LECTURE NOTES

EBE 2301: SOIL SCIENCE

Liambila, Robai
Course Overview

This introductory course in soil science introduces the student to the study, management, and conservation of soils
as natural bodies, as media for plant growth, and as components of the larger ecosystem. This course presents
basic concepts of all aspects of soil science including; composition and genesis; physical, chemical, and biological
properties; soil water; classification and mapping; soil conservation; management practices; and soil fertility and
productivity (soil testing, use of fertilizers and manures, and liming). It introduces the relationships of soil to
current concerns such as environmental quality and non-agricultural land use. This course should instill awareness
of soil as a basic natural resource, the use or abuse of which has a considerable influence on human society and
life in general.

Course Objectives

At the end of this course, students should be able to:

 Appreciate the variety and complexity of soils.

 Describe the ways in which soils are an integral component of the terrestrial ecosystem.

 Use the technical terminology associated with the description and use of soils.

 Identify soil properties important to land use, environmental quality, plant growth, and society/culture.

 Demonstrate the skills required to make field observations and interpretations of soils for various uses.

 Retrieve and use information from a variety of sources for land use planning and soil management
decisions.

 Explain the impact of land use and management decisions on agricultural productivity and sustainability,
environmental and ecological health, and land degradation.

 Understand how soils can affect everyday decisions like how to develop a garden or where to build a
house.

Reference Reading

Brady, N.C. and R.R. Weil. 2010. Elements of the Nature and Properties of Soils, 3rd Ed. Prentice Hall.

Singer, M.J. & Munns, D.N. (2006). Soils: An Introduction, 6th ed. New York: Prentice Hall.

Lab Assignments

There are five lab reports that will be submitted on the assignments page. Lab assignments are due by 11:59 p.m.
on the date indicated on the Canvas syllabus page. Lab reports submitted after the due date will be assessed a late
penalty of 10% of the total lab report point value for each 24-hour period beyond the due date.

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BASIC CONCEPTS OF SOIL

Definition of soil

Soil is a natural and dynamic body occurring on the surface of the earth in places made or modified by man using
earthy materials containing living matter supporting or capable of supporting plant growth out of door.

A soil or an individual soil has three dimensions (Length, Width, and Height) just like a body of water. A soil
occupies a small three – dimensional part of the land surface. The water or a soil can be sampled and analyzed in
the laboratory.

Limits of soil

a) Upper Limit- generally considered as air or water. The atmosphere or shallow

waters.

b) Lateral Limit- deep water or barren areas of rock, ocean ice caps, salt, or shifting desert sand dunes.
Sediments at depths greater than where emergent plants grow is not considered as soil.

c) Lower Limit - difficult to define, but generally thought of as the common

rooting depth (shallow in deserts, deep in humid tropics) of the native
perennial plant. Lowest limit of biological activities i.e. the rooting zone,
weathering materials.

Concept about soil: Different concepts = Different definitions

During the early development of soil science, the concept of soil differs among investigators with different
disciplines or background.
1. Pedologist - study of soil as a natural entity (sees soil as a distinct entity). The unconsolidated mineral or
organic material on the surface of the earth that has been subjected to and shows effects of genetic and
environmental factors of: climate (including water and temperature effects), and macro- and
microorganisms, conditioned by relief, acting on parent material over a period of time. Study the origin,
classification and description.
2. Edaphologist - (in relation to plant growth) A mixture of mineral and organic material that is capable of
supporting plant life.
3. Engineer - Mixture of mineral material (sands, gravels and fines) used as a base for construction. loose or
broken rock material at the earth's surface. This material can be used for building purposes.
4. Geologist - highly weathered rock. Part of the material that makes up outer mantle of the earth.

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 5. Horticulturalist - material that needs sterilizing and modification before using for plant growth in
greenhouses.
6. Turf Specialist - material that supports foot and cart traffic, grows grass, and will provide a good fairway
or putting surface. Will modify it to suit their needs.
7. Farmer and Agronomist - material at earth's surface with biological, chemical, and physical properties
that enable it to support plant growth.
However, the most used concept of soil is the agronomic view. Soil is defined as the natural medium for the
growth of land plants whether or not it has identifiable soil horizons.

Approaches to the Study of the Soil

Study of the soil is generally divided into two parts: Field study and Laboratory study.

1. Field Study

A description (quantitative and qualitative) of the soil is best done in the field in its natural environment.
Laboratory analysis entails much disturbance of soil properties. Some of the properties are actually lost in the
process of transferring soils from the field to the laboratory. For instance, the moisture content and colour
distribution where mottling exists. One unique feature with soil study in the field is that soil is studied as a
component of the land. In essence, apart from describing the soil itself, the immediate environment may be fully
described. This is to say that at any point of soil description, the characteristics of the site must be fully described.
Such characteristics include:
a. The climate of the locality d. The relief of the locality
b. The nature of the parent materials e. The age of the landscape.
c. The mass and character of the vegetation

The site of study must be precisely recorded so that future references and relationship with the environment can
be correctly made.

2. The Laboratory Study

The laboratory study of the soil are chemical and mineralogical. In such studies considerable damage is done to
the soil in as much as field characteristics are badly disturbed. Morphological studies however strive to present
the soil as it is; sometime, trying to study the finer aspects or characteristics of the soil.

In soil survey and land evaluation studies, much attention is paid to the field studies.

Importance and Uses of Soils

To a certain degree good soils are dependent upon people and the use they make of soils. Human society enjoys
and uses the plants that grow on the soils for the supply of food and much of our fibre. Most of the clothing

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 materials, medicines, drugs and animals needed for man’s survival come from plants and soil organisms. Standard
of living is often determined by the quality of soils and the kinds of plants and animals prevalent in the area.

In addition to its importance as habitat for growing crops, the soil is useful to human societies as:

i. Solid and good foundation material for building roads and highways and also exerting strong influence on
the life span of these structures. The engineering uses of soil demand knowledge of the diversities of soil
properties which vary from one location to another.
ii. The foundations of houses and factories thus determining whether the foundations are adequate. Soil is an
important building material in form of earth fill and baked bricks.
iii. Absorbing medium to domestic wastes through septic sewages system and other wastes from industrial,
municipal and animal sources.
iv. For making pots, jugs, plates and other household usable structures.
v. Growth medium for plant by supplying water, air and mechanical support for plant roots as well as heat to
enhance chemical reactions.
vi. Major supplier of plant nutrients that are essential for plant growth. These nutrients are slowly released from
unavailable forms in the solid framework of minerals and organic matter to exchangeable sites associated
with soil colloids and finally to readily available ions in the soil solution. The nature of vegetation and
types of animals on a land is dictated by the properties of the soil.
vii. Habitat for several living organisms including micro-organisms, reptiles and even mammals, which in turn
help in improving soil structure and fertility.

SOIL DEVELOPMENT

1. Stages of Soil Formation:

A. Decomposition of Parent Material:

Soils are formed by disintegration and decomposition of rocks and vegetables and animal fossils
imbedded in them. The conversion of parent material into soil is known as soil formation.

The soil formation process depends upon the presence of new soil materials which is either acquired by denudation
or deposition. Denudation is the abrasion of present rock material, while deposition is the accumulation of new
materials that have been eroded from another place such as river gravels or blown gravels or the creation of new
rocks. Soils begin to form from the parent material through the process of weathering and other major processes.

1. Weathering

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Weathering is the name given to the process by which rocks are broken down to form soils. Rocks and geological
sediments are the main parent materials of soils (the materials from which soils have formed). There is a very
wide variety of rocks in the world, some acidic, some alkaline, some coarse-textured like sands, and some fine-
textured and clayey. It is from the rocks and sediments that soils inherit their particular texture.

There are a whole range of weathering processes at work near the surface of the soil, acting together to
break down rocks and minerals to form soil. These weathering processes have given rise to most of the
world's soils. Decomposition or weathering of parent materials are manifested by three types of agents
and accordingly the process are termed as follows:

1. Physical or mechanical weathering

2. Chemical weathering

3. Biological weathering

a) Physical or Mechanical Weathering:

Physical weathering ensures that rocks are broken down into smaller particle sizes. The physical aspect does not
involve chemical change. That is, if we start with homogenous parent material, we have homogenous soil.

The principal agents of physical or mechanical weathering are as follows:

(i) Heat and Cold: The general rule of expansion and contraction due to heat and cold (i.e. variation of
temperature) is true to rocks also. Rocks are composed of various mineral crystals which possess
different coefficient of expansion and contraction. The repeated differential expansion and contraction
of adjacent unlike mineral due to temperature changes of a day and night loosen the crystals causing the
rocks to crumble. In this way, rocks are weathered and finally reduced to soil material by other agencies.
This type of weathering is most common in dry climate.

(ii) Freezing and Thawing: When water freezes, its volume increases by about nine per cent and the force exerted
is 150 ton per square foot. In the crevices of rock, water frequently freezes and the crevices are enlarged by
breaking of fragments and when thawing occur they may roll down the slopes.

(iii) Glaciers: Glacier is the drainage system of the region of perpetual snow. The moving of ice obeys the same
laws as streams and does the same kind of work. As the ice is a solid body, it has a great grinding power.

(iv) Water: Torrential rain dislocates solid particles from rock and puddle the surface of some parent materials.
The streams of water with their loads of various materials have grinding capacity. The debris is then transported
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to a long distance by flood water of streams and rivers and deposited as a soil in low lying areas, mouth of rivers
and under the sea. Water frozen in rock crevices in cold regions breaks them open. Flowing water, waves on the
shores of the seas and large lakes and moving ice-glaciers in high mountainous region wear off rocks and cliffs
thus helping in soil formation.

(v) Wind: Sand storms in deserts, semi-arid and dry river beds and high winds on sea shore have both erosive and
transporting action. Wind makes the action of sea waves stronger in causing weathering along the coasts. Wave
action is confined to the shores of the sea and large lakes.

******** The soil formed by physical weathering is known as “skeletal soil”.

b) Chemical Weathering

Chemical weathering is the main process converting parent material into soil. The chemical aspect involves
chemical changes. The physical disintegration produces a greater surface area of rock exposed to the
influence of chemical weathering agents.

Chemical weathering involves two steps such as:

i. Disappearance of certain minerals.

ii. Formation of secondary products.

Chemical weathering is a complicated process. In the chemical weathering, the minerals in the parent
rocks are decomposed and as a result, the new substances are originated.

The chemical weathering of rocks is brought about by the following ways:

(i) Water: Most of minerals in the parent rocks are more or less soluble in water. But the solvent capacity
of pure water is less. The decomposing action of water is increased by the presence of carbon dioxide
and organic acid formed from the oxidation of sulphur compounds or iron sulphide also play an important
role in the chemical weathering of rocks. Gypsum and calcareous rocks which are easily soluble in water
make the soil after dissolving in water.

(a) Hydration: Hydration is the chemical combination of water with other chemical substances. It occurs
more commonly in humid region. The union of water with minerals softens the rocks which then result
in the weathering of rocks and ultimately brings about their decomposition. Hydration is also sometimes

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accompanied with an increase in volume, which may bring physical disintegration of rocks. Example of
hydration is as follows – mineral combines with H2O.

(b) Hydrolysis: Hydrolysis is essentially an exchange of constituent part between water and mineral.
The minerals which are affected by hydrolysis are the complex silicates of calcium, magnesium,
potassium, sodium, aluminium and iron. Minerals react with H2O, H+ replace soluble parts; OH-
combine with mineral cations. This is chemical alteration of a mineral and the formation of its oxide
through the action of water. Examples of hydrolysis is as follows –

After the decomposition, the oxides of aluminium and silicon may again combine under suitable
condition to form new silicate minerals like kaolinite or they may remain in the soil or they may be
leached down by water.

(ii) Oxidation: Oxidation mainly affects ferrous iron which is a constituent of many minerals such as
olivine, hornblende and augite. Oxygen combining with various minerals produces soluble oxides which
on dissolving in water weaken the rock and help its disintegration.

(iii) Reduction: Under anaerobic conditions, when soil pores are saturated with water, oxygen may be
absent and reduction may occur.

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Under certain conditions, organisms causing decay of organic matter set up a reverse action (reduction)
by taking up oxygen from simple hydroxides.

(iv) Carbonation: Carbonation is the chemical combination of carbon dioxide (CO2) which is present
in atmosphere or released by the decomposition of soil organic matter and respiration of plant roots and
microorganism, with other chemical compounds. When carbon dioxide (CO2) combines with water, it
forms carbonic acid which increases the solvent power of water. Carbon dioxide or carbonic acid may
also react with other chemical compounds resulting in soluble carbonates which dissolves in water and
weakens rock and help its decomposition.

Carbon dioxide reacting with basic substance (e.g. Ca(OH)2) forms carbonate or bicarbonate, which
remains stored in dry region and leached in lower region in high rainfall area.

(v) Complexation: organic acids form organic complexes with metal cations Complexes generally form
around a transition metal cation (ex: Ni2+, Au3+, Cu+). Whether or not a complex forms depends on
concentration, among other factors. A reaction between two compounds may proceed normally until it
is "flooded" by one of the reagents, at which point a complex ion is more likely to form.The formation
of a complex is generally indicated by a color change. In fact, most complex ions are very brightly
colored.

c) Biological weathering

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Biological weathering is the effect of living organisms on the breakdown of rock. This involves, for example, the
effects of plant roots and soil organisms. Joffe states, “strictly speaking there is no biological weathering.
Essentially it is physical and chemical weathering by biological agencies.” Physical and chemical weathering
brings about physical disintegration and chemical decomposition of rocks in which organic matter are added and
true soils are formed. Both the plants as well as animals are also largely responsible for the further reduction of
rock minerals’ particles into soil in which crop plant can grow.

