST RESEARCH WORK:

Automatic Power Factor Improvement by using Microcontroller by By Md. Shohel Rana,
Md. Naim Miah & Habibur Rahman University of Engineering & Technology Rajshahi- 6204,
Bangladesh.
This paper represents the most effective automatic power factor improvement by using static
capacitors which will be controlled by a Microcontroller with very low cost although many
existing systems are present which are expensive and difficult to manufacture. In this study,
many small rating capacitors are connected in parallel and a reference power factor is set as
standard value into the microcontroller IC. Suitable number of static capacitors is automatically
connected according to the instruction of the microcontroller to improve the power factor close
to unity. Some tricks such as using resistors instead of potential transformer and using one of
the most low cost microcontroller IC (ATmega8) which also reduce programming complexity
that make it most economical system than any other controlling system.
Automatic Power Factor Improvement by Using Microcontroller 8051 by Satyasuranjeet
Behera, Sibasis Mohapatra, Monalisa Bisoi, Under the Guidance of Prof. S. Ghosh Department
of Electrical Engineering National Institute of Technology Rourkela.This paper represents
Automatic power factor correction device reads power factor from line voltage and line current
by determining the delay in the arrival of the current signal with respect to voltage signal from
the function generator with high accuracy by using an internal timer. This time values are then
calibrated as phase angle and corresponding power factor. Then the values are displayed in the
2X16 LCD modules. Then the motherboard calculates the compensation requirement and
accordingly switches on different capacitor banks. This is developed by using 8051
microcontroller.
Automatic Power Factor Correction Using Capacitor Banks and 8051 microcontroller-
by Praveen V.A, Sumaya Fathima, Sumalata I. A, Badiger K. D, Kandagal S.S - International
Journal of Engineering and Technical Research (IJETR) ISSN: 2321-0869, Volume-3, Issue-
6, June 2015
This paper represents Automatic power factor correction device reads the power factor from
line voltage and line current by determining the delay in the arrival of the current signal with
respect to voltage signal from the AC mains with high accuracy by using an internal timer. This
time values are then calibrated as phase angle and corresponding power factor. Then the
microcontroller calculates the compensation requirement and accordingly switches on different
capacitor banks. Automatic power factor correction techniques can be applied to the IT
industries, power systems and also house-holds to make them stable and due to that the system
becomes stable and hence increases efficiency of the system.

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 CHAPTER 3

Theory

3.1. Introduction:
Power factor is the ratio of true power or watts to apparent power or volt amps. They are
identical only when current and voltage are in phase then the power factor is Unity (1.0). The
power in an ac circuit is very seldom equal to the direct product of the volts and amperes. In
order to find the power of a single phase ac circuit the product of volts and. amperes must be
multiplied by the power factor. Ammeters and voltmeters indicate the effective value of amps
and volts. True power or watts can be measured with a wattmeter. If the true power is 1870
watts and the volt amp reading is 2200, then the power factor is 0.85 or 85%. True power
divided by apparent power. The power factor is expressed in decimal or percentage. Low power
factor is usually associated with transformers and motors. An incandescent bulb would have a
power factor of close to 1.0. A one hp motor has a power factor of about 0.80. With low power
factor loads, the current flowing through electrical system components is higher than necessary
to do the required work. These result in excessive heating, which can damage or shorten the
life of the equipment. A low power factor will also cause low-voltage conditions, resulting in
dimming of lights and sluggish motor operation.Low power factor is usually not that much of
a problem in residential houses. It does however become a problem in industries where multiple
numbers of large motors are used. So there is a requirement to correct the power factor in
industries. Generally, the power factor correction capacitors are used for power factor
correction.

3.2. Power Factor:

For a DC circuit the power in the circuit is given by P=VI and this relation also holds good for
the instantaneous power in an AC circuit. However, the average power in an AC circuit
expressed interms of rms voltage and current is:
Pavg = VIcosφ
Where, φ is the phase angle between the voltage and current. The term ̳cosφ‘ is called the
power factor. Power factor is the ration between the KW and the KVA drawn by an electrical
load where the KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the apparent load power. It is a
measure of how effectively the current is being converted into useful work output and more
particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of the supply
system.

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 Fig 2.1: Power Triangle

3.2.1 Active power:

With a purely resistive load with no inductive or capacitive components, such as in an
electric heater, the voltage and current curves intersect the zero coordinate at the
same point (Fig. 1.1).The voltage and current are said to be ‗in phase‘. The power
(P) curve is calculated from the product of the momentary values of voltage (V) and
current (I). It has a frequency which is double that of the voltage supply, and is entirely
in the positive area of the graph, since the product of two negative numbers is positive,
as, of course, is the product of two positive numbers.

Fig 1.1: Current, voltage and power waveform of purely resistive load.

In this case:
(-V) · (-I) = (+P)
Active or real power is defined as that component of the power that is converted into
another form (e.g. heat, light, mechanical power) and is registered by the meter.
With a purely resistive load it is calculated by multiplying the effective value of voltage
[V] by the current [I]: P = V. I

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3.2.2 Active and reactive power:
In practice, however, it is unusual to find purely resistive loads, since an inductive
component is also present. This applies to all consumers that make use of a magnetic
field in order to function, e.g. induction motors, chokes and transformers. Power
converters also require reactive current for commutation purposes. The current used
to create and reverse the magnetic field is not dissipated but flows back and forth as
reactive current between the generator and the consumer. As Fig.: 1. 2 shows, the
voltage and current curves no longer intersect the zero coordinate at the same points.
A phase displacement has occurred. With inductive loads the current lags behind the
voltage, while with capacitive loads the current leads the voltage. If the momentary
values of power are now calculated with the formula (P) = (V) · (I), a negative
product is obtained whenever one of the two factors is negative.

Fig 1.2: Current, voltage, power waveform of partial reactive load.

The active power in this case is given by the

Formula: P = V. I cos 

3.2.3 Reactive power:

Inductive reactive power occurs in motors and transformers when running under no-
load conditions if the copper, iron and, where appropriate, frictional losses are ignored.
If the voltage and current curves are 90° out of phase, one half of the power curve
lies in the positive area, with the other half in the negative area (Fig.1. 3). The active
power is therefore zero, since the positive and negative areas cancel each other out.
Reactive power is defined as that power which flows back and forth between the
generators and the consumer at the same frequency as the supply voltage in order
for the magnetic/electric field to build up and decay. Q = V. I sin 

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 Fig 1.3: Current, voltage, power waveform of pure reactive load.