Plants and animals are responsible for biological weathering of rocks as follows:

(i) Plants: Lower plants such as mosses and lichens can grow on almost bare rocks cause gradual disintegration.
Grasses, shrubs and trees growing in rock crevices help in extending cracks of the rocks by their root growth. The
presence of vegetation accelerates weathering process by producing carbon dioxide in respiration and by providing
with materials for humus and humic acid. Respiration of carbon dioxide by plant roots can lead to the formation
of carbonic acid which can chemically attack rocks and sediments and help to turn them into soils. When the
plants die, they leave organic matter.

(ii) Animals: The soil organisms convert the organic matter into humus which is very suitable medium for the
growth of more plant. Animals like earthworm, termites, ants, moles, rats and rodents burrow underground and
loosen hard soil or change its character by mixing upper and lower layer of soil. The activities of plant and animal
change mineral composition as well as the physical structures of rocks and their growth may cause cracking and
flaking, exposing a greater area for further weathering.

B. Decomposition of Organic Materials:

The decomposition of organic material may progress through two distinct stages. As dead vegetation accumulates
on the soil surface, it provide food for a variety of soil organism which fragment and chemically degrade it. The
end products of these physical and chemical transformation is a complex substance called ‘humus’. The production
of humus was largely controlled by soil flora and fauna although physical and chemical agents also contribute
formation of humus is considered to be first phase of organic matters decomposition and slow breakdown of these
relatively stable complex.

C. Formation of Organo-Mineral Complex:

The mechanisms involve in the formation of organo-mineral complex are of two types as follows:

(i) Electro-Chemical Bonding: In this case, aggregation of negatively charged colloidal clay and humus particles
is brought about through electro-static bonding consisting of bridges of water molecules and metallic ions
particularly calcium.

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(ii) Cementing: It involve the action of substances adsorbed on the surface of soil particles which effectively glue
them together.

The rate and extent of weathering depends on:

 the chemical composition of the minerals that comprise the rock or sediment

 the type, strength, and durability of the material that holds the mineral grains together

 the extent of rock flaws or fractures.

 the rate of leaching through the material

 the extent and type of vegetation at the surface

2. Pedogenic (Major) processes

The pedogenic processes are extremely complex and dynamic involving many chemical and biological reactions,
and usually operate simultaneously in a given area. One process may counteract another, or two different processes
may work simultaneously to achieve the same result. Different processes or combination of processes operate
under varying natural environment.
The collective interaction of various soil forming factors under different environmental conditions set a course to
certain recognized soil forming processes.
The major process involved in soil formation includes the following.
 Gains or Additions: the process which involves the additions of materials into the soil mostly as rainfall,
heat, oxygen, organic matter, carbon dioxide and mineral matter to the soil. This additions mostly takes
place at the earth’s surface.
 Losses: the process in which materials are removed from the profile. E.g, water, nitrogen, carbonates and
other minerals through processes such as leaching and erosion.
 Transformation: soil forming processes in which changes occur “in situ” i.e. Humification of OM.
 Translocation: soil formin processes in which materials are moved from one point to another within the
soil profile and between the horizons. It is usually divided into: movement of solution (leaching) and
movement in suspension (eluviation) of clay, organic matter and hydrous oxides

Soil Forming Factors

Soil forming factors is an agent, a force or a relationship single or in combination that act on parent material with
the potential of changing it. It is important to understand the relationship between soils and the basic factors that
cause them to differ from one area to another.

Five soil-forming factors have been identified that influence the development of a specific soil. Wherever these
five factors have been the same on the landscape, the soil will be the same. However, if one or more of the factors

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differ, the soils will be different. The factors are: Parent material, Climate, Topography, Living organisms and
Time. These factors set the conditions that bring about the processes which in turn bring about the properties of
the soil.

The theoretical relations between soil forming factors and soil properties. In considering soil formation, the soil
themselves become the dependent variable and the other factors independent and causative.

Jenny’s CLORPT equation

Soil = f (climate, organism, relief, parent material, time)

s = ƒ (cl, o, r, p, t)

The equations are intended to be symbolic rather than utilitarian, and should be regarded only as a conceptual
model.

Factors Controlling the Formation of Soils:

1. Parent Material:

In pedology, all rocks from which soils are formed are called soil forming materials or parent materials. This
concept was introduced by Dokuchayev, in an attempt to emphasize the great significance of rock in the formation
of soils. The parent material has been defined by Jenny as “the state of soil system at time zero of soil formation.”
C.P. Marbut (1923), states that “the geological deposit, the glacial till, the sandy deposit of sand plains, the lake
laid or marine clays, sands and gravels, the residual earth resulting from rock decay constitute soil materials or
parent materials of soil.”

(a) Rocks:

A rock is an aggregate of one or more (usually more) minerals and solid materials which form the crust of the
earth. Rocks may be classified according to the mode of origin and composition of rock.

The rocks are classified on the mode of origin as follows:

1. Igneous Rocks:

Igneous rocks are those rocks which at one time were in fluid molten state before their solidification. These rocks
are formed by solidification of molten lava when they are coming out from the interior of earth surface.

They are classified into three categories as follows:

(i) Organic Rocks:

Organic rocks are formed by the solidification of magma or lava on the surface of the earth. As the solidification
takes place rapidly, no big crystal can be formed in this type of rock. Therefore organic rock possess
a glassic structure. This is generally a volcanic origin.
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(ii) Plutonic Rocks:

Plutonic rocks are formed by the solidification of magma at great depth (about 3 miles) under high pressure. As a
result of high temperature, the magma is solidified at a very slow rate forming big crystal in the rock. Therefore
plutonic rock possess crystalline structure.

(iii) Intrusive Rocks:

Intrusive rocks are formed by solidification of fluid on moderate depth i.e. on their way to earth surface. So the
position of this rock is in between organic rock and plutonic rock. The solidification takes place at moderate rate
and the big crystal is not found in this rock.

Igneous rocks contain common soil forming rocks such as granite and diorite. They are made up of primary
minerals such as quartz, feldspar etc. and dark coloured minerals including biotite, augite hornblende, gabbro and
basalt. Rocks containing high proportion of quartz are called acidic rocks and the rocks containing basic elements
like iron (Fe), aluminium (Al), calcium (Ca) and magnesium (Mg) are known as basic rocks. The most common
igneous rock found in India are granite (acidic) and basalt (basic).

2. Sedimentary Rocks:

Sedimentary rocks are derived from igneous rocks and are formed from the deposition and re-cementation of
weathering products of igneous rocks. These rocks develop due to gradual accumulation and consolidation of
weathering products or mineral particles brought by water or wind on the surface of the earth. Such rocks are
characterized by the presence of distinct sediment or layers in them.

Sedimentary rocks are of different types as follows:

(i) Mechanical Sediment:

The weathering products are carried down by wind or water and glacier in arctic region to the sea or lakes. In this
way, the deposited weathering products form the beds of sea or lakes. Ultimately the deposited materials may be
harden to form rock which is known as mechanical sediments.

(ii) Organogenic Sediments:

Plants grow by taking soluble minerals of the fresh or salty water of lake and sea. The small marine animals
survive by taking these plants which in turn provides food for the bigger animals. After the death of these animals,
the organic skeleton is left which in combination with mechanical sediment will form a type of rock which is
known as organogenic sediment.

(iii) Chemical Sediment:

When water is evaporated completely from an isolated portion of sea or lake, the mineral portion of water is
deposited on the beds of sea or lakes. This solid deposit may be harden to form a type of rocks which are known
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as chemical sediment. Limestone, sandstone, siltstone, conglomerate, shale etc. are important example of
sedimentary rock.

3. Metamorphic Rocks:

Metamorphic rocks are those rocks which have undergone some sort of metamorphism or change. These rocks
are formed by metamorphism or change, in form of other rocks. Igneous and sedimentary masses subjected to
tremendous pressure and high temperature have succumbed to metamorphism. During the metamorphosis, the
rocks may be harden, some new substances may be added or it may be stratified.

The common instances of metamorphic rocks are gneisses, derived from granite, syenite, diorite etc. quartzite
from quartz, sandstones or conglomerate, talc, serpentine and soapstone derived from siliceous magnesian rocks,
slates from shales (clay), marble derived from limestone and schist from sandy clay.

Rocks are also classified on the basis of their silica content as follows:

(i) Acid rocks – This rock contains 65-75 per cent silica, e.g. granite, sandstone, gneiss etc.

(ii) Basic rocks – This rock contains 40-55 per cent silica, e.g. basalt, lime stone, gabbro, diabase etc. Basic rocks
are also rich in calcium, iron, magnesium and sodium.

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(iii) Intermediate rocks – This rock contains 55-65 per cent silica, e.g. andesite, diorite, syenite etc.

Sedimentary rocks are more resistant to weathering than igneous and metamorphic rocks. Lime stone weathers
more easily than sand stone. Basic igneous rock weathers more than acid igneous rock.

The order of decomposition of rock is as follows (Daikuhara):

Basalt > Gneiss > Granite > Hornblende > Andesite.

The effect of parent rock on soil formation are as follows:

(i) The nature of soil that develops depend in part upon the nature of the rock which influences the physical and
chemical properties of resultant soil.

(ii) The effect of parent rock on soil is stronger in early stages of soil formation. Acid igneous rocks weather
slowly and gives rise to coarser sandy soil with low base status and infertile soil. On the other hand, the basic
igneous rocks and metamorphic rocks weather rapidly and lead to the development of relatively fertile soil with
fine texture and with high base status.

(b) Minerals:

Minerals are natural substances usually an inorganic body having definite chemical —composition and commonly
a definite molecular arrangement which is expressed in geometric form. Soil forming minerals are principally
alumino-silicates.

Soil forming minerals are of different kinds as follows:

(i) Quartz:

Quartz is silicon dioxide consisting of a continuous framework of silica tetrahedra. All four oxygens of the
tetrahedra are shared and there are no cleavage planes. It is also found in all crystalline rocks; also occurs in sands
and the principal component of granite and sandstones. It is occasionally found in clay fraction also.

(ii) Feldspars:

Feldspars are aluminium silicates with varying amount of silicates of potassium (K), sodium (Na) and calcium
(Ca) and occasionally of other large cation such as Barium. The structure of feldspar consist of tetrahedra which
are linked together by sharing each oxygen atom between adjacent tetrahedra. The feldspars make up an average
of about 60 per cent by weight of igneous rocks and large fractions of sedimentary rocks.

(iii) Amphiboles and Pyroxenes:

The amphiboles and pyroxenes are heavy ferromagnesian minerals, the structure of which consists of long chain
of linked silica tetrahedra. Amphiboles are more commonly found in rocks and includes olivine and hornblende.

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Hornblende weathers fairly rapidly. Pyroxenes are more commonly found in heavy basic rocks, the principal
mineral being augite.

(iv) Micas:

Mica is silicate of aluminium (Al) and potassium (K), with silicates of iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg) and sodium
(Na). Mica occurs extensively in soils. Well-ordered micas are inherited by soil mainly from igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Biotite and muscovite are the two important type of mica.

There are some important non-silicate soil forming minerals as follows:

Calcite (CaCO3), dolomite [CaMg(CO3)2], gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O) and magnesite (MgCO3).

2. Climate: Climate is the most influential of all factors and determine the nature of weathering that occurs.

The climate influences the process of soil formation directly and indirectly as follows:

(a) Directly:

The two primary elements of climate namely rainfall (precipitation) and temperature supply water and heat
respectively to react with parent materials. Rainfall primarily determines moisture which affect the decomposition
of minerals. The soluble products of decomposition are removed along with percolating and run-off water. The
increase in temperature also increases the rate of weathering of primary minerals and clay content and cation
exchange capacity (C.E.C.) of young soil. Temperature influences the decomposition of organic matter and
microbiological activity.

(b) Indirectly:

Climate control vegetation of a particular area. Forests are the dominant vegetation in humid climate. The climate
determines the vegetation which furnish sources of energy in the form of organic matter. This energy acts on rocks
and mineral material by means of acid and salts release in the process of organic matter decomposition. The
vegetative cover protects the soil from wind and water erosion.

The effects of precipitation and temperature in the formation of soil are as follows:

(i) Precipitation:

Precipitation affects leaching and percolation which in turn affect soil formation. As the percolating water come
in contact with parent material, some constituent go into solution. They are translocated and deposited at another
point i.e. depriving one part of the constituent and enriching another part. Large particles of soil material are
translocated mechanically both vertically and horizontally from one place to another with the soil body or out of
its bounds into sub-soil and ground water. Moisture is one of the determining factors of plant growth which in
turn harnesses the energy of sun to act on mineral matter.

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(ii) Temperature:

In arctic and sub-arctic region, temperature is of little significance in soil formation with the same precipitation in
two different isothermal (equal temperature) belts, different soil profile will develop. Temperature affects velocity
of chemical reaction. It also influences the organic matter decomposition and microbiological activities. In sub-
arctic (cold temperature) region, organic matter accumulates in the soil due to restricted microbial activity at low
temperature.

3. Relief or Topography:

The relief and topography sometimes are used as synonymous terms. They denote the configuration of the land
surface. The topography refers to the differences in elevation of the land surface on a broad scale. The topography
(relief) influences soil formation through its effect on drainage, run-off, soil erosion and microclimate i.e. exposure
of land surface to the sun and wind. The character of soil depends on the topography. In the smooth rock, water
stands on the rock which helps to grow the plant and rock is modified in various forms to make the soil. A group
of soil which has developed from same parent material in same climate but under different topographical condition
is called “soil catena”.

Variations in topography affect moisture and temperature relations. Each of these topographic regions has some
common features which affect soil formation.

Components of topography:

a) Slope:- angle of the land surface

i. Soil formation on flat to almost flat position: On level topographic positions, almost the entire water
received through rain percolates through the soil. Under such conditions, the soils formed may be
considered as representative of the regional climate. They have normal solum with distinct horizons. But
vast and monotonous level land with little gradient often has impaired drainage conditions.
ii. Soil formation on undulating topography: The soils on steep slopes are generally shallow, stony and
have weakly- developed profiles with less distinct horizonation. It is due to accelerated erosion, which
removes surface material before it has the time to develop. Reduced percolation of water through soil is
because of surface runoff, and lack of water for the growth of plants, which are responsible for checking
of erosion and promote soil formation.
iii. Soil formation in depression: The depression areas in semi-arid and sub humid regions reflect more
moist conditions than actually observed on level topographic positions due to the additional water
received as runoff. Such conditions favour more vegetative growth and slower rate of decay of organic
remains. This results in the formation of comparatively dark- coloured soils rich in organic matter
(Mollisols).

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 iv. Soil formation and Exposure/ Aspect: Topography affects soil formation by affecting temperature and
vegetative growth through slope exposures (aspect}. The southern exposures (facing the sun) are warmer
and subject to marked fluctuations in temperature and moisture. The northern exposures, on the other
hand are cooler and more humid. The eastern and western exposures occupy intermediate position in this
respect.
b) Elevation (Height): how high above the river or stream
Elevation, the height above a water source, will help control the soil drainage. The elevation will affect the
soil wetness.
c) Aspect: Direction that a slope face
This deals with the direction of the slope is facing. South facing will generally be drier, warmer, and less
moist than north facing slopes because they get more direct sunlight. This slope idea can be related to
mountainsides, hillsides, sides of roads or row furrows. In fact, topography affects the micro-environment
for soil formation in a manner similar to climate’s effect on macro environment for soil formation.

4. Living Organism (Biosphere): Living organisms render an indirect effect on soil formation.

There are two components of biosphere which influences the soil formation as follows:

(i) Plants (Phytosphere):

Mosses and lichens which are symbiotic association of algae and fungi can grow on bare rocks and respire to
produce carbon dioxide which react with water to form carbonic acid. This carbonic acid dissolves primary
minerals and releases the nutrient contained in them for the growth of plant. Algae fix atmospheric nitrogen which
is released in the soil upon the death of algae.

Plant grow in an environment having nutrients and water. After the death of these plants, the organic matter of
rocks increases. Carbon dioxide produced from the decomposition of organic matter and respiration of
microorganism and plant roots combines with primary minerals to form more clay and convert insoluble minerals
to soluble ones.

Plant roots penetrate into the rocks and minerals and thus open channels for the movement of water and air and
creates favourable environmental conditions for biological activity. As the roots and other Subterranean Plants
die and decompose, a good number of organic and inorganic acids are released which may initiate different
chemical reactions. Vegetation is the basic supplier of organic remains.

16
We generally look at vegetation in two different classes. Soils that formed under trees and soils that formed
under grasses. The biggest influence of plants may be seen in the differences in soils that formed under grass
vegetation and soils that formed under tree vegetation.

i. Soils that formed under grasses usually have thick dark A horizons. These A horizons have good organic
matter accumulations. This occurs because 50% of the organic matter produced by grasses is in the
roots, Also, many of these roots each year become organic matter. The grasses are also important
because grasses use nutrient, die, and cycle that nutrient back into the soil. This helps keep the nutrients
from being leached out of the soil.

ii. Soils that formed under tree vegetation have their organic matter concentrated at the surface. Tree roots
do not each year and add organic matter to the soil. Because of this trees do not cycle nutrients as fast
as grasses do, but they do cycle nutrients from a greater depth. Because nutrients are cycled slower,
these soils are more highly leached and may develop E horizons.

(ii) Animals (Zoosphere):

The contribution of animal kingdom to the process of soil formation is primarily mechanical in nature. Burrowing
animals like rodents, termites, earthworm etc. when present in large number help to change the character of the
soil as they harbour in soil, dig into soil body and mix the materials of different horizons. The earthworm have
been reported to cause constant mixing of materials within the soil profile. Man through his land use activities
causes both deleterious and beneficial effect on soil.

Man converts the forest areas into agricultural land. The human interference accelerates erosion of soil through
some activities such as burning of forests, shifting cultivation and indiscriminate grazing. The agricultural
practices such as cultivation, puddling, cropping system, use of manures, fertilizers, pesticides, soil amendment
etc. drainage, irrigation etc. alter the general character of soil profile.

5. Time

The actual length of time that the materials are subjected to weathering plays an important role in soil formation.
Time is also a condition governing various manifestation of soil formation. Jenny expressed soil age in terms of
pedogenic factor, time (t). Time has been regarded as one of the factors influencing the soil formation because
even chemical weathering of rocks to form soil requires sometimes to complete it.

Mohar and Van Baren (1959) recognized five stages of development of tropical soil as follows:

(i) Initial stage – Unweathered parent material.

(ii) Juvenile stage – Weathering just started, but much of the original material is still unweathered.

17
 (iii) Verile stage – Easily weatherable minerals have been decomposed for the greater part, the clay content
has increased and a certain mellowness is discernible. The content of soil components less susceptible to
weathering is still appreciable.

(iv) Senile stage – Decomposition arrives at a final stage and only the most resistant minerals have survived.

(v) Final stage – Soil development has been completed and the parent material is fully weathered.

A mature soil represents a steady state in respect of parent material. Mature soils are formed due to principal
factor acting for longer period of time than in young soil. The age of the soil is judged in terms of the maturity
stage of development of the profile rather than the geological age of parent material.

Young
1. little profile development
2. contains easily weathered minerals
3. properties of parent material
Mature
1. strong profile development
2. leached, highly weathered
3. few weatherable minerals

SOIL PROFILE DEVELOPMENT

The ultimate result of soil formation is the development of soil profile. The soil profile is formed by interaction
of various pedogenic factors under a special set of condition.

The interaction of the five soil-forming factors; time, climate, parent material, topography, and plant and animal
life, result in the development of a soil profile.

Soil Profile

It’s a two dimensional horizontal and vertical therefore, it’s a two dimensional on the earth’s surface showing
different horizons, their arrangements and relationship with each other. It is a vertical section of the soil beginning
at the surface and extending down into the unconsolidated underlying material to a depth of 60 inches or more.

The fundamental process that develops a profile are described as follows:

(i) Humiflcation:

The top layer of soil, called ‘A’ horizon contains abundant dead remains of plants, animals and other products of
microbial metabolism. These products undergo decomposition which may produce some suitable organic
compounds and some amorphous incompletely decomposed black colored organic residues, the humus.

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The process of decomposition of organic matter and synthesis of new organic substances (i.e. humus) is called
‘humification’. The humus and organic compounds are mixed with fine particles of weathered rock. The
percolating water passing from humus layer dissolves certain organic acid and affects the development of lower
A horizon and B horizon.

(ii) Eluviation and Illuviation:

Water is important agent which help in the development of some profile. While water percolating downwardly
through mineral and organic substances of A horizon or top soil, it removes a number of chemical substances from
the top soil. The process of washing away of soil constituent by percolation from upper layers to lower layers is
termed as eluviation (meaning wash out) and the surface layer from which components are lost is called eluvial
layer or A horizon.

The eluviated substances move downwardly and are deposited in the lower zone or B horizon, which is termed as
illuvial layer (meaning wash in) or B horizon. The process of accumulation of eluviated material is called
illuviation.

There are some fundamental soil forming process involved in the development of soil profile as follows:

a. Gleization:

Gleization is the process of reduction, due to anaerobic condition, of ferric compounds like ferric phosphate and
ferric sulphide in water logged soil in presence of organic matter with the ferrous compounds like ferrous
phosphate or ferrous sulphide. In this process, there develops a compact structureless and stick surface layer. The
submerged layer is blue green in colour, poorly aerated and has reduced content of iron compound. Gleization
usually takes place in low lying areas where water accumulates.

b. Podzolization:

Podzolization (In Russian, Pod means ‘under’, and zola means ‘ash’) is the process of eluviation of oxides of iron
and aluminium and also of humus under acid condition (pH 4-5), removal of carbonates by organic acids formed
by decomposition of organic matter and illuviation of sesquioxides and humus in subsurface horizon. It is a type
of eluviation in which humus and sesquioxides (i.e. oxides of iron and aluminium) becomes mobile, leach out
from upper horizon and becomes deposited in the lower horizons.

The eluviated horizon assumes a bleached grey appearance and is left in highly acid, siliceous condition. The soil
is called podzol due to having grey colour and ashy appearance. This process is more effective in sand based poor
parent materials under intense leaching and thick vegetational cover.

c. Laterization:

10
Laterization (In Latin, later means brick and obviously refers to its use as building material and not to its colour)
is the process of desilication i.e. the removal of silica and accumulation of sesquioxides. In tropical and subtropical
region when rainfall occurs, the organic matter and minerals particularly silica, are leached away and hydroxides
of iron and aluminium are precipitated in the form of residue which is ‘laterite’.

Laterite are also formed from clayey sandy rocks when large amounts of iron are accumulated in them. The process
is termed as laterization. Laterite do not show well differentiated horizon. Laterization is favoured by rapid
decomposition of parent rocks under climate with high temperature and sufficient moisture for intense leaching.

Podzolisation and laterization produce soil that belong to ‘pedalfer’ (iron accumulating) group.

d. Calcification:

In sub-humid and dry regions, soil accumulates considerable amount of soluble materials due to lack of excessive
moisture in the soil and carbonates of calcium and magnesium are deposited in the B. horizon. The soils having
such features is called ‘Pedocol’ (Calcium accumulating soil).

e. Salinization:

Salinization is the process of accumulation of soluble salts in soils. In arid region, soluble neutral salts of calcium
and magnesium are deposited on the surface of the soil when water evaporates from the surface of the soil. The
water containing soluble salts moves from the deeper layer to the surface of the soil.

Salinization may also takes place through capillary rise of saline ground water and by inundation with sea water
in marine and coastal soils. Desalinization is the process of leaching soluble salts from the soil by rain water or
irrigation water. Drainage is essential for desalinization.

f. Alkalization (Solonization):

Alkalization is the process by which soils with high exchangeable sodium are formed. The amount of
exchangeable sodium in great quantities in the soil makes the soil alkalinity. Dealkalization (solodization) is the
process by which sodium ion is replaced from the clay and humic micelle by hydrogen ion and the silicate clay is
decomposed to release silica which is deposited on the soil particles. This process is affected by intense leaching.

g. Hydromorphic Soils (Gleysoils):

Hydromorphic or gley soils are regarded as intrazonal soil and this soil evolves when the soil is over-moistened
either from the surface or groundwater. Under such conditions, the regime in the soil is anaerobic, promoting the
reduction reaction which stimulates the genesis of gley horizon or a gley stratum. Such soil forming process results
in swamp, bog, marsh, muck and peat soils.

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Soil Horizon

A layer of soil approximately parallel to the land surface and differing from adjacent
genetically related layers in physical, chemical, and biological properties or characteristics
such as color, structure, texture, consistency, kinds and number of organisms present,
degree of acidity or alkalinity etc. Horizons are seen by exposing a soil profile.

Soil horizons are layers which are characteristic of each kind of soil

As there are many kinds of soil and many variations of these soils, there are also variations
of the horizontal layers typical to all soils. Soil layers tend to vary from place to place as to their number, individual
thickness, and color, physical and chemical characteristics.

The soil and the subsoil of mineral soils, are subdivided into thinner layers called master horizons. Each master
horizon may be further subdivided into sub horizons.

Master Horizons: It’s a horizon which shows the major kinds of deviation from an assumed parent material.
Master horizons are always written in upper case letters. They are caused to be by soil processes.

HORIZON DESCRIPTION

O Organic material at the surface (top of) soil -- leaves, twigs, branches, dead grass etc. These horizons are
usually seen in forested soils, generally not in cultivated soils.

A Horizon where decomposed O.M. accumulates (Top)- usually has a dark color area where most biological
activity occurs most - soil microbes are here, as are earth worms etc. - usually at the surface. If the field is
plowed this horizon extends to the depth of cultivation. This is why it is called the plow layer. Area of clay
and chemical loss. It is called the zone of eluviation.

E Horizon of maximum removal or leaching. This is also a zone of eluviation. Maximum clay and chemical
losses have occurred here. -- generally light colored and sandy

B Horizon where the material from the A and E horizon will collect. This horizon is known as the zone of
illuvaition. -- clay and chemicals are generally at maximum levels

C Layer of nearly unaltered mineral material. no biological activity here. Neither a zone of eluviation or
illuviation. No changes have really taken place. Very little if any rooting has occurred in this horizon.
Generally considered to be the lower limit of the soil. -- This is called the soil's parent material.

R The underlying bedrock, such as limestone, sandstone or granite.

How do the soil horizons develop?: The physical properties of the soil stratum, from the surface of the ground to
a depth of about 1.5-2 metres or occasionally deeper, are influenced by seasonal changes of water content and
temperature and by various biological agents such as roots, worms, insects, and bacteria.

12
The upper part of the mineral soil, the A master horizon, is subject to the mechanical effects of weathering and
to the loss of some of its constituents through leaching. In the lower part of the soil stratum, the B master
horizon, some of the substances leached out from above are precipitated and accumulated.

Below the B master horizon, the character of the soil is determined by the type of parent-rock from which it was
formed, how it was deposited and by later geological events.

SOIL PHYSICS
Soil Physical Properties

Soil Texture

Soil texture is relative proportion of different sized groups in the soil on percentage basis. It describes the sand,
silt and clay composition of a soil.

The smaller the particles in a soil, the larger the internal surface area. Similarly, the smaller the particles in a soil
the more water and nutrients the soil can retain. In the field a soil is composed of a mixture of separates which
are groups of soil particles of a given size ranges (i.e. different size particles which together make up a given soil).

Table 3.1: Size Limits of Soil Separates in the USDA and ISSS Schemes (shows two schemes of classification
used for defining various separates in soils).