3.2.4 Apparent power:

The apparent power is critical for the rating of electric power networks. Generators,
transformers, switchgear, fuses, circuit breakers and conductor cross sections must
be adequately dimensioned for the apparent power that results in the system. The
apparent power is the product obtained by multiplying the voltage by the current
without taking into account the phase displacement. S = V. I
The apparent power is given by the vector addition of active power and reactive
power: S = √(P^2+Q^2)

Fig 1.4: Reactive power compensation

A load with a power factor of 1.0 result in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load
with a power factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system. A poor power
factor can be the result of either a significant phase difference between the voltage and current
at the load terminals or it can be due to a high harmonic content or distorted/discontinuous
current waveform. Poor load current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load
such as an induction motor, power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace.
A distorted current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive, switched
mode power supply, discharge lighting or other electronic load. A poor power factor due to an
inductive load can be improved by the addition of power factor correction, but, a poor power

17
factor due to a distorted current waveform requires a change in equipment design or expensive
harmonic filters to gain an appreciable improvement. Many inverters are quoted as having a
power factor of better than 0.95 when in reality, the true power factor is between 0.5 and 0.75.
The figure of 0.95 is based on the Cosine of the angle between the voltage and current but does
not take into account that the current waveform is discontinuous and therefore contributes to
increased losses on the supply.

3.3. AC response of Inductor, Capacitor and Resistor:

3.3.1 Inductor:
An inductor with AC supply is shown in the figure below along with its Phasor diagram, which
shows the phase angle between current and voltage. In case of an inductor, voltage leads current
by 90⁰. The voltage across an inductor leads the current because the Lenz‘ law behavior resists
the buildup of the current and it takes a finite time for an imposed voltage to force the buildup
of current to its maximum.

Fig: Inductor

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 Fig: Waveform and Phasor Diagram of V and I across the Inductor

3.3.2 Capacitor:
A capacitor with AC supply is shown in the figure below along with the waveform and Phasor
diagram, which shows that the phase angle between current and voltage. In case of a capacitor,
voltage lags behind the current by 900. The voltage across a capacitor lags the current because
the current must flow to build up charge and the voltage is proportional to that charge which is
built up on the capacitor plates.

Fig: Capacitor

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 Fig: Waveform and Phasor diagram

3.3.3 Resistor:
A capacitor with AC supply is shown in the figure below along with the waveform and Phasor
diagram, which shows that the phase angle between current and voltage. In case of a capacitor,
the phase angle between current and voltage is 00. For ordinary currents and frequencies, the
behavior of a resistor is that of a dissipative element which converts electrical energy into heat.
It is independent of the direction of current flow and the frequency. So we say that the AC
impedance of a resistor is the same as its DC resistance

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3.4. Causes of Low Power Factor:
The first and the foremost cause of a low power factor is the operation of highly inductive loads
in the power system. As in a pure inductive circuit, current lags voltage by 900, this large
difference in phase angle between the current and voltage causes zero power factor. Basically,
all those circuits having capacitance and inductance (except tuning circuit or resonant
circuit,where inductive reactance (Xl) is equal to capacitive reactance (Xc), so the circuit
becomes a resistive circuit), will cause a low power factor because the inductance and
capacitance causes a difference of phase (φ) between the current and voltage.Following are the
causes of low power factor:
• Single Phase and Three Phase Induction motors, having a power factor of 0.8-0.9 at full load
and 0.2-0.3 at small load while it may be at no-load.
• Varying load in the power system is another major cause of low power factor. As we know
the load on a power system varies as is evident from the load curves. During low load period,
supply voltage is increased which increases the magnetizing current which causes the
decreased power factor.
• Industrial heating furnaces are highly inductive and thus cause a low power factor on the
power system.
• Electrical discharge lamps (high intensity discharge lamps), Arc lamps etc. operate at avery
low power factor.
• Transformers
• Harmonic currents.

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3.5. Disadvantage of Low Power Factor:
Power factor plays an important role in AC circuits and power dissipation in the power
system is dependent on the power factor of the system. We know that the power in a three
phase AC circuit is:
P = √3 V × I cosφ
And the current on a three phase AC circuit is:
I = P / (3 V × cosφ)
Also the power in a single Phase AC circuit is:
P = V × I cosφ
And the current on a three phase AC circuit is:
I = P / (V × I cosφ)
It is evident from the equations for the currents that the current is proportional to cosφ i.e.
power factor. In other words, as the power factor increases the net current flowing in the system
decreases and when the power factor decrease the net current in the system increases. The
increased current incase of low power factor condition leads to following disadvantages:

3.5.1. Large copper losses:

We know that the line loss or copper loss is the loss of power in the transmission lines or the
windings in case of machines and it is directly proportional to the square of current (I2). The
total power loss is given by:

Where ̳R‘ is the line resistance in Ohms (Ω). That means the larger the current the larger is
the line loss.

3.5.2. Large kVA rating and size of electrical equipments and

switch gear:
As we know that almost all electrical machinery (Transformers, alternators, switchgear etc.)
are rated in kVA. But from the given equation:
Cosφ = kW / kVA
It is clear that the power factor is inversely proportional tp the kVA. Therefore, the lower the
power factor, the larger the kVA rating of machines and also larger the size of machines.

3.5.3. Greater conductor size and costs:

In case of low power factor conditions on the power system the current will be increased. In
order to transmit this high current the conductor size will have to be increased. As the size of
conductor increases, the cost of the material, support structure, manpower required also
increases manifold, leading to an overall increase in the cost.

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3.5.4. Poor Voltage Regulation and large voltage drop:
The voltage drop in the power system is given by:
V = I×Z
Now, in case of a low power factor, the overall current in the circuit will be increased.So the
larger the current the larger is the voltage drop.As Voltage Regulation is the change in
voltage from no-load to full-load expressed as a percentage of no-load voltage and is given
by:
V.R = ((Vno-load– Vfull-load)/Vfull-load) × 100
In case of low power factor (lagging) there would be a large voltage drop which leads to a low
voltage regulation. Therefore, in order to maintain the voltage drop within permissible limits
we have to install extra regulation equipments such as voltage regulators.

3.5.5. Low efficiency:

In case of low power factor, it results in a large voltage drop and line losses, which decrease
the efficiency of the equipment in particular or the whole of the power system in general to
decrease. In addition, as a result of increased line losses, the alternator would require higher
excitation, thus generation efficiency would be low.