USDA scheme ISSS Scheme

Name of separate Diameter Range (μm) Name of separates Diameter Range (μm)
Very coarse sand 2000-1000
Coarse sand 1000 – 500 Coarse sand 2000 – 200

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Medium sand 500 – 250
Fine sand 250-100 Fine sand 200 – 20
Very fine sand 100 – 50
Silt 50-2 Silt 20 – 2
Clay <2 Clay <2
Coarse fragments
Gravels 2000-7500μm (2-75mm)
Cobbles 75000 - 254000μm (75 – 254 mm)
Stones > 254000μm (> 254mm)

Soil Textural Class: Grouping based on relative proportion and specifically on % sand, silt and clay in given soil
sample. The class name essentially describes the separate which most influence the sample
physical/chemical/biological properties. A soil sample usually contains a combination of at least two separates
thus there are classes of soil texture. These combinations are therefore classified into twelve different
combinations called soil textural classes.

Common soil textural classes’ identification is based on USDA textural triangle system shown in Fig.4.1. In
general, the twelve textural classes may be defined as follows:

i Sand - Soil material that contain 85% or more of sand and a percentage of silt plus 1 ½ times the percentages
of clay not exceeding 15.

ii Loamy Sand- Soil material that contains at the upper limit 85 to 90% sand, and the percentage of silt plus 1
½ times the percentage of clay is not less than 15; at the lower limit it contains not less than 70 to 85% sand,
and the percentage of silt plus twice the percentage of clay does not exceed 30.

iii Sandy Loam- Soil material that contains either 20% clay or less and the percentage of silt plus twice the
percentage of clay exceeds 30, and 52% or more sand; or less than 7% clay, less than 50% silt, and between
43% and 52% sand.

iv Loam- Soil material that contains 7 to 27% clay, 28 to 50% silt, and less than 52% sand.

v Silt Loam- Soil material that contains 50% or more silt and 12 to 27% clay (or) 50 to 80 percent silt and less
than 12% clay.

vi Silt - Soil material that contains 80% or more silt and less than 12% clay.

vii Sand Clay Loam – Soil material that contains 20 to 35% clay, less than 28% silt and 45% or more sand.

viii Clay Loam- Soil material that contains 27 to 40% clay and 20 to 45% sand.

14
ix Silty Clay Loam – Soil material that contains 27 to 40% clay and less than 20% sand.

x Sandy Clay- Soil material that contains 35% or more clay and 45% or more sand.

xi Silty Clay- Soil material that contains 40% or more clay and 40% or more silt.

xii Clay- Soil material that contains 40% or more clay, less than 45% sand, and less than 40% silt.

In using the diagram, the points corresponding to the

percentages of silt and clay present in the soil under
consideration are located on the silt and clay lines respectively.
Lines are then projected inward, parallel in the first case to the
clay side of the triangle and in the second case parallel to the
sand side. The name of the compartment in which the two lines
intersect is the class name of the soil in question. For examples
a soil containing 15% clay, 20% silt and 65% sand is sandy
loam and a soil containing equal amounts of sand, silt and clay
is clay loam.

Fig 4.1 Soil Textural Triangle, USDA

Mechanical Analysis:

The basic soil textural class names, in use presently, are defined in terms of particle-size distribution as determined
in the laboratory by a procedure termed Particle Size Distribution Analysis or Mechanical Analysis or
Gravimetric Analysis. The percentage of size fractions combined to determine the texture using a standard soil
textural triangle as shown in Fig.4.1.

Field Methods

In the field, soil texture could be estimated by the following methods.

i Feel method. In this method, the soil is moistened with water and rubbed between the thumb and fingers. The
way the wet soil “slicks out” gives a good idea of the clay content. The sand particles are gritty, the silt has a
floury or talcum - powder fell when dry and is only moderately plastic and sticky when wet. Accuracy of this
method depends largely on experience.

ii Ball and ribbon method: The procedure of this method as described by Coche and Laughlin (1985) is as
follows: Take a handful of soil and wet it so that it begins to stick together without sticking to the hand. A
ball of about 3 cm diameter is made and put down. If it falls apart it is sand. If it sticks together roll the ball
into a sausage shape 6 – 7 cm long. If it does not remain in this form it is loamy sand. If it remains in this

15
 shape, continue to roll until it reaches 15 – 16 cm long. If it does not remain in this form, it is sandy loam. If
it remains in this shape, try to bend the sausage into a half circle and if it doesn't, it is a loam. If it does, bend
the sausage to form a full circle and if it doesn't it is heavy loam. If it does with slight cracks in the sausage,
it is light clay. If it does without any cracks, it is a clay.

iii Ball throwing method: The texture of the soil can be inferred by the way a ball of soil acts when it is thrown
at a hard surface such as a wall or a tree

Soil Structure

The term structure relates to the arrangement of primary soil particles into groupings called AGGREGATES or
PEDS. Soil structure may be defined as the organization of sand, silt, clay and humus particles into somewhat
stable groupings (peds), or the aggregation of primary soil particles (sand, silt and clay) into compound particles
or cluster of primary particles which are seperated by the adjoining aggregates by surfaces of weakness.

The pattern of pores and peds defined by soil structure greatly influence water movements, heat transfer, aeration
and porosity in soils.

Types of Soil Structure:

Different types of structural peds in soils occur within horizons of soil profile. Soil structure is characterized in
terms of shape (type or form), size and distinctiveness (grade) of the peds.

Structure is defined in terms of grade, class and type of aggregates.

Grade: Grade of structure is the degree of aggregation and expresses the differential between cohesion within
aggregates and adhesion between aggregates. These properties vary with the moisture content of the soil and it
should be determined when the moisture content is normal - not when unusually dry or unusually wet.

There are four major grades of structure rated from 0 to 3 as follows:

1. Structureless: has no observable aggregation or no definite orderly arrangement of natural lines of weakness,
such as:

a) Massive structure (coherent) where the entire soil horizon appears cemented in one great mass. Soil has
no visible structure, is hard to break apart and appears in very large clods.

b) Single-grain structure (non-coherent) where the individual soil particles show no tendency to cling
together (Soil is broken into individual particles that do not stick together). Always accompanies a loose
consistence. Commonly found in sandy soils.

16
2. Weak structure is poorly formed from indistinct aggregates that can barely be observed in place.

3. Moderate structure is well formed from distinct aggregates that are moderately durable and evident but not
distinct in undisturbed soil.

4. Strong structure is well formed from distinct aggregates that are durable and quite evident in undisturbed
soil

Class: The Class of structure describes the average size of individual aggregates and Type describes their form or
shape. The various class divisions are: very fine or very thin, fine or thin, medium, coarse or thick and very coarse
or very thick.

Types: Type of structure describes the form or shape of individual aggregates.

1. Spheroidal : Granular and crumb structures:

The granular structure consists of spheroidal peds or granules that are usually separated from each other in loosely
packed arrangement. When the spheroidal peds are porous, they are classified as crumbs. Granular and crumb
structures are characteristic of many surface soils, usually the A-horizon, and particularly those high in OM. Water
circulates very easily through such soils. They are especially prominent in grassland soils and soils that have been
worked by earthworms.

2. Blocky: Angular and sub angular blocky structures:

Blocky peds are irregular, roughly cubelike in shape and range from about 5 to 50 mm across. The individual
blocks are not shaped independently but are molded by the shapes of the surrounding blocks. When the edges of
the blocks are sharp and the rectangular faces are distinct, the subtype is referred to as angular blocky. When the
corners are round and the edges are sharp, then it is called subangular blocky. These types are usually found in
the B-horizon of soil where they promote good drainage, aeration and root penetration.

3. Prismlike: Prismatic and columnar structures

17
The horizontal axes of prismlike structure are shorter than the vertical axes. Columnar structure has pillars with
distinct, rounded top and this is especially common in subsoils high in Na+. When the tops are of the prisms are
relatively angular and flat horizontally, the structure is designated as Prismatic. Both prismlike structures are
often associated with swelling types of clay. They commonly occur in subsurface in arid and semiarid regions.
Water circulates with greater difficulty and drainage is poor. They are commonly found in the B-horizon where
clay has accumulated.

(Prismatic structure) (Columnar structure)

4. Platelike: Platy structure

Platy structure is characterized by relatively this horizontal peds or plates and may be found in both surface and
subsurface horizons. The horizontal axes are longer than vertical, i.e. horizontal cleavage planes predominate.

Measurement of Soil Structure:

Direct Measurement: this involves measuring the size and shape of aggregates and spaces or pore spaces between
them. This is 3-dimensional study of undisturbed soil achieved in thin section observed with polarizing
microscopes.

Indirect Measurement: This involve measurement of the parameters which are used to estimate the soil structural
properties. These parameters are:

• Aggregate size distribution • Pore size distribution

• Aggregate stability • Permeability
• Porosity • Infiltration
• Bulk density
Factors Affecting Soil Structure

The development of structure in arable soil depends on the following factors:

i. Climate: Climate has considerable influence on the degree of aggregation as well as on the type of
structure. In arid regions there is very little aggregation of primary particles. In semi-arid regions,
the degree of aggregation is greater.

18
 ii. Organic matter: Organic matter improves the structure of a sandy soil as well as of a clay soil. In
case of a sandy soil, the sticky and slimy material produced by the decomposing organic matter and
the associated microorganism cement the sand particles together to form aggregates. In case of
clayey soil, it modifies the properties of clay by reducing its cohesiveness. This helps making clay
more crumby.

iii. Tillage: Cultivation implements break down the large clods into smaller fragments and aggregates.
For obtaining good granular and crumby structure, optimum moisture content in the soil is
necessary. If the moisture content is too high it will form large clods on drying. If it is too low some
of the existing aggregates will be broken down.

iv. Plants, Roots and Residues: Excretion of gelatinous organic compounds and exudates from roots
serve as a link. Root hairs make soil particles to cling together. Grass and cereal roots vs other
roots. Pressure exerted by the roots also hold the particles together.

v. Animals: Among the soil fauna small animals like earthworms, moles and insects etc., that burrow
in the soil are the chief agents that take part in the aggregation of finer particles.

vi. Microbes: Algae, fungi, actinomycetes and fungi keep the soil particles together. Fungi and
actinomycetes exert mechanical binding by mycelia, Cementation by the products of
decomposition and materials synthesized by bacteria.

vii. Fertilizers: Fertilizer like Sodium Nitrate destroys granulation by reducing the stability of
aggregates. Few fertilizers for example, CAN help in development of good structures.

viii. Wetting and drying: When a dry soil is wetted, the soil colloids swell on absorbing water. On
drying, shrinkage produces strains in the soil mass gives rise to cracks, which break it up into clods
and granules of various sizes.

Importance of Soil Structure

Role of soil structure in relation to plant growth

1. Soil structure influences the amount and nature of porosity.

2. Structure controls the amount of water and air present in the soil. Their movement and circulation
are also controlled by soil structure.

3. It affects tillage practices.

4. Increases infiltration, thus reducing runoff and erosion and increases the amount of available water.

19
 5. Platy structure normally hinders free drainage whereas sphere like structure (granular and crumby)
helps in drainage.

6. Crumby and granular structure provides optimum infiltration, water holding capacity, aeration and
drainage.

7. It also provides good habitat for microorganisms and supply of nutrients.

8. Large continuous pores increase permeability

9. Improves seedling emergence, root growth and rooting depth.

Soil Consistence

Soil Consistence is the physical condition of a soil at various moisture contents in terms of adhering soil
particles together, degree of firmness, resistance to separation of constituent a particles or mechanical
stresses or manipulation. The capacity of a soil to behave under such condition is expressed as soil
consistence, which would be loose, friable, firm, soft, harsh, plastic or sticky.

Soil consistence refers to the behaviour of soil when pressure is applied, especially at various moisture
contents, usually when the soil is wet, moist, or dry.

The terms used to describe consistence include:

1. Wet Soil: Often described in terms of stickiness, as non-sticky, slightly sticky, sticky, very sticky; and
in terms of plasticity as non-plastic, slightly plastic, plastic, and very plastic.

2. Moist Soil: This is very important because it best describes the condition of soils when they are tilled
in the field. Consistence of a moist soil is described in the following terms; going from the material
with least coherence to that which adheres so strongly as to resist crushing between the thumb and
forefinger: loose, very friable, friable, firm, very firm and extremely firm.

3. Dry soil: Terms used to describe the degree of rigidity or brittleness to crushing or manipulations
include the following: loose, soft, slightly hard, hard, very hard and extremely hard.

Consistence indicates

1. Amount and type of clay material 2. Condition for tillage 3. Potential for compaction

Determining soil consistence

1. Fingers - squeeze aggregates or push fingers into the soil.

2. Penetrometer - measures how hard it is to push into the soil.

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3. Examine roots: roots or a root mat indicate problems.

Soil Colour

Soil colour is an important indicator of soil conditions. It reveals considerable information about any given
soil. Soil colour indicates many soil features, the difference in parent materials (mineral origin), the
ddifference in soil development etc. The soil can take several shades of colours such as:

i. Brown-Black where dark soils result from the level of organic matter contents which is usually
high in waterlogged soils.
ii. White-Light grey which indicate leaching of colouring materials such as organic matter, or
due to accumulation of lime or salts. common when carbonates or slats deposits exist,
iii. Yellow-Red soils contain iron oxides in well-drained soils
iv. Mottling Colour develops when the soil is waterlogged for part of the year. Patches of different
colours are shown.

What determines soil colour: Four main factors influence the colour of a soil:

• Mineral matter derived from the constituents of the parent material

• Organic matter

• The nature and abundance of iron

• Moisture content

Mineral matter – rocks are broken down to form soils, and sometimes these rocks give their colour to the
soil. More usually the colour of the soil results from compounds such as iron.

Organic matter – humus, the final stage of organic matter breakdown is black. Throughout the stages of
organic matter breakdown the colour imparted to the soil varies from browns to black. Sodium content
influences the depth of colour of organic matter and therefore the soil. Sodium causes the organic matter
(humus) to disperse more readily and spread over the soil particles, making the soil look darker (blacker).

Iron – Red, yellow, grey and bluish-grey colours result from iron in various forms. Under average
conditions of air and moisture, iron forms a yellow oxide imparting a yellow colour to the soil. Where soils
are well draining or under dry conditions, iron forms red oxides imparting a red colour to the soil. Yet in
waterlogged soil, with a lack of air, iron forms in a reduced state giving the soil grey/green/bluish-grey
colours.

Water – Soil colour darkens as the soil changes from dry to moist. But longer term colour changes are
linked to water relations as well. Careful observation of colour can help to identify problems of

21
waterlogging or leaching. Poorly drained soils are often dominated by blue grey colours often with yellow
mottling. Well drained soils will usually have bright and uniform colours.

Significance of/indicator of:

i. Drainage and wetness (Redoximorphic features) (show samples) Greenish, bluish, and gray colors in
the soil indicate wetness. These colors may occur as the dominant color (matrix) or in patches (mottles).
The colors are caused by the reduction of iron by bacteria in anaerobic conditions. (The bacteria get the
electrons they need for energy from iron rather than from oxygen.) These colors will persist even if the area
is drained, so they serve as indicators, not proof. Bright colors (reds and yellows), on the other hand, indicate
well-drained soils. You don’t want to have free water (water in excess of the available water capacity)
within the rooting depth of your plants during the growing season. It is possible for a soil with bright colors
to still have wetness problems if the groundwater is moving fast enough and if it has sufficient oxygen or
if it is too cold for biological activity.

ii. Organic matter. Dark colors in the soil usually indicate organic matter. They may also indicate wetness
(remember, wetter soils can accumulate more organic matter). Sometimes, the color may be derived from
the parent material. This is often the case in soils derived from basic (dark-colored) igneous rock.

Color is one of the most obvious characteristics of soil. Colour can also provide a valuable insight into the
soil environment and hence is very important in assessment and classification.

Soil Color Measurement

Soil colour is determined by comparison of the soil color to Munsell colour charts.

Three color nations

 Hue: The dominant spectral colour of “rainbow” colour (yellow, red, green
& Blue). The wavelength of the colour,
 Value: The relative blackness or whiteness, the amount of reflected light. The tone (from dark to
light), and
 Chroma: purity of the colour (colour saturation).

Nomenclature: Eg. 10YR4/5: Hue= 10YR value: 4 Chroma: 5

Pore Spaces and Porosity

Pores are spaces or voids between solid soil materials. The occurrence or abundance of pores in soils are of
pedological significance because a soil with many coarse pores will be much more aerated and better

22
drained than one with few very fine pores. The pores allow the soil to act as medium for air and water
transport and it is within the pores that physical, chemical and biological processes occur in the soil.

Types of pores: Three types of pores are generally recognized

i. Interstitial pores: Spaces between mineral grains and peds

ii. Tubular pores: Pores made by root or animal activity that are or were at one time continuous
iii. Vesicular pores: Bubble-shaped pores

Sizes of pores—two basic size classes of pores are recognized, though there is not a particular size limit
between them

i. Macropores: allow free movement of air and water

ii. Micropores: air movement is greatly impeded, water movement is restricted to capillary flow

Macropores are the big pores which are mainly meant for aeration while micropores (small pores) are meant
to transmit water after wetting. Pores are connected with one another in the soil and are usually described
by their retention of water and air. An ideal soil for agricultural purposes has fairly equal proportion of
macropores and micropores. This is usually put at 25% for each of the two pore sizes.

Porosity

Total porosity is defined as the fraction of the bulk rock volume V that is not occupied by solid matter. If
the volume of solids is denoted by Vs, and the pore volume as Vp = V - Vs, we can write the porosity as:
Pore Volume /Total Bulk Volume.

The porosity can be expressed either as a fraction or as a percentage. Two out of the three terms are required
to calculate porosity

Mathematical expression is: Porosity = 𝑽 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒆⁄𝐕𝐬= 𝐕𝐬 – 𝐕𝐛⁄𝐕𝐬*100

Where: Vs is the total volume of soil, Vb is the volume of solids

Therefore porosity is also 𝟏 – 𝐕𝐛⁄𝐕𝐬=*100

Porosity also depends on both the texture and structure of the soil and on the shape of the particles.

Soil Density

The density of a soil is its weight per natural volume or bulk volume and it is related to the amount of empty
space in the soil. Soil density is expressed in two ways; namely, particle and bulk density.

a) Particle Density

23
The mass per unit volume of soil solid. For example, one cubic centimeter of soil solids weighing 2.0g,
has particle density of 2.0g cm-3. Mineral soils have particle density range of 2.60-2.75g cm-3 with an
average value of 2.65gcm-3. Organic matter tends to lower particle density.

Particle density =𝐌𝐬⁄𝐕𝐬

Where Vs indicates volume of solids (Solid space) and solid space is bulk volume – air space.

b) Bulk Density

Is the mass of soil per unit bulk volume of dry soil:

weight of dry soil
Bulk density = 𝐌𝐬⁄𝐕𝐛 or ⁄volume of dry soil =g/cm3

Where Ms is mass of soil, Vb is natural volume or bulk volume.

Organic matter which promotes soil aggregation tends to lower the bulk density.

Practice problems: Porosity and bulk density

Bulk density is the weight per unit volume of a soil sample.
i. Calculate the bulk density of a 400 cm3 soil sample that weighs 575 g (oven dry weight).
BD = Ms/Vs = 575g/400cm3= 1.44g/ cm3
ii. Calculate the bulk density of a 400 cm3 soil sample that weighs 600 g and that is 10% moisture
Oven dry wt. = 600g/1.1 = 545.5g BD= 545.5g/400cm3 = 1.36 g/cm3
iii. Calculate the volume of a soil sample that is 12% moisture, weighs 650 g and has a bulk density of
1.3 g/cm3.
iv. Calculate the bulk density of a rectangular soil sample with dimensions 12 cm by 6 cm by 4 cm
that is 15% moisture content and weighs 320 g.
v. Calculate the oven dry weight of a 350 cm3 soil sample with a bulk density of 1.42 g/cm3.
vi. Calculate the porosity of a soil sample that has a bulk density of 1.35 g/cm3. Assume the particle
density is 2.65 g/cm3. Porosity = (1-(vb/vs) x 100 = (1-(1.35/2.65)) x 100 = 49%
vii. 7. Calculate the porosity (n) of a 250 cm3 clod that contains 140 cm3 water when saturated.
viii. Calculate the bulk density of a soil sample that has a porosity of 45%.
ix. Calculate the porosity of a 250 g sample that contains 65 g of water when 55% of the pores are full
of water. i.e. for 1cm3 soil, assume vs of 2.65 g/cm3
Oven dry wt. = 250g-65g = 185g soil
Vol. of soil solids = 185g/2.65g/cm3 = 69.8cm3 soil
Saturated water content = 65cm3/0.55 = 118.2cm3 water
Total vol. of soil = 118.2cm3 + 69.8cm3 = 188cm3

24
 Porosity = Vair + Vwater/Vtotal = 118.2cm3/188cm3 x 100 = 63%
10. What is the particle density of a soil sample that has a bulk density of 1.55 g/cm3 and a porosity of
40%.
SOIL WATER

Water contained in soil is called soil water. The water is held within the soil pores. Soil water is the major
component of the soil in relation to plant growth. If the moisture content of a soil is optimum for plant
growth, plants can readily absorb soil water. Not all the water, held in soil, is available to plants. Much of
water remains in the soil as a thin film.

Importance of Soil Water

1. Soil water serves as a solvent and carrier 6. Microorganisms require water for their
of food nutrients for plant growth metabolic activities

2. Yield of crop is more often determined 7. Soil water helps in chemical and
by the amount of water available. biological activities of soil

3. Soil water acts as a nutrient itself 8. It is a principal constituent of the

growing plant
4. Soil water regulates soil temperature
9. Water is essential for photosynthesis
5. Soil forming processes depend on water

SOIL WATER CONTENT

The s-oil moisture content indicates the amount of water present in the soil. It is expressed as percent water
by weight, percent water by volume, or inches of water per foot of soil. Other units such as inches of water
per inch of soil also are used.

The soil water content (wetness) can be expressed in terms of either mass or volume ratios or fractions.

- Mass wetness or dry mass fraction of water (w). w =Mw/Ms

This is the mass of water relative to the mass of dry (105°C) soil particles where w is the mass wetness,
Mw water mass and Ms dry (105°C) soil mass.
Vw
- Volume wetness or volume fraction of water (Ɵ). Ɵ=
Vs + Vw+Va

It is the dimensionless ratio of the water volume (Vw) relative to total bulk soil volume Vt. The latter is the
sum of the volume of solids (Vs), water (Vw) and air (Va).
Ɵ Vw Ms
The two expressions can be related to each other as follows: W
=
Vt Mw

with: Ms/Vt = pb (mass of dry soil per unit bulk volume and usually lies in the range of 1.3 and 1.7g cm-3)

25
 Mw/Vw = pw (mass of water per unit volume of water and is approximately equal to1 g cm -3)
W 𝑝𝑏
Equation becomes Ɵ=
𝑝𝑤

So in order to obtain the soil water content on a volume basis the mass wetness is multiplied with the dry
bulk density. Both w and 0 are usually multiplied by 100 and reported as percentages by mass or volume.

The usefulness of the soil water content by volume lies in the fact that it can be converted easily into head
units of water therefore being compatible with quantities of rainfall or irrigation water applied. All
calculations involving the water balance of the soil, including calculation of irrigation deficits, water
application efficiency and recharge of the soil moisture reservoir by rainfall, involve the use of the
volumetric soil water percentage (vol.% of water = mm of water per 10 cm soil depth).

Methods of measuring soil water content

There are numerous procedures and types for the determination of the soil water content. Since each method
has its advantages and limitations it is well to consider both the purpose for which determinations are to be
made and the features of each possible method including the cost of buying equipment and operating and
maintenance costs.

1. Direct method 2. Indirect methods

 Gravimetric method  Tensiometric

 Electrical conductivity method
 Neutron and gamma ray attenuation
 Neutron scattering technique
 Time Domain Reflectometry

Gravimetric method

The thermogravimetric method of measuring soil water content consists of removing a sample by auguring
into the soil and then determining its moist and dry weight. The moist weight is determined by weighing
the sample as it is at the time of sampling and the dry weight is obtained after drying the sample to a constant
weight in an oven. The standard method of drying is to place the sample in an oven at 105°C for 24 hours.

Although the gravimetric determination of soil moisture content is rather laborious it is, because of its
simplicity and reliability, the most extensively applied technique and is used as calibration standard for
other methods.

Procedure:

24
◦ A soil is sampled, put into a container, weighed in the sampled (moist) condition

◦ Oven dried and weighted again after drying (105-110oC) to a constant weight.

◦ The mass water ratio (m) is the decimal fraction that equals the weight of water divided by the weight
of oven-dried soil.

Mass water ratio (m) = Mass of water = (wet weight- Dry weight) = Mw
Mass of oven dried soil Dry weight Ms
Pm = m (100)

Where Pm = mass water percentage

◦ Plants are dependent on water from a volume of soil.

◦ Thus, it is useful to calculate water content based on a volume of the soil.

Volume water ratio: v = Volume of water (wt. of water/density of water)

Volume of soil = (wt. of oven dry soil/soil bulk density)
Density, Pv= v (100)

Where, Pv= Volume water percentage

Water volume values are used to estimate the reservoir of water in a soil volume or the water needed to wet
that soil by irrigation or rainfall.

Sample problem: Homework question

A soil sample taken from a field was placed in a can, weighed, dried in an oven at 105oC (221oF) and
reweighed. The measurements were:

◦ Moist soil plus can weight = 149(g) ◦ Empty can weight = 31(g)

◦ Oven dried soil plus can weight = 124 (g) ◦ Bulk density of soil = 1400kg/m3

Calculate

(a) The mass water ratio and percentage

(b) The volume water ratio and percentage of this soil when it was sampled

SOIL WATER POTENTIAL

25
Soil water potential describes how tightly the water is held in the soil. Soil tension is another term used to
describe soil water potential. It is an indicator of how hard a plant must work to get water from the soil.
The drier the soil, the greater the soil water potential and the harder it is to extract water from the soil.

Energy state of soil water

The potential energy of soil water varies over a very wide range. Differences in potential energy of water
between one point and another give rise to the tendency of water to flow within the soil. The spontaneous
and universal tendency of all matter in nature is to move from where the potential energy is higher to where
it is lower and to equilibrate with its surroundings. In the soil, water moves constantly in the direction of
decreasing potential energy until equilibrium, definable as a condition of uniform potential energy
throughout, is reached.

Soil water is subjected to a number of force field which cause its potential to differ from that of pure free
water. Such forces result from the attraction of the solid matrix for water, as well as from the presence of
dissolved salts and the action of the local pressure in the soil gas phase and the action of the gravitational
field. The total potential (Ψt) of soil water relative to a chosen standard rate can be thought of as the sum of
the separate contributions of the various components as follows:

Ψt= Ψg+ Ψo Ψm Ψe.p +………

where : Ψt = total soil water potential Ψm = matric potential

Ψg = gravitational potential Ψe.p = external gas pressure potential

Ψo = osmotic potential . . . = additional terms are theoretically

The main advantage of the total potential concept is that it provides a unified measure by which the state of
water can be evaluated at any time and everywhere within the soil-plant atmosphere system.

a) Gravitational potential

The gravitational potential of soil water at each point is determined by the elevation of the point relative to
some arbitrary reference level. If the point in question is above the reference, Ψ g is positive. If the point in
question is below the reference, Ψg is negative. Thus the gravitational potential is independent of soil
properties. It depends only on the vertical distance between the reference and the point in question.

b) Osmotic potential

The osmotic potential is attributable to the presence of solutes in the soil water. The solutes lower the
potential energy of the soil water. Indeed, the fact that water molecules move through a semi-permeable

26
membrane from the pure free water into a solution (osmosis) indicates that the presence of solutes reduces
the potential energy of the water on the solution side.