3.5.6. Penalty from Power Supply Company:

Electrical power supply companies have to bear the brunt of low power factor by installing
equipments and transmission lines of higher ratings, larger sizes and of higher ratings. In
addition they may have to install power factor correction equipment. Thus,the power utility
companies impose a penalty on the consumers whose power factor is below 0.95 lagging in the
electric power bill.

3.6. Need of Power Factor controller:

Power factor correction is a technique of counteracting the undesirable effects of electric loads
that create a power factor less than one. Power factor correction may be applied either by an
electrical power transmission utility to improve the stability and efficiency of the transmission
network or correction may be installed by individual electrical customers to reduce the costs
charged to them by their electricity supplier.An electrical load that operates on alternating
current requires apparent power, which consists of real power plus reactive power. Peal power
is the power actually consumed by the load.Reactive power is repeatedly demanded by the load
and returned to the power source, and it is the cyclic effect that occurs when alternating current
passes through a load that contains a reactive component. The presence of reactive power
causes the real power to be less than the apparent power, and so, the electrical load has
a power factor of less than unity (1.0).The reactive power increases the current flowing between
the power source and the load, which increases the power losses through transmission and
distribution lines. This results in operational and financial losses for the power companies.
Therefore, power companies require their customers, especially those with large loads, to
maintain their power factors above a specified value (usually 0.90 0r higher) or be subjected to

23
additional charges. Electrical engineers involved with the generation, transmission and
consumption of electrical power have an interest in the power facto of loads because power
factors affect efficiency and costs for both the electrical power industry and the consumers. In
addition to the increase operating costs,reactive power can require the use of wiring, switches,
circuit breakers, transformers and transmission lines with higher current carrying
capacities.Power factor correction attempts to adjust the power factor of an AC load or an AC
power transmission system to unity (1.0) through various methods. Simple methods include
switching in or out banks of capacitors or inductors which act to cancel the inductive or
capacitive effects of the load, respectively. For example, the inductive effect of motor loads
may be offset by locally connected capacitors. It is also possible to effect power factor
correction with an unloaded synchronous motor connected across the supply. The power factor
of the motor is varied by adjusting the field excitation and can be made to behave like a
capacitor when overexcited.Non-linear loads create harmonic currents in additional to the
original AC current. The simple correction techniques described above do not cancel out the
reactive power at harmonic frequencies, so more sophisticated techniques must be used to
correct for non-linear loads.Power factor correction is desirable because the source of electrical
energy must be capable of supplying real power as well as any reactive power demanded by
the load. This can require large, more expensive power plant equipment, transmission lines,
transformers, switches, etc.than would be necessary for only real power delivered. Also,
resistive losses in the transmission lines mean that some of the generated power is wasted
because the extra current needed to supply reactive power only serves to heat up the power
lines.The electric utilities therefore put a limit on the power factor of the loads that they will
supply.The ideal figure for load power factor is unity (1), that‘s a pure resistive load, because
it requires the smallest current to transmit a given amount of real power. Real loads deviate
fromthis ideal condition. Electric motor loads are phase lagging (inductive), therefore requiring
capacitor banks to counter their inductance. Sometimes, when the power factor is leading due
to capacitive loading, inductors (also known as reactors in this context) are used to correct the
power factor. In the electric industry, inductors are said to consume reactive power and
capacitors are said to supply it, even though the reactive power is actually just moving back
and forth between each AC cycle.Electric utilities measure reactive power used by high
demand customers and charge higher rates accordingly. Some consumers install power factor
correction schemes at their factories to cut down on these higher costs.

3.7. Types of Power Factor Controllers:

Generally there are three types of techniques that are employed to control the power factor.
They are:

3.7.1. Passive PFC:

This is a simple way of correcting the non-linearity of a load by using capacitor banks. It is
not as effective as active PFC, switching the capacitors in or out of the circuit causes
harmonics,which is why active PFC or a synchronous motor is preferred.

24
3.7.2 Active PFC:
An Active Power Factor corrector is a power electronic system that controls the amount of
power drawn by a load in order to obtain a power factor as close as possible to unity. In most
applications, the active power factor controls the input current of the load so that the current
waveform is proportional to the mains voltage waveform (a sine wave). Some types of active
PFC are: Boost, Buck and Buck Boost. Active power factor correctors can be single-stage or
multi-stage. Active power factor controller is the most effective and can produce a PFC of
0.99(99%).
3.7.3. Synchronous Power factor controller:
Synchronous motors can also be used for power factor correction. A shaft less motor is used,
so that no load can be connected and run freely on the line at capacitive power factor for the
purpose of power factor correction.
3.8. Capacitive Power Factor Correction:
Capacitive Power Factor correction is applied to circuits which include induction motors as a
means of reducing the inductive component of the current and thereby reduce the losses in the
supply. There should be no effect on the operation of the motor itself. An induction motor
draws current from the supply that is made up of resistive components and inductive
components.

⇒ The resistive components are:

i. Load current
ii. Loss current
⇒ The inductive components are
i. Leakage reactance
ii. ii. Magnetizing current

Fig 2.2: Current Triangle

25
The current due to the leakage reactance is dependent on the total current drawn by the motor
but the magnetizing current is independent of the load on the motor. The magnetizing current
will typically be between 20% and 60% of the rated full load current of the motor. The
magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in the iron and is very necessary if
the motor is going to operate. The magnetizing current does not actually contribute to the actual
work output of the motor. It is the catalyst that allows the motor to work properly. The
magnetizing current and the leakage reactance can be considered passenger components of
current that will not affect the power drawn by the motor, but will contribute to the power
dissipated in the supply and distribution system.Taking an example, a motor with a current
draw of 100 Amps and a power factor of 0.75 the resistive component of the current is 75 Amps
and this is what the KWh meter measures. The higher current will result in an increase in the
distribution losses of (100 x 100) / (75 x 75) =1.777 or a 78% increase in the supply losses.In
the interest of reducing the losses in the distribution system, power factor correction is added
to neutralize a portion of the magnetizing current of the motor. Typically, the corrected power
factor will be 0.92 - 0.95 some power retailers offer incentives for operating with a power factor
of better than 0.9, while others penalize consumers with a poor power factor. There are many
ways that this is metered, but the net result is that in order to reduce wasted energy in the
distribution system, the consumer will be encouraged to apply power factor correction.

Fig 2.3: Phasor Diagram

Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors in parallel with the connected
motor circuits and can be applied at the starter or applied at the switchboard or distribution
panel. The resulting capacitive current is leading current and is used to cancel the lagging
inductive current flowing from the supply. Capacitors connected at each starter and controlled
by each starter are known as "Static Power Factor Correction".

26
3.9. Demerits of Capacitive Power Factor Correction and its
Solution:
3.9.1. Capacitor Selection:
Static power factor correction must neutralize no more than 80% of the magnetizing current of
the motor. If the correction is too high, there is a high probability of over correction which can
result in equipment failure with severe damage to the motor and capacitors. Unfortunately, the
magnetizing current of induction motors varies considerably between different motor
designs.The magnetizing current is almost always higher than 20% of the rated full load current
of the motor, but can be as high as 60% of the rated current of the motor.
Most power factor correction is too light due to the selection based on tables which have been
published by a number of sources. The tables assume the lowest magnetizing current and quote
capacitors for this current.In practice this can mean that the correction is often less than half
the value that it should be and the consumer is unnecessarily penalized. Power factor correction
must be correctly selected based on the actual motor being corrected.

3.9.2. Supply Harmonics:

Harmonics on the supply cause a higher current to flow in the capacitors. This is because the
impedance of the capacitors goes down as the frequency goes up. This increase in current
flowthrough the capacitor will result in additional heating of the capacitor and reduce its life.
The harmonics are caused by many non-linear loads; the most common in the industrial market
today, are the variable speed controllers and switch mode power supplies. Harmonic voltages
can be reduced by the use of a harmonic compensator, which is essentially a large inverter that
cancels out the harmonics. This is an expensive option. Passive harmonic filters comprising
resistors, inductors and capacitors can also be used to reduce harmonic voltages. This is also
an expensive exercise. In order to reduce the damage caused to the capacitors by the harmonic
currents, it is becoming common today to install detuning reactors in series with the power
factor correction capacitors. These reactors are designed to make the correction circuit
inductive to the higher frequency harmonics. Typically, a reactor would be designed to create
a resonant circuit with the capacitors above the third harmonic, but sometimes it is
below.Adding the inductance in series with the capacitors will reduce their effective
capacitance at the supply frequency. Reducing the resonant or tuned frequency will reduce the
effective capacitance further. The object is to make the circuit look as inductive as possible at
the 5th harmonic and higher, but as capacitive as possible at the fundamental frequency.
Detuning reactors will also reduce the chance of the tuned circuit formed by the capacitors and
the inductive supply being resonant on a supply harmonic frequency, thereby reducing damage
due to supply resonance amplifying harmonic voltages caused by non-linear loads.

27
3.9.3. Detuning Reactors:
Detuning reactors are connected in series with power factor correction capacitors to reduce
harmonic currents and to ensure that the series resonant frequency does not occur at a harmonic
of the supply frequency. The reactors are usually chosen and rated as either 5% or 7%
reactors.This means that at the line frequency, the capacitive reactance is reduced by 5% or7%.
Using detuning reactors results in a lower KVAR, so the capacitance needs to be increased for
the same level of correction. When detuning reactors are used in installations with higher
harmonic voltages, there can be a high resultant voltage across the capacitors. This necessities
the use of capacitors that are designed to operate at a high sustained voltage. Capacitors
designed for used at line voltage only, should not be used with detuning reactors. Check the
suitability of the capacitors for use with line reactors before installation. The detuning reactors
can dissipate a lot of heat. The enclosure must be well ventilated, typically forced air cooled.
The detuning reactors must be specified to match the KVAR of the capacitance selected.

Fig: Detuning reactors in series with the capacitors.

3.9.4. Supply Resonance:

Capacitive Power factor correction connected to a supply causes resonance between the supply
and the capacitors. If the fault current of the supply is very high, the effect of the resonance
will be minimal, however in a rural installation where the supply is very inductive and can be
high impedance, the resonance can be very severe resulting in major damage to plant and
equipment. To minimize supply resonance problems, there are a few steps that can be taken,
but they do need to be taken by all on the particular supply.
1. Minimize the amount of power factor correction, particularly when the load is light. The
power factor correction minimizes losses in the supply. When the supply is lightly loaded,this
is not such a problem.
2. Minimize switching transients. Eliminate open transition switching - usually associated with
generator plants and alternative supply switching, and with some electromechanical starters
such as the star/delta starter.
3. Switch capacitors on to the supply in lots of small steps rather than a few large steps.

28
4. Switch capacitors on o the supply after the load has been applied and switch off the supply
before or with the load removal.
3.10. Applications of Power Factor Controllers:
3.10.1. Electricity industry: power factor correction of linear
loads:
Power factor correction is achieved by complementing an inductive or a capacitive circuit with
a (locally connected) reactance of opposite phase. For a typical phase lagging power factor
load,such as large induction motors, this would consist of a capacitor bank in the form of
several parallel capacitors at the power input to the device.Instead of using a capacitor, it is
possible to use an unloaded synchronous motor. This is referred to as a ̳Synchronous
Condenser‘. It is started and connected to the electrical network. It operates at full leading
power factor and puts VARs onto the network as required to support a systems voltage or to
maintain the system power factor at a specified level. The condensers installation and operation
are identical to large electric motors.The reactive power drawn by the synchronous motor is a
function of its field excitation. Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of
correction can be adjusted. It behaves like an electrically variable capacitor.

3.10.2. Switched-mode power supplies: power factor correction of

non-linear loads:
A typical switch-mode power supply first makes a DC bus, using a bridge rectifier or similar
circuit. The output voltage is then derived from this DC bus. The problem with this is that the
rectifier is a non-linear device, so the input current is highly nonlinear. That means that he input
current has energy at harmonics of the frequency of the voltage.This presents a particular
problem for the power companies, because they cannot compensate for the harmonic current
by adding capacitors or inductors, as they could for the reactive power drawn by the linear
loads. Many jurisdictions are beginning to legally require PFC for all power supplies above a
certain power level.The simplest way to control the harmonic current is to use a filter. It is
possible to design a filter that passes current only at line frequencies (i.e. 50 Hz or 60 Hz). This
filter kills the harmonic current, which means that the non-linear device now looks like a linear
load. At this point the power factor can be brought to near unity, using capacitors or inductors
as required. This filter requires large-value, high-current inductors, however, which are bulky
or expensive.It is also possible to perform active power factor correction. In this case, a boost
converter is inserted between the bridge rectifier and the main input capacitors. The boost
converter attempts to maintain a constant DC bus voltage on its output while drawing a current
that is always in phase with and at the same frequency as the line voltage. Another switch-
mode converter inside the power supply produces the desired output voltage from the DC bus.
This approach requires additional semiconductor switches and control electronics, but permits
cheaper and smaller passive components. It is frequently used in practice. This feature is useful
in power supplies for laptops and cell phones.