Since the osmotic potential of pure free water is zero the osmotic potential of a solution at the same
temperature of free water is negative (water flow occurs from point of high potential to one with lower
potential).

c) Matric potential

Matric potential results from forces associated with the colloidal matric and includes forces associated with
adsorption and capillarity. These forces attract and bind water in the soil and lower its potential energy
below that of bulk water. The capillarity results from the surface tension of water and its contact angle with
the solid particles.

SOIL WATER RETENTION MECHANISM

The soils hold water (moisture) due to their colloidal properties and aggregation qualities. The water is held
on the surface of the colloids and other particles and in the pores. The forces responsible for retention of
water in the soil after the drainage has stopped are due to surface tension and surface attraction and are
called surface moisture tension. This refers to the energy concept in moisture retention relationships. The
force with which water is held is also termed as suction.

Forces on Soil Water

A number of forces influence the way water behaves in the soil. The most obvious is gravitational force,
which pulls water down through the soil. Other forces, called adhesion and cohesion, work against gravity
to hold water in the soil.

a) Adhesion is the attraction of soil water to soil particles.

b) Cohesion is the attraction of water molecules to other water molecules.

c) Capillarity

Soil water exists in the small spaces in soil as a water film around soil particles. The small pores act as
capillaries. A capillary is very thin tube in which a liquid can move against the forces of gravity.

Capillary forces are at work in all moist soils. However, the rate of movement and rise in height are less
than one would expect because soil pores are not straight and there can be air entrapment slowing down
water movement. In fine textured soils, capillary rise is high but rate of flow is slow because of frictional
forces in tiny pores. In coarse-textured (sandy) soils, pores are large presenting little resistance to capillary
rise but limiting the rise in capillary water.

27
ENTRY OF WATER INTO SOIL

1. Infiltration: Infiltration refers to the downward entry or movement of water into the soil surface. It is
a surface characteristic and hence primarily influenced by the condition of the surface soil.

Factors affecting infiltration rate: This is the velocity at which water can seep into the soil. It is commonly
measured by the depth of water layer that the soil can absorb in an hour. Infiltration rate depends on the
factors that are a constant and also those that vary such as moisture content.

 Vegetative cover: Soil surface with vegetative cover has more infiltration rate than bare soil

 Soil Texture: coarse textured soils have large particles therefor large pores, while fine textured soils
have small pores. In coarse soils water enters more easily into large pores and takes less time to
infiltrate into the soil. Therefore, high infiltration rate than for the fine textured soils.

 Soil Structure: water infiltrates quickly into granular soils than into massive and compact soils

 Soil moisture content: the water infiltrates faster when the soil is dry, than when it is wet. When
water is applied to a dry field it infiltrates easily, but as the soil becomes wet, the infiltration rate
decreases. Infiltration rate is comparatively lower in wet soils than dry soils.

 Soil temperature: Warm soils absorb more water than colder ones. Cold water has a higher
viscosity.

2. Percolation: The movement of water through a column of soil is called percolation. Describes the
processes through which infiltrated water moves downwards into the profile of a soil. It is important
for two reasons.

i. This is the only source of recharge of ground water which can be used through wells for irrigation.

ii. Percolating waters carry plant nutrients down and often out of reach of plant roots (leaching).

Percolation is dependent of rainfall. In dry region it is negligible and under high rainfall it is high. Sandy
soils have greater percolation than clayey soil. Vegetation and high water table reduce the percolation loss

SOIL WATER MOVEMENT

1. Saturated flow: This occurs when the soil pores are completely filled with water. This water moves at
water potentials larger than – 33 k Pa. Saturated flow is water flow caused by gravity’s pull. Under
these condition the flow is rapid because it is through large pores and driven by gravity and sometimes
pressure. It begins with infiltration, which is water movement into soil when rain or irrigation water is
on the soil surface. When the soil profile is wetted, the movement of more water flowing through the
wetted soil is termed percolation.

28
 Q DY
Saturated flow is described by Darcy’s law At
=k L

Where: Q= Quantity of water

A= Area L= Length/ Distance

t = Time k= Potential

2. Unsaturated flow: occurs when the larger pores in the soil are filled with air, leaving only the smaller pores
to hold and transmit water. It occurs along the soil surfaces. Unsaturated flow is driven by matric forces that
are much stronger than gravity. Gravity is not sufficiently strong to exert a significant influence on unsaturated
because when unsaturated, much of the soil water is affixed to solid surfaces. This flow is slow because the
resistance to flow is enormous. Water flows towards a lower potential regardless of direction.

3. Vapor flow: occurs as vapor pressure differences develop in relatively dry soils. Vapor migrates from an area
of high vapor pressure to an area of low vapor pressure. The vertical water flow rate through soil is given
by Darcy’s law. The law states that the rate of flow of liquid or flux through a porous medium is proportional
to the hydraulic gradient in the direction of flow of the liquid.

Factors affecting movement of water

1. Texture, 2. Structure, 3. Amount of organic matter, 4. Depth of soil to hard pan, 5. Amount of water in the soil,
6. Temperature and 7. Pressure

TYPES OF SOIL WATER

All these forms start as free water that is added to the soil by rain or snow. Their final forms depend on the moisture
conditions of the soil. Each type is controlled by a different force and behaves differently in the soil.

Physical Classification

a) Gravitational water: free water that moves through the soil due to the force of gravity. Gravitational water
is found in the macropores. It moves rapidly out of well-drained soil and is not considered to be available
to plants. It can cause upland plants to wilt and die because gravitational water occupies air space, which
is necessary to supply oxygen to the roots. Drains out of the soil in 2-3 days. Gravitational water -1/3 bar,

b) Capillary water: Water in the micropores, the soil solution. Most, but not all, of this water is available for
plant growth. Capillary water is held in the soil against the pull of gravity. Capillary water -1/3 to -31 bars.

c) Hygroscopic water: This water forms very thin films around soil particles and is not available to the plant.
The water is held so tightly by the soil that it cannot be taken up by roots. It’s not held in the pores, but on
the particle surface. This means clay will contain much more of this type of water than sands because of

29
 surface area differences. Hygroscopic water is held very tightly, by forces of adhesion. This water is not
available to the plant. Gravity is always acting to pull water down through the soil profile. However, the
force of gravity is counteracted by forces of attraction between water molecules and soil particles and by
the attraction of water molecules to each other. Hygroscopic water -31bars.

Biological Classification

Based on the available soil water for plant use.

a) Available water

Moisture retained in the soil between the field capacity (-0.1 to -0.3 bars) and the PWP (-15 bars).
However, availability decreases with increased tension. Optimum growth is mostly near the field capacity.
Doesn’t extend over the complete range of moisture availability.

b) unavailable water

Water held at a potential lower than -15 bars (-1500 KPa) and not available for use by most plants.

Soil Moisture Constants

These are the terms most commonly used when working with soil water.

1. Saturation - all soil pores are filled with water. This condition occurs right after a rain. - This represents 0
bars.

2. Field capacity - moisture content of the soil after gravity has removed all the water it can. Usually occurs 1-
3 days after a rain. Water held at water potential of-1/3 bar. The larger pores drain out first by gravity
drainage, if not restricted, may only take hours, whereas in clay soils (without macropores); gravity drainage
may take 2-3 days. The volumetric soil moisture content remaining at field capacity is a bout 15-12% for
sandy soils, 35-45% for loam soils and 45-55% for clay soils. The small particles have a much larger surface
area that allows the soil to hold a greater quantity of water

3. Permanent wilting point - soil moisture percentage at which plants cannot obtain enough moisture to
continue growing. This is -15 bars. And the point at which the plants cannot recover their turgor upon
rewetting. This water is strongly retained and trapped in the smaller pores and does not readily flow. The
volumetric soil moisture content at wilting point will have dropped to around 5-10% in sandy soils. 10-15%
in loam soils and 15-20% in clay soils.

4. Oven dry - soil that has been dried in the oven at 105oC for 12 hours. All soil moisture has been removed.
This point is not important for plant growth but is important for calculations since soil moisture percentage
is always based on oven dry weight.

30
SOIL AIR

Soil air can be defined as the air that fills the soil pore spaces not occupied by water. That is the gaseous phase
of the soil not occupied by solid or liquid.

Gaseous Composition of Soil Air

 Carbon dioxide may become toxic to plants when

Oxygen
it is as high as 10% in soil air.
 Soil air is consistently lower in oxygen
Other Gases
 The oxygen content may be only slightly below 20%
in the upper layers of a soil  Soil air is usually higher in water vapour than in
 Wet soils typically have low oxygen contents. the atmosphere.

 Drastic reductions in the oxygen content of soil air  Under waterlogged conditions, the concentrations
may occur following a heavy rain. of methane (CH4), and hydrogen sulphide (H2S)
are particularly higher in soil air.
Carbon dioxide
 Ethylene (C2H4) gas, a product of anaerobic
 Carbon dioxide typically increases in soil air. microbial metabolism is toxic to plant roots, even
in very small concentrations.

SOIL AERATION

Definition: Soil aeration is the ability of soil to exchange gases with the atmosphere. This involves the rate of
ventilation, composition of soil air, proportion of pore space filled with air, and redox reaction potential.

Poor Soil Aeration: This refers to a condition in which the availability of oxygen in the root zone is insufficient
to support optimal growth of most plants and aerobic microorganisms. Poor aeration becomes a serious
impediment to plant growth when more than 80 to 90% of the soil pore space is filled with water, leaving less
than 10 to 20 % of the pore space filled with air. The high soil water content not only leaves little pore space for
air storage but, more important the water blocks the pathways by which gases could exchange with the atmosphere.

Water Saturated (Waterlogged) Conditions: The soil is said to be water saturated or waterlogged when all or
nearly all of the soil pores are filled with water. Such conditions occur naturally in wetlands. Plants adapted to
grow in waterlogged soils are known as hydrophytes (water-loving plants), e.g., grasses and rice. Respiration is
via hollow structures in their stems and roots known as aerenchyma tissues. When oxygen becomes depleted, soil
conditions are said to be anaerobic. Methane, hydrogen sulphide, and ethylene are often evolved under these
conditions.

The Nature of Soil Aeration

Aeration involves the ventilation of soil. In this process, gases move in and out of the soil. Aeration determines
the rate of gas exchange with the atmosphere, proportion of pore spaces filled with air, composition of the soil air

31
and the resulting chemical oxidation or reduction potential in the soil. Oxygen and carbon dioxide, along with
water, are primary ingredients for two vital biological processes the respiration of all plants and animals and
photosynthesis that creates sugars. Respiration consumes O2, produces CO2 and oxidizes sugar compounds (e.g.
C6H12O6 + O6 = 6CO2 + 6H2O), while photosynthesis creates sugars (e.g. 6CO2 + 6H2O = C6H12O6 + O6) and
releases O2.

Soil Aeration in the Field

Oxygen availability in soil is regulated by three factors:

▪ Soil macroporosity (as affected by texture and structure)

▪ Soil water content (as it affects the proportion of the pore spaces filled with air)

▪ O2 consumption by respiring organisms (including plant roots and micro-organisms).

Poor soil aeration becomes a serious issue when more than 80% of the soil’s macropores are filled with water
leaving less than 20% of these pore spaces filled with air for two reasons:

▪ Little pore space for air storage

▪ Water blocks the exchange of gases between the soil and atmosphere

▪ Compaction also blocks this exchange even when the soil is not wet
The more rapidly roots and microbes use up O2 and release CO2, the greater the need for the exchange of gases
between the soil and atmosphere. This exchange is made possible by two mechanisms: Mass flow and Diffusion.

MECHANISMS FOR SOIL AERATION

1) Mass flow: This mechanism is dependent upon overall pressure gradients and is thus affected by soil
water content, wind, and changes in barometric pressure. Mass flow is less important than diffusion. It is
enhanced by fluctuations in soil moisture content as the water forces the air out of the soil. Soil moisture
leaves little pore space for air storage and blocks the exchange of gases between the soil and atmosphere.
2) Diffusion: Gases moves in the direction determined by its partial pressure. Consequently, the higher
concentration of oxygen in the atmosphere will result in a net movement of this particular gas into the
soil. Carbon dioxide and water vapour normally move in the opposite direction, since the partial pressure
of these two gases are generally higher in the soil air than in the atmosphere. The great bulk of gaseous
exchange is achieved through diffusion. This is achieved as each gas moves in a direction determined by
its own partial pressure.

Characterizing Soil Aeration

32
The aeration status of a soil can be characterized in three ways:

▪ The content of O2 and other gases in the soil air

▪ The air-filled soil porosity

▪ The chemical oxidation-reduction (Redox) potential of the soil

Redox Potential

The soil is filled with electrical charges brought about by the myriad of chemical exchanges taking place. During
these processes, electrically charged ions and electrons are released from compounds and absorbed by others. An
important characteristic of soil is the reduction and oxidization states of chemical compounds in the soil.

The redox potential (Eh) measures the electrical potential (as measured by millivolts or volts) of a system due to
the tendency of substances to give up or acquire electrons.

o For example, two-valent iron (Fe2+ or Fe(II)) in FeO is oxidized into Fe(III) or a tri-valent form in FeOOH
when it comes in contact with water. In this process, H+ ions and electrons (e-) are released.

o Fe(II) loses an electron as it changes to Fe(III) and H+ ions are formed.

The redox potential is measured against a reference state. In this case, this state is set by the hydrogen couple (a
redox potential of zero): ½ H2 == H+ + 2e-

 If a substance will accept electrons easily, it is known as an oxidizing agent (O2 is an example).