29
 CHAPTER 4

Fig: Block Diagram of Automatic Power Factor Correction Circuit

DESCRIPTION OF OPERATION:
For any inductive load power saver is used to reduce starting current using
capacitor bank. Supply is given to the hall current sensor ACS712. Current sensor
gives signal. Then signal is supplied to microcontroller (Arduino Uno R3) which
is the heart of the system.
Microcontroller gives signal to 4 channel arduino compatible relay is used to
operate relay the capacitor bank. When inductive load is connected to circuit,
capacitor bank is charged and power factor starts improving. Then relay operates
and capacitor starts to discharge and gives current to load without spikes.

30
 CHAPTER 5

5.1. Power Supply:

A good power supply is very essential as it powers all the other modules of the circuit. In this
power supply we use step-down transformer, IC regulators, Diodes, Capacitors and resistors
(presets and pots).

5.1.1 Apparatus Details:

5.1.1.1. Current Sensor: Current sensors measure AC and/or DC current levels.
The sensors discussed here measure current and provide some sort of output that
corresponds to the current being measured. The most important distinction to make
when selecting a current sensor is whether AC and/or DC current needs to be
measured. Another important specification to consider is if the sensor needs to be in-
line with the circuit or if it works by being clamped around the wire to be measured.

Hall Effect: Hall effect sensors consist of a core, Hall effect device and signal
conditioning circuitry. The sensor works when the current conductor passes through a
magnetically permeable core that concentrates the conductor's magnetic field. The
Hall effect device, which is mounted within the core, is at a right angle to the
concentrated magnetic field and a constant current (in one plane) excites the Hall
device. The energized Hall device is then exposed to a magnetic field from the core
and it produces a potential difference that can be measured and amplified into process
level signals such as 4-20mA or a contact closure.

31
Performance Specifications
Performance specifications describe how current sensor will interact and operate in
the desired environment.

• Measuring range is the maximum current the sensor is capable of

measuring.
• Input voltage is the voltage required to operate the device.
• Frequency range describes the range of values of the input frequency that
the sensor can operate.
• Response time is the interval between the application of an input excitation
and the appearance of the corresponding output signal.
• Isolation voltage describes the maximum voltage that the sensor can handle
to protect the devices connected to it. Voltages above this specification can
damage the sensor and render the measurements inaccurate.
• Accuracy measures the closeness of the measured value to the true value.
Current sensors should be calibrated on a regular basis to ensure accurate
measurements.
• Operating temperature describes the temperature range the sensor is
designed to operate in. Exposure to temperatures outside of this range can
damage the sensor

Fig: Current Sensor

32
5.1.1.2. Diodes:
In electronics a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance. It
has low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction and high (ideally infinite)
resistance in the other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today is a crystalline
piece of semiconductor material with a p–n junction connected to two electrical terminals. A
vacuum tube diode has two electrodes, a plate (anode) and heated cathode.Semiconductor
diodes were the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals' rectifying
abilities was made by German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor
diodes called cat's whisker diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such
as galena.

Today most diodes are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as selenium or
germanium may also sometimes be used.

• Main functions: The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current
to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction) while blocking current in the
opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic
version of a check valve.This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to
convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction of modulation from radio
signals in radio receivers—these diodes are forms of rectifiers. However, diodes can have more
complicated behavior than this simple on–off action, due to their nonlinear current-voltage
characteristics.Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity only if a certain threshold
voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which the diode is said
to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only a little with
the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature sensor or
voltage reference.
Semiconductor diodes' current–voltage characteristic can be tailored by varying the
semiconductor materials and doping, introducing impurities into the materials.These are

33
exploited in special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes
are used to regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage
surges(avalanche diodes), to electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to
generate radio frequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes, IMPATT diodes), and to
produce light (light emitting diodes). Tunnel diodes exhibit negative resistance, which makes
them useful in certain types of circuits.

5.1.1.3 Resistors:
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance
as a circuit element.

The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the voltage across the resistor's
terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law:

I=V/R
where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential difference
measured across the conductor in units of volts, and ̳R‘ is the resistance of the conductor in
units of ohms (symbol: Ω). The ratio of the voltage applied across a resistor's terminals to the
intensity of current in the circuit is called its resistance, and this can be assumed to be a constant
(independent of the voltage) for ordinary resistors working within their ratings. Resistors are
common elements of electrical networks and electronic circuits and are ubiquitous in electronic
equipment. Practical resistors can be made of various compounds and films, as well as
resistance wire (wire made of a high-resistivity alloy, such as nickel-chrome). Resistors are
also implemented within integrated circuits, particularly analog devices, and can also be
integrated into hybrid and printed circuits.The electrical functionality of a resistor is specified
by its resistance: common commercial resistors are manufactured over a range of more than
nine orders of magnitude. When specifying that resistance in an electronic design, the required
precision of the resistance may require attention to the manufacturing tolerance of the chosen
resistor, according to its specific application. The temperature coefficient of the resistance may
also be of concern in some precision applications. Practical resistors are also specified as

34
having a maximum power rating which must exceed the anticipated power dissipation of that
resistor in a particular circuit: this is mainly of concern in power electronics applications.
Resistors with higher power ratingsare physically larger and may require heat sinks. In a high-
voltage circuit, attention must sometimesbe paid to the rated maximum working voltage of the
resistor. While there is no minimum working voltage for a given resistor, failure to account for
a resistor's maximum rating may cause the resistor to incinerate when current is run through it.

5.1.1.4 Light Emitting Diodes (LED):

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps
in many devices and are increasingly used for general lighting. Appearing as practical
electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern
versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high
brightness.

Fig: Light Emmiting Diodes (LED)

When a light-emitting diode is switched on, electrons are able to recombine with holes within
the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence,
and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is determined by the
energy band gap of the semiconductor. An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm^2), and
integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs have many
advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer
lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. However, LEDs
powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive, and require more precise current

35
and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output. Light-
emitting diodes are used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive lighting,
advertising, general lighting and traffic signals. LEDs have allowed new text, video displays,
and sensors to be developed, while their high switching rates are also useful in advanced
communications technology. Infrared LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many
commercial products including televisions, DVD players and other domestic appliances. LEDs
are used to create a new form of wireless internet access called Li-Fi, or light fidelity. LEDs
are also used in seven-segment display.

Fig: Schematic of an LED

5.1.1.5. Electrolytic Capacitor: An electrolytic capacitor is a capacitor that uses an

electrolyte (an ionic conducting liquid) as one of its plates to achieve a larger capacitance per
unit volume than other types, but with performance disadvantages. All capacitors conduct
alternating current (AC) and block direct current (DC) and can be used, amongst other
applications, to couple circuit blocks allowing AC signals to be transferred while blocking DC
power, to store energy, and to filter signals according to their frequency. Most electrolytic
capacitors are polarized; hence, they can only be operated with a lower voltage on the terminal
marked "-" without damaging the capacitor. This generally limits electrolytic capacitors to
supply-decoupling and bias-decoupling, since signal coupling usually involves both positive
and negative voltages across the capacitor. The large capacitance of electrolytic capacitors
makes them particularly suitable for passing or bypassing low frequency signals and storing

36
large amounts of energy. They are widely used in power supplies and for decoupling unwanted
AC components from DC power connections.

Fig: Electrolytic Capacitors (200V, 1000μF)

Supercapacitors provide the highest capacitance of any practically available capacitor, up to

thousands of farads, with working voltages of a few volts. Electrolytic capacitors range
downwards from tens (exceptionally hundreds) of thousands of microfarads to about 100
nanofarads—smaller sizes are possible but have no advantage over other types. Other types of
capacitor are available in sizes typically up to about ten microfarads, but the larger sizes are
much larger and more expensive than electrolytic (film capacitors of up to thousands of
microfarads are available, but at very high prices). Electrolytic capacitors are available with
working voltages up to about 500V, although the highest capacitance values are not available
at high voltage. Working temperature is commonly 85°C for standard use and 105° for high-
temperature use; higher temperature units are available, but uncommon. Unlike other types of
capacitor, most electrolytic capacitors require that the voltage applied to one terminal (the
anode) never become negative relative to the other (they are said to be "polarized"), so cannot
be used with AC signals without a DC polarizing bias (non-polarized electrolytic capacitors
are available for special purposes).Capacitance tolerance and stability, equivalent series
resistance (ESR) and dissipation factor are significantly inferior to other types of capacitors,
leakage current is higher and working life is shorter. Capacitors can lose capacitance as they
age and lose electrolyte, particularly at high temperatures. A common failure mode which

37
causes difficult-to-find circuit malfunction is progressively increasing ESR without change of
capacitance, again particularly at high temperature. Large ripple currents flowing through the
ESR generate harmful heat.Two types of electrolytic capacitor are in common use: aluminum
and tantalum. Tantalum capacitors have generally better performance, higher price, and are
available only in a more restricted range of parameters. Solid polymer dielectric aluminum
electrolytic capacitors have better characteristics than wet-electrolyte types—in particular
lower and more stable ESR and longer life—at higher prices and more restricted values.

5.1.1.6. Voltage Regulators (7805):

A voltage regulator is designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. A voltage
regulator may be a simple "feed-forward" design or may include negative feedback control
loops.It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or electronic components. Depending on
the design,it may be used to regulate one or more AC or DC voltages.Electronic voltage
regulators are found in devices such as computer power supplies where they stabilize the DC
voltages used by the processor and other elements. In automobile alternators and central power
station generator plants, voltage regulators control the output of the plant. In an electric power
distribution system, voltage regulators may be installed at a substation or along distribution
lines so that all customers receive steady voltage independent of how much power is drawn
from the line. Voltage regulator is any electrical or electronic device that maintains the voltage
of a power source within acceptable limits. The voltage regulator is needed to keep voltages
within the prescribed range that can be tolerated by the electrical equipment using that voltage.
Such a device is widely used in motor vehicles of all types to match the output voltage of the
generator to the electrical load and to the charging requirements of the battery. Voltage
regulators also are used in electronic equipment in which excessive variations in voltage would
be detrimental. In motor vehicles, voltage regulators rapidly switch from one to another of three
circuit states by means of a spring-loaded, double-pole switch. At low speeds, some current
from the generator is used to boost the generator‘s magnetic field, thereby increasing voltage
output. At higher speeds,resistance is inserted into the generator-field circuit so that its voltage
and current are moderated.At still higher speeds, the circuit is switched off, lowering the
magnetic field. The regulator switching rate is usually 50 to 200 times per second. Electronic
voltage regulators utilize solid-state semiconductor devices to smooth out variations in the flow
of current. In most cases, they operate as variable resistances; that is, resistance decreases when
the electrical load is heavy and increases when the load is lighter.Voltage regulators perform
the same function in large-scale power-distribution systems as they do in motor vehicles and
other machines; they minimize variations in voltage in order to protect the equipment using the
electricity. In power-distribution systems the regulators are either in the substations or on the
feeder lines themselves. Two types of regulators are used: step regulators, in which switches
regulate the current supply, and induction regulators, in which an induction motor supplies a
secondary, continually adjusted voltage to even out current variations in the feeder line.
HERE we use 1type of voltage regulators of lm78XX series such as 7805.

38
 Fig: Pin out diagram of an LM7805 regulator
5.1.1.7. Relay Module:
The relay module comprises of eight electro-magnetic relays which are controlled by the
outputs on the digital pins of the Arduino microcontroller. The relays are used to switch on the
required number of capacitors as required for power factor correction. The relays are normally
in the “Normally Open” ( ̳NO‘) state and the contacts are closed only when the logic on any of
the digital pins is high. As the logic on a pin goes high, the ―Normally Open‖ contacts of the
relay are now closed and the corresponding capacitor in connected in parallel with the load.The
relay module is interfaced with the digital pins of the Arduino microcontroller using a parallel
port and bus. The relay driver is supplied with a voltage of 12V from the power supply.Each
of the relays has an LED connected across its terminals to indicate that the relay has
beenswitched on and is functional.