 If the substance supplies electrons easily, it is a reducing agent.

Reduction: The gain of electrons, and therefore the loss of positive valence charge, by a substances.

Oxidization: The loss of electrons, and therefore the gain of positive valence charge, by a substance, and in some
cases, the chemical combination with O2 (gas).

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL AERATION

1. Soil water levels – impact on macropores; gravitational water

2. Rate of respiration in the soil – by microbial and plant activity

3. Topsoil vs. subsoil – subsoils are usually more O2 deficient than topsoils (due to fewer macropores and high
water content levels) and pathways for diffusion of gases into and out of the soil is longer for deeper horizons.

4. Seasonal Differences – marked seasonal variation in the composition of soil air: springtime, soil is often wet
and conditions are poor for soil gas exchange but low soil temperatures and respiration of plant roots and

33
 soil micro-organisms are restricted so O2/CO2 exchange is also restrained; summer, drier conditions,
opportunity for gas exchange higher and vigorous plant and microbe activity.

5. Impact of vegetation – can impact on soil aeration by removing large quantities of water through
transpiration

6. Soil heterogeneity – aeration status varies greatly in different locations in a soil profile; in a well-drained
generally-uniformed soil, the trend is a general reduction in O2 and increase in CO2 as one moves down the
profile. However, variation occurs within horizons change due to:

o Tillage practices – impact on macropores and soil structure

o Presence or absence of macropores – poorly aerated zones may occur from either heavy-textured soils or
compaction or naturally due to the structure of soil peds where the smallness of the pores may restrict the
movement of soil air and gas exchange

o Plant roots – can either enhance or reduce O2 concentrations in their immediate vicinity; in poorly-drained
soils, it can lead to O2 depletion; some plants (hydrophytic plants) can transfer O2 to the soil.

Ecological Effects of Soil Aeration

1. Effect on organic residue degradation. Soil aeration influences many soil reactions and, as a result, many
soil properties. Many of these reactions are associated with soil microbial activity – notably in the breakdown
of organic residues. In cases where O2 is deficient, the rate of decay slows and where O2 is present, aerobic
organisms are also active and oxidization processes occur. Poorly aerated soils contain a wide range of only
partially oxidized products such as ethylene gas, alcohols, and organic acids, many of which can be toxic to
plants at high levels. Generally, the presence or absence of O2 completely modifies the nature of the decay
process and its effect on plant growth.
2. Impact on the Redox potential. Through its effect on the redox potential, the level of O2 largely determines
the forms of several inorganic elements. For example, the oxidized state of nitrogen and sulphur are readily
available to higher plants. But what nutrients are made available varies based upon soil conditions – wet soils
result in differing chemical reactions compared to dry soils. This impact varies depending upon soil pH – the
interaction between soil aeration and soil pH in supplying available plant nutrients. The redox potential also
determines the presence of toxic elements such as chromium, arsenic, and selenium and it can impact on the
production of methane gas – when the redox potential drops to about -0.2 V, a condition common in rice
paddy and natural wetlands.
3. Impact on activities of higher plants. Plants can be adversely affected by poor aeration in three ways:

▪ Growth of plants, particularly the roots, is curtailed

34
 ▪ Absorption of nutrients and water is decreased

▪ Formation of certain toxic compounds to plant growth is favoured

SOIL AERATION MANAGEMENT

Both surface and subsurface drainage are essential for maintaining a good aerobic environment for plant growth.

▪ First, the maintenance of soil structure and cultivation.

o Maintenance of a stable soil structure is an important means of augmenting good aeration.

o Pores of macro size are encouraged by large, stable aggregates and these are quickly drained of excess water
from rainfall or irrigation, allowing gases to move into the soil from the atmosphere.

o On cropland, the maintenance of organic matter by the addition of manure and crop residues, and by the
growth of close-growing grasses and legumes, helps maintain aggregate stability.

o No-tillage systems often provide sufficient earthworm burrows and root channels (undisturbed) to promote
drainage.

SOIL TEMPERATURE

Soil temperature is important for two reasons: it affects the rate of plant growth and micro-organism populations
and it influences soil drying through evaporation. Increasing soil temperatures influences soil aeration through
their stimulating effect on the growth of plants and soil organisms and on the rates of biochemical activity.

Soil temperature affects soils physical, biological and chemical processes occurring in the soil and the growing
plants.

o Biological processes are slower in cold soils than in warm ones.

o Biological decomposition comes to a near standstill, limiting the amount of nutrients – nitrogen,
phosphorous, sulphur, and calcium – made available to plants.

o Absorption and transport of water and nutrient ions are also inhibited.

Soil Temperature and Plants

The growth rates of most plants are actually more sensitive to soil temperature than to above ground air
temperature. Most plants thrive in a very narrow band of soil temperature.

o Maize grow best when the soil temperature is about 25°C to 30°C.

o Soil temperature often limits the productivity of crops and natural vegetation.

o Life cycles of plants are also influenced by soil temperature. For example, many bulb flowers.
35
 o On the flip side, too-hot soil temperatures can also affect plants.

Different plant processes have different optimal soil temperatures.

o One most sensitive to soil temperature is seed germination. Maize seed planted into soil cooler than 7°C to
10°C will not germinate and likely rot.

Root functions are also affected by soil temperature.

o Root functions such as nutrient uptake and water uptake are sluggish in cool soil when temperatures are
below optimal levels for plant growth leading to nutrient deficiencies.

Microbial processes are also affected by soil temperature.

o Soil microbial activities generally cease below 5°C, a point termed the biological zero.

o Rates of microbial activity, such as respiration, more than doubles for every 10°C rise in soil temperature
to an optimum of 35°C to 40°C.

o This impacts on the productivity of vegetation. The northern boreal forests’ productivity is probably limited
primarily by the inhibiting effect of low soil temperatures than affect microbial recycling and the release of
nutrients from the tree litter and soil organic matter.

o The microbial oxidization of ammonium ions to nitrate ions occurs most readily at temperatures near 30°C.
However this also is near zero at low soil temperatures.

 High soil temperatures also affect plant productivity

o High temperatures can be used to control certain plant diseases.

o It is also possible to raise the soil temperature by placing a plastic sheet over the soil – increasing
temperatures to 50°C or 60°C.

o These temperatures kill off certain wilt-causing fungal diseases of vegetables and fruits, and adversely affect
certain weeds, seeds, and insect pests.

o Dramatic changes in soil temperature can affect the breakdown and movement of nutrients in the soil. Some
volatized hydrocarbon compounds move quickly into deeper pores that are cooler, where they condense on
the surface of particles and fill spaces.

FACTORS AFFECTING SOIL TEMPERATURE

Soil temperature is affected these factors:

o The net amount of heat energy the soil absorbs. Only about 10% is absorbed into the soil. This is affected
by the land’s albedo, aspect and soil cover

36
 o The heat energy required to bring about a given change in the temperature of the soil

o The energy required for soil processes

o It is also affected by the amount of soil moisture in the soil.

o Solar radiation is the primary source of energy to heat soils and this varies with conditions and latitude.

THERMAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL

We know, by experience, certain features of soil.

Specific heat (heat capacity) : This is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a substance by
1oC. Unit - (cal/g) or joules per gram (J/g).

o A dry soil is more easily heated/warmed than a wet soil. This is because the energy needed to heat the
temperature of water 1°C (its heat capacity) is much higher than that for soil solids.

o Heat capacity expressed per unit mass is called specific heat (c).

o The specific heat of pure water is 1.0 cal/g (4.18 joules per gram). For dry soil it is 0.2 cal/g or 0.8 J/g.

o Evaporation of water from soil subsurfaces requires a lot of energy – 540 kilocalories, or 2.257 J for every
kilogram of water vapourized.

Thermal Conductivity: The amount of heat transferred through a unit cross-sectional area of unit thickness in unit
time and unit temperature gradient.

Thermal Diffusivity: Temperature change that takes place in a portion of a given soil as heat flows into it from
adjacent layer.

Mode of Heat Transfer

▪ Conduction – Flow of heat through matter unaccompanied by any motion

▪ Convection – The transfer of heat by moving matter.

▪ Radiation – The transfer of heat through vacuum / space.

Conduction is the transfer of energy from the more energetic particles of a substance to the adjacent less energetic
ones as a result of interactions between the particles. Conduction can take place in solids, liquids, or gases. In
gases and liquids, conduction is due to the collisions and diffusion of the molecules during their random motion.
In solids, it is due to the combination of vibrations of the molecules in a lattice and the energy transport by free
electrons. The rate of heat conduction through a medium depends on the geometry of the medium, its thickness,
and the material of the medium, as well as the temperature difference across the medium.

37
Convection is the mode of energy transfer between a solid surface and the adjacent liquid or gas that is in motion,
and it involves the combined effects of conduction and fluid motion. The faster the fluid motion, the greater the
convection heat transfer. In the absence of any bulk fluid motion, heat transfer between a solid surface and the
adjacent fluid is by pure conduction.

Radiation is the energy emitted by matter in the form of electromagnetic waves (or photons) as a result of the
changes in the electronic configurations of the atoms or molecules. Unlike conduction and convection, the transfer
of heat by radiation does not require the presence of an intervening medium. In fact, heat transfer by radiation is
fastest (at the speed of light) and it suffers no attenuation in a vacuum. This is how the energy of the sun reaches
the earth.

THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY OF SOIL

The movement of heat in soil is analogous to that of water movement.

o The rate of flow is determined by a driving force and by the ease with which the heat flows through the
specific soil.

o This is Fourier’s Law: thermal conductivity of a soil (K) times the change in temperature gradient over
distance.

o A number of factors affect the thermal conductivity of a soil: most importantly, the moisture content of the
soil and the degree of compaction.

o Heat passes through water many times faster than through air. As water content increases, soil air levels
decrease and the transfer resistance decreases.

o Heat moves through mineral particles even faster than through water, so when particle-to-particle contact is
increased by soil compaction, heat transfer rates also increase.

SOIL TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS

In the field, soil thermal regime is characterized by periodic changes in response to the natural periodicity in
atmospheric conditions controlling energy inputs to the soil surface.

Diurnal and Seasonal Variations in Soil Temperature

There is a diurnal (daily) cycle as well as a superimposed seasonal cycle. These diurnal and seasonal cycles are
perturbed by irregular meteorological events including cloudiness, warm and cold fronts, precipitation, etc.

Near the surface, the readings may fluctuate from the mean fully as much as those of the air temperature, especially
where there is no insulating cover. The fluctuations occur as daily and annual cycles, which weather events make
somewhat irregular in most places. The fluctuations decrease with increasing depth and are ultimately damped
out in the substrata in a zone where the temperature is constant and is the same as the mean annual soil temperature.
38
Soil temperature also stabilizes the deeper you go in the profile. While temperatures range between 5°C and 10°C
at a soil depth of around 200 cm year-round, surface temperatures fluctuate greatly: from zero to 35°C. The
surface layer temperatures vary more or less according to the temperature of the air although the soil is generally
warmer than the air throughout the year.

Diurnal pattern
Annual /Seasonal pattern

There are three fundamental characteristics related to diurnal and annual soil thermal regimes.

i. We observe diurnal and annual temperature cycles in response to the fluctuating (cyclic) inputs of solar
radiation.
ii. The incoming solar radiation energy is utilized to heat as it travels down the soil profile. That means the
available energy decreases with depth. Thus we observe the phenomenon of amplitude damping, or a
reduction in the magnitude of these temperature cycles with increasing depth.
iii. Because it takes time for heat to travel into and out of the soil, there is a delay in the time at which any
specific location on the temperature cycle reaches a given point in the soil, and this time lag becomes
more pronounced with increasing distance.

SOIL TEMPERATURE CONTROL

▪ Mulch:- influences the short wave radiation

- Organic Mulch: dead vegetation such as cereal straw, stover, legume haulms, etc. immobilize the air
within the mulch and still air has a very low thermal conductivity; therefore, heat is only slowly
transmitted from the surface of the mulch to the soil surface. Thus the soils under the mulch remain cool,
the organic coverings on the soil act as insulators. Soils under organic residue mulches also remain
relatively moist.

- Plastic Mulch: the use of plastic mulches make the soil hotter when the sun is shining, but transparent
plastic allows greater warming than opaque plastic.

39
▪ Tillage: In areas where conservation tillage is practiced much of the crop residues left on the soil surface in
this non – tillage practice usually give low soil temperatures because the larger soil surfaces is exposed to the
atmosphere and more heat is lost especially at night.

▪ Irrigation: The heat capacity of water is known to be 3 to 5 times more than for soil mineral. Therefore heat
that is absorbed by soil can be lost in evaporating soil water. Moist soil conducts heat upwards and downwards
much better than a dry soil, but during a sunny day the surface of a dry soil warms up much quicker, and
during a clear night cools much quicker than a wet surface. Irrigation has been known to increase the thermal
conductivity of a soil.

▪ Drainage: The soil has to be drained in this instance in order to raise the temperature.

▪ Plants/trees: Most of the methods are aimed at modifying the surface intake / loss of heat.
SOIL COLLOIDS

Colloids are particles, which may be a molecular aggregate, with a diameter of 0.1 to 0.001 mm. Soil clays and
soil organic matter are often called soil colloids because they have particle sizes that are within or approach
colloidal dimensions. Colloids go into suspension in a solution — they float around without settling out for great
lengths of time.

General Properties of Soil Colloids

1. Size- Extremely small – microscopic; most are smaller than 2 millionth of a meter (micrometers) in
diameter.

2. Surface area-

a) Have large exposed surface areas per unit mass – the external surface area of one gram of colloidal
clay particles is at least 1000 times that of one gram of coarse sand. The smaller the size of the
colloidal particles in a given soil the greater the surface is exposed for adsorption and microbial
colonization.

b) Internal surface areas – Some colloidal particles also have internal surfaces between plate-like
layers that often exceed external surfaces; sometimes several hundred times as much surface space.
E.g silicate clays

3. Surface charges – Soil colloidal surfaces carry negative and/or positive charges depending on their
structure BUT most colloidal particles have an electronegative charge. The charges on the colloidal
surfaces attract or repulse substances in the solution as well as the neighboring colloidal particles.

40
 4. Adsorption of Cations and Anions- Colloidal particles adsorb both cations and water: Charges on soil
colloids attract ions of an opposite charge to the colloidal surfaces. Negatively charged ions is attracted to
the positively charged colloids. Each colloidal particles will attract swarms (hundreds of thousands) of
positively charged ions, or cations, including H+, Al3+, Ca2+, Mg2+. This produces an ionic double layer

Types of Soil Colloids

Soils contain numerous types of colloids each with its particular structure and composition. There are four major
types of colloids in soil:

1. Crystalline silicate clays

 The most important property of these clays is their crystalline layer like structures and are negatively
charged.

 These are the most dominant inorganic colloids found in most soils.

 Each particle has layers, like pages in a book – comprised of planes of closely packed (bonded) oxygen
atoms held together by silicon, aluminum, magnesium, hydrogen, and/or iron atoms.

 They differ widely with regards to shape. One example is kaolinite – Si2Al2O5(OH)4

 The chemical composition and internal arrangement of these atoms in each layer account for the
particle’s surface charge and its ability to hold and exchange ions, as well as for its physical
characteristics (stickiness and plasticity).

2. Non-Crystalline silicate clays

 These are known as short-range ordered minerals. In the soil there are significant quantities of
colloidal silicates whose crystalline structure is not sufficiently ordered over significant distances along
the particle framework. The two principle clays of these type are Allophane & Imogolite.

 Both are poorly defined aluminum silicates.

 Most prevalent in soils developed from volcanic ash.

 Capacity to absorb ions varies with pH – cations being absorbed mostly at high pH, anions at low pH.

 Known for their high phosphorous absorbing capacities.

 Low degree of stickiness and plastic when wet.

3. Iron & Aluminum Oxide Clays

41
  These are found in higher quantities in the more weathered tropical soils – Ultisols and Oxisols as well
as in significant quantities in Alfisols and Inceptisols of southern temperate zones. Example include
goethite, hematite, and gibbsite.

 Highly varied – some have definite crystalline structures while others don’t.

 They are not as sticky or plastic as the layer of silicate clays on which they are commonly found coating.

 Surface charge varies with pH – at high values they carry a slight negative charge; at low values, they
carry a net positive charge.

4. Humus

 Colloidal organization of humus has some similarities to that of clay.

 These are highly charged micelles surrounded by swarms of cations.

 They are not crystalline, however, but are convoluted chains of carbon bonded to hydrogen, oxygen, and
nitrogen.

 Negative charge of humus is due to dissociated enolic (-- OH), carboxyl (-- COOH), and pheolic (-- OH)
groups.

 Like Fe and Al oxide clays, the negative charge of humus is dependent upon pH – under very acidic
conditions, the negative charge is not very high (even lower than silicate clays).

Sources of charges on soil colloids

There are two major sources of charges on soil colloids:

1. pH- dependent charges: these are pH-dependent charges because these charges depend on the pH of the
soil. pH-dependent charges are variable and may either be positive or negative depending on the pH of the
soil.

a) Negative charges :The pH-dependent charges are associated primarily with hydroxyl (OH) groups on
the edges and surfaces of the inorganic and organic colloids. The OH groups are attached to iron and/or
Al in the inorganic colloids (e.g. Al-OH) and to the carbon in CO groups in humus (e.g. –CO-OH).
Under moderately acid conditions, there is little or no charge on these particles, but as the pH increases,
the hydrogen dissociates from the colloid OH group, and negative charge result.

b) Positive charges: Under moderate to extreme acid soil conditions, some silicate clays and Fe, Al oxides
may exhibit net positive charges. The exposed OH groups are involved. In this case, however, as the
soils becomes more acid, (protonation), and the attachment of H+ ion to the surface OH group’s takes
place.

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 2. Isomorphous Substitution: Isomorphous substitution is the process that substitutes one atom for another in
the structure of clay minerals at the time the clay minerals form. This leads to net negative charge in the
mineral. Examples are the substitution of Al3+ for Si4+ in the tetrahedral and Mg2+, Fe2+, Fe3+, and others
for Al3+ in octahedral within clay minerals. This phenomena accounts for the diversity of silicate clays.

The importance of isomorphous substitution is that it produces a net negative charge in clays. This charge
must be balanced by positive charged ions from solution. This is important to retention of plant nutrients
(soil fertility) and the retention of charged pollutants.

Charged developed as a result of isomorphous substitution are permanent and not pH-dependent.

a) Negative charges: A net negative charge is found in minerals where there has been an isomorphous
substitution of a lower charged ion (e.g. Mg2+ for a higher-charged ion (e.g. Al3+).

b) Positive charges: Isomorphous substitution can also be a source of positive charges if the
substituting cation has a higher charge than the ion for which it substitutes.

SILICATE MINERAL CHEMISTRY

The silicate minerals are responsible for the important, physical and chemical properties of most soils. Silicate
minerals characteristically contain Si, O2 and Al.

Definition of clays

Clays are the active mineral portion of soils dominantly colloidal and crystalline. The crystalline nature of clays
is such that they have definite repeating arrangement of atoms which they are composed of. Majority are made of
planes of O2 atoms with Si and Al atoms holding the O2 together by ionic bonding.

Classification of clays

Clays are usually given group names based on their structure or on purely chemical composition.

There are 3 groups.

1) Silicate clays: - These are crystalline clays e.g. Montmorillonite, illite, vermiculite, kaolinite, chlorite.
Each crystalline clay is like a particular deck of cards. Each card represent a layer each of which is an exact
replication of each other layer.

2) Amorphous clays:- These are non-crystalline, which have silica, they are mixtures of Si and Al that have
not formed well oriented crystals but sometimes have high cation or anion exchangeable capacity.

3) Sesquioxides:- These consists of groups of Fe and Al oxides clays. They are present in condition where
there is excessive leaching caused by rainfall and sometimes intensive weathering of minerals in humid warm
climate. They can be crystalline or amorphous.

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Fundamentals Layer Silicate Clay Structure

This implies the basic building blocks of clays. All soil clays are formed from the same 2 basic structural units.
It is the way these 2 basic building units are put together that gives the soil clay distinctly different properties.
They are:

1) Silica Tetrahedron: - The basic building block for the silica-dominated sheet is a unit
composed of one silicon atom surrounded by four oxygen atoms. It is called the silica
tetrahedron because of its four-sided configuration. An interlocking array or a series of these
silica tetrahedra tied together horizontally by shared oxygen anions gives a tetrahedral
sheet.

2) Aluminum and/or Mg Octahedron:- Aluminium and/or magnesium ions are the key
cations surrounded by six oxygen atoms or hydroxyl group giving an eight sided building
block termed octahedron. Numerous octahedra linked together horizontally comprise the
octahedral sheet.

An aluminum-dominated sheet is known as a di-octahedral sheet, whereas one dominated

by magnesium is called a tri-octahedral sheet. The distinction is due to the fact that two aluminum ions in a
di-octahedral sheet satisfy the same negative charge from surrounding oxygen and hydroxyls as three
magnesium ions in a tri-octahedral sheet. Al2O6 or Mg3O6

The tetrahedral and octahedral sheets are the fundamental structural units of silicate clays. These sheets are
bound together within the crystals by shared oxygen atoms into different layers. The specific nature and
combination of sheets in these layers vary from one type of clay to another and control the physical and
chemical properties of each clay.

MINERALOGICAL ORGANIZATION OF SILICATE CLAYS

On the basis of the number and arrangement of tetrahedral (silica) and octahedral (Al-Mg) sheets contained in the
crystal units or layers, silicate clays are classified into two different groups, 1:1 – type minerals and 2:1 – type
minerals.

a) 1:1 Type Minerals

 Made up of one tetrahedral sheet and one octahedral sheet. E.g. kaolinite.

 These are held together tightly by O atoms which are shared by the Si and Al cations in their respective sheets.

 These layers are, in turn, bonded to adjacent layers by hydrogen bonding.

 This means the structure is fixed – no expansion between the layers occurs when the clay is wet. The clay is
not sticky or plastic.
44
 Cations and water do not enter between the structural layers of a 1:1 Type clay and the effective surface for
cation exchange is the exterior surface only.

b) 2:1 Type Minerals

 Two tetrahedral sheets and one octahedral sheet between them.

 Four groups of 2:1 Type minerals:

 Fine-grained micas (illite) and chlorites – relatively nonexpanding

 Smectite and vermiculite – expanding type minerals.

i) Expanding Minerals-
 These are noted for interlayer expansion.

 Water can enter between the layers forcing them apart.

 These layers are loosely bonded together by very weak oxygen-to-oxygen and cation-to-oxygen linkages.

 Internal surface, thus exposed, greatly exceeds the external surface of a mineral clay.

ii) Non-Expanding Minerals

 Micas include muscovites and biotite minerals.

 These are called fine-grained micas.

 High net charge in the tetrahedral sheet (consisting of more Al atoms than usual), attract K ions into the
interlayer space that act as a binding agent, preventing expansion of the crystal.

 Properties such as hydration, cation absorption, swelling and shrinkage and plasticity are much less intense
in fine-grain micas.

 Soil chlorites are basically Fe-Mg silicates with some Al present.

THE ION EXCHANGE PHENOMENON

Ion exchange refers to the process of exchange of ions between the solid and the liquid phase of the soil. Ion
exchange also takes place between plant roots and ion in solution or between plant roots and soil colloids when in
close contact. The process of ion exchange is vital to nutrient availability for plant uptake.

Cation Exchange

Cation is a positively charged ion; during electrolysis it is attracted to the negatively charged cathode. When the
process involves positively charged ions (cations), it is denoted as cation exchange. Soil colloid have un
neutralised negative charges, thus positively charged ions (cations) are adsorbed at these negatively charged sites
45
by electrostatic attraction, these adsorbed cations resist removal by leaching water but can be replaced by other
cation in solution by mass action. It takes place on the surfaces of clays and humus colloids as well as on plant
root surface.

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

CEC is the total sum of the exchangeable cations that a soil can adsorb (the ability or capacity of a soil colloid to
hold cations and this is directly dependent on the amount of charge on the soil colloid). This is expressed in terms
of moles of positive charge absorbed per unit mass (centimoles of positive charge per kilogram (cmol/kg).

It is primarily the ionic form of nutrients that plants are able to take up into their roots. Many of these nutrients
are taken up in the cationic form, so it is important that the soil be able to supply these. Most soils have at least
some ability to hold onto these ions at the negatively charged sites within the soil. The amount that they can hold
is called the Cation Exchange Capacity. The cations are held to the edges of particles within the soil. This is
referred to as adsorption. The cations in the soil are divided into acids and bases. The acids are predominantly
hydrogen and aluminum. The bases are primarily calcium, magnesium, sodium, and potassium.

Factors influencing CEC

1. Amount of clay: Higher amounts of clay mean higher CEC.

2. Type of clay: Certain kinds of clay (smectites, montmorillonite) have higher CEC than others (such as
kaolinite).
3. Amount of organic matter: Higher amounts of organic matter mean higher CEC
4. pH dependent CEC: Amorphous clay minerals and organic matter have a CEC that varies with pH. As pH
increases, so does the CEC. Under acid conditions, these have an anion exchange capacity. For organic matter
the rule of thumb is that for every pH unit above 4.5 there is a 1 meq/100g increase for each percent organic
matter.

Determination of CEC

A convectional of CEC determination is to extract a soil sample with 1N

ammonium acetate (NH4OAc). All the exchangeable cations are replaced by
NH4+ ions. The soil become saturated with NH4+ ions, then it’s extracted with
a different salt e.g. 1 N KCL, K+ ions will replace NH4+ ions if the soil K+
suspension is filtered. The filtrate will contain the NH4+ ions that were
previously adsorbed by the soil. The leachate is measured. The quantity of
NH4+ ions in the leachate is a measure of CEC.

Calculations

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 1. Estimating CEC from data on mineralogy. Assuming cultivated soil (Molisol) contains 20% clay and 8 %
organic matter and its pH is about 7.5. Estimated CEC of OM is 200 Cmol/kg. Calculate the CEC of this soil.
(Molisol is a 2:1 clay, estimated CEC is 100Cmol/kg)

1Kg of molisol=20%=0.2Kg, O.M=8%=0.08Kg

CEC of clay= 100Cmol/kg= 0.2*100=20Cmol/kg
CEC of OM=200Cmol/kg= 200*0.08= 16Cmol/kg
Total CEC=20+16=36Cmol/kg
Base saturation

Base saturation refers to the percentage of exchange sites (negatively charged sites on clay and organic particles)
that are occupied with bases (usually Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+) as opposed to ions that make the soil acid (H+ or
Al3+). A more technical definition is the ratio of the quantity of exchangeable bases to the cation exchange
capacity. The value of the base saturation varies according to whether the cation exchange capacity includes only
the salt extractable acidity (see cation exchange capacity) or the total acidity determined at pH 7 or 8. Often
expressed as a percent.

∑ (Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na2+)

Percent Base saturation = X 100
CEC

Exchangeable bases: These are basic cations (predominantly Ca2+, Mg2+, K+ and Na+) adsorbed on the surface of
soil colloids that can be readily replaced with a salt solution. Historically, these are called bases because they are
cations of strong bases. Many soil chemists object to this term because these cations are not bases by any modern
definition of the term.

Soils with high base saturations are considered more fertile because many of the “bases” that contribute to it are
plant nutrients. Usually