39
5.1.1.8. SMPS(220V- 5V ): SMPS is the acronym of the word Switch
Mode Power Supply. The name clearly suggests that the concept has
something or entirely to do with pulses or switching of the employed devices.
Let's learn how SMPS adapters work for converting mains voltage to a lower
DC voltage.
In SMPS adapters the idea is to switch the mains input voltage into
the primary winding of a transformer so that a lower value DC voltage may be
obtained at the secondary winding of the transformer.

40
5.2. Capacitor Bank:
A capacitor bank is a grouping of several identical or non-identical capacitors interconnected
in parallel or in series with one another. These groups of capacitors are typically used to correct
or counteract undesirable characteristics such as power factor lag or phase shifts inherent in
alternating current electrical power supplies. Capacitor banks may also be used in direct current
power supplies to increase stored energy and improve the ripple current capacity of the power
supply. The capacitor bank consists of a group of eight (8) a.c capacitors, all rated at 230V,
50Hz i.e., the supply voltage and frequency. The value of capacitors is different and it consists
of four capacitors of 2.5μfarad, two capacitors of 4.5μfarad and two remaining capacitors are
rated at 10μfarads each. All the capacitors are connected in parallel to one another and the load.
The capacitor bank is controlled by the relay module and is connected across the line. The
operation of a relay connects the associated capacitor across the line in parallel with the load
and other capacitors.

41
5.3. Microcontroller:
5.3.1. Introduction:
The Microcontroller or the processing module is an interfacing and controlling module, that
interfaces the various peripherals and other modules used in the circuit. It integrates the
function of various modules such as the Relay driver (ULN2003A) etc.
5.3.2. Overview:
The Arduino Uno is a microcontroller board based on the ATmega328. It has 14 digital
input/output pins (of which 6 can be used as PWM outputs), 6 analog inputs, a 16 MHz ceramic
resonator, a USB connection, a power jack, an ICSP header, and a reset button.
It contains everything needed to support the microcontroller; simply connect it to a computer
with a USB cable or power it with a AC-to-DC adapter or battery to get started.The Uno differs
from all preceding boards in that it does not use the FTDI USB-to-serial driver chip. Instead, it
features the Atmega16U2 (Atmega8U2 up to version R2) programmed as a USB-to-serial
converter.
"Uno" means one in Italian and is named to mark the upcoming release of Arduino 1.0. The
Uno and version 1.0 will be the reference versions of Arduino, moving forward. The Uno is
the latest in a series of USB Arduino boards, and the reference model for the Arduino platform;
for a comparison with previous versions, see the index of Arduino board

42
5.3.3. Summary:
Microcontroller ATmega328
Operating Voltage 5V
Input Voltage (recommended) 7-12V
Input Voltage (limits) 6-20V
Digital I/O Pins 14 (of which 6 provide PWM output)
Analog Input Pins 6
DC Current per I/O Pin 40 mA
DC Current for 3.3V Pin 50 mA
Flash Memory 32 KB (ATmega328)
SRAM 2 KB (ATmega328)
EEPROM 1 KB (ATmega328)
Clock Speed 16 MHz
5.3.4 Power:
The Arduino Uno can be powered via the USB connection or with an external power supply.
The power source is selected automatically.External (non-USB) power can come either from
an AC-to-DC adapter (wall-wart) or battery. The adapter can be connected by plugging a
2.1mm center-positive plug into the board's power jack.Leads from a battery can be inserted in
the Gnd and Vin pin headers of the POWER connector.The board can operate on an external
supply of 6 to 20 volts. If supplied with less than 7V,however, the 5V pin may supply less than
five volts and the board may be unstable. If using more than 12V, the voltage regulator may
overheat and damage the board. The recommended range is 7 to 12 volts.The power pins are
as follows:
• VIN: The input voltage to the Arduino board when it's using an external power source (as
opposed to 5 volts from the USB connection or other regulated power source). You can supply
voltage through this pin, or, if supplying voltage via the power jack, access it through this pin.
• 5V: This pin outputs a regulated 5V from the regulator on the board. The board can be
supplied with power either from the DC power jack (7 - 12V), the USB connector (5V), or the
VIN pin of the board (7-12V). Supplying voltage via the 5V or 3.3V pins bypasses the
regulator, and can damage your board. We don't advise it.
• 3V3: A 3.3 volt supply generated by the on-board regulator. Maximum current draw is 50
mA.
• GND: Ground pins.
• IOREF: This pin on the Arduino board provides the voltage reference with which the
microcontroller operates. A properly configured shield can read the IOREF pin voltage and
select the appropriate power source or enable voltage translators on the outputs for working
with the 5V or 3.3V.

43
5.3.5. Memory:
The ATmega328 has 32 KB (with 0.5 KB used for the bootloader). It also has 2 KB of SRAM
and 1 KB of EEPROM (which can be read and written with the EEPROM library).
5.3.6. Input and Output:
Each of the 14 digital pins on the Uno can be used as an input or output, using pinMode(),
digitalWrite(), and digitalRead() functions. They operate at 5 volts. Each pin can provide or
receive a maximum of 40 mA and has an internal pull-up resistor (disconnected by default) of
20-50 kOhms. In addition, some pins have specialized functions:

• Serial: 0 (RX) and 1 (TX). Used to receive (RX) and transmit (TX) TTL serial data. These
pins are connected to the corresponding pins of the ATmega8U2 USB-to-TTL Serial chip.

• External Interrupts: 2 and 3. These pins can be configured to trigger an interrupt on a low
value, a rising or falling edge, or a change in value. See the attachInterrupt() function for details.

• PWM: 3, 5, 6, 9, 10, and 11. Provide 8-bit PWM output with the analogWrite() function.

• SPI: 10 (SS), 11 (MOSI), 12 (MISO), 13 (SCK). These pins support SPI communication using
the SPI library.

• LED: 13. There is a built-in LED connected to digital pin 13. When the pin is HIGH value,
the LED is on, when the pin is LOW, it's off.The Uno has 6 analog inputs, labeled A0 through
A5, each of which provide 10 bits of resolution (i.e. 1024 different values). By default they

44
measure from ground to 5 volts, though is it possible to change the upper end of their range
using the AREF pin and the analogReference() function. Additionally, some pins have
specialized functionality:

• TWI: A4 or SDA pin and A5 or SCL pin. Support TWI communication using the Wire
library.There are a couple of other pins on the board:

• AREF: Reference voltage for the analog inputs. Used with analogReference().

• Reset: Bring this line LOW to reset the microcontroller. Typically used to add a reset button
to shields which block the one on the board.

5.3.7. Programming:
The Arduino Uno can be programmed with the Arduino software (download). Select "Arduino
Uno from the Tools > Board menu (according to the microcontroller on your board). The
ATmega328 on the Arduino Uno comes preburned with a bootloader that allows you to upload
new code to it without the use of an external hardware programmer. It communicates using the
original STK500 protocol (reference, C header files).

5.3.8. USB Overcurrent Protection:

The Arduino Uno has a resettable polyfuse that protects your computer's USB ports from shorts
and overcurrent. Although most computers provide their own internal protection, the fuse
provides an extra layer of protection. If more than 500 mA is applied to the USB port, the fuse
will automatically break the connection until the short or overload is removed.

5.3.9. Physical Characteristics:

The maximum length and width of the Uno PCB are 2.7 and 2.1 inches respectively, with the
USB connector and power jack extending beyond the former dimension. Four screw holes
allow the board to be attached to a surface or case. Note that the distance between digital pins
7 and 8 is 160 mil (0.16"), not an even multiple of the 100 mil spacing of the other pins.

45
 CHAPTER 6

Software Development Environment:

The Arduino is a single-board microcontroller, intended to make the application of interactive
objects or environments more accessible. The hardware consists of an open-source hardware
board designed around an 8-bit Atmel AVR microcontroller or a 32-bit Atmel ARM. Current
models feature a USB interface, 6 analog input pins, as well as 14 digital I/O pins which allow
the user to attach various extension boards.
Introduced in 2005, at the Interaction Design Institute Ivrea, in Ivrea, Italy, it was
designed to give students an inexpensive and easy way to program interactive objects. It comes
with a simple Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that runs on regular personal
computers and allows writing programs for Arduino using a combination of simple Java and C
or C++.The Arduino Integrated Development Environment (IDE) is a cross platform
application written in Java, and is derived from the IDE for the processing programming
language and the wiring projects. It is designed to introduce programming to artists and other
newcomers unfamiliar with software development. It includes a code editor with features such
as Syntax highlighting, Brace matching and Automatic Indentation, and is also capable of
compiling and uploading programs to the board with a single click. A program or code written
for the Arduino is called a ―Sketch‖.The Arduino IDE also comes with a software library
called ―Wiring‖ from the original Wiring Project, which makes many common input/output
operations much easier. Users need only define two functions to make a runnable cyclic
executive program:

46
Program:
/*
Measuring AC Current Using ACS712
*/
const int sensorIn = A0;
int mVperAmp = 185; // use 100 for 20A Module and 66 for 30A Module

double Voltage = 0;
double VRMS = 0;
double AmpsRMS = 0;

void setup(){
Serial.begin(9600);
}

void loop(){

Voltage = getVPP();
VRMS = (Voltage/2.0) *0.707; //root 2 is 0.707
AmpsRMS = (VRMS * 1000)/mVperAmp;
Serial.print(AmpsRMS);
Serial.println(" Amps RMS");
}

float getVPP()
{
float result;
int readValue; //value read from the sensor
int maxValue = 0; // store max value here
int minValue = 1024; // store min value here

uint32_t start_time = millis();

while((millis()-start_time) < 1000) //sample for 1 Sec
{
readValue = analogRead(sensorIn);
// see if you have a new maxValue
if (readValue > maxValue)
{
/*record the maximum sensor value*/
maxValue = readValue;
}
if (readValue < minValue)
{
/*record the minimum sensor value*/
minValue = readValue;
}
}

// Subtract min from max

result = ((maxValue - minValue) * 5.0)/1024.0;

return result;
}

47
 CHAPTER 7

7.1. Conclusion & Future Scope:

It can be concluded that power factor correction techniques can be applied to the
industries, power systems and also households to make them stable and due to that
the system becomes stable and efficiency of the system as well as the apparatus
increases.

The use of microcontroller reduces the costs. Due to use of microcontroller multiple
parameters can be controlled and the use of extra hard wares such as timer, RAM,
ROM and input output ports reduces. Care should be taken for overcorrection
otherwise the voltage and current becomes more due to which the power system or
machine becomes unstable and the life of capacitor banks reduces.

48
7.2. Bill of Materials :

SERIAL NO. COMPONENT QUANTITY COST (Rs.)

01 Arduino uno R3 1 700
Arduino compatible
02 1 520
relay
Current
03 1 450
Sensor(Hall type)
04 Inductor(Choke) 3 480
05 Resistor(Bulb) 4(3*60W+1*100W) 58
06 Capacitor Bank 4 Capacitors 400
Power Circuit-
07 1 100
Board
08 Switches ----- 75
09 230V - 5V Adapter 1 150
10 3-pin Plug, Sockets ----- 80
11 Wires ----- 50
12 EXTRAS ------ 400
TOTAL 3463

49
7.3. References:
• P. N. Enjeti and R Martinez, ―A high performance single phase rectifier with
input power factor correction,‖ IEEE Trans. Power Electron.vol.11, No. 2,
Mar.2003.pp 311-317
• J.G. Cho, J.W. Won, H.S. Lee, ―Reduced conduction loss zero-voltage-
transition power factor correction converter with low cost,‖ IEEE Trans.
Industrial Electron. vol.45, no 3,Jun. 2000, pp395-400
• V.K Mehta and Rohit Mehta, ―Principles of power system‖, S. Chand &
Company Ltd, Ramnagar, Newdelhi-110055, 4th Edition, Chapter 6.
• Dr. Kurt Schipman and Dr. Francois Delince, ―The importance of good power
quality‖, ABB power quality Belgium.
• Robert. F. Coughlin, Frederick. F. Driscoll, ―Operational amplifiers and linear
integrated circuits‖, 6thEdition, chapter 4.
• International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology (IJEIT)
Volume 3,Issue 4, October 2013 272 Power Factor Correction Using PIC
Microcontroller
• www.arduino.cc
• Design and Implementation of Microcontroller-Based Controlling of Power
Factor Using Capacitor Banks with Load Monitoring, Global Journal of
Researches in Engineering Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Volume 13,
Issue 2, Version 1.0 Year 2013 Type: Double Blind Peer Reviewed International
Research Journal Publisher: Global Journals Inc. (USA) Online ISSN: 2249-4596
& Print ISSN: 0975-5861
• Electric power industry reconstructing in India, Present scenario and future
prospects, S.N. Singh, senior member, IEEE and S.C. Srivastava, Senior
Member, IEEE.

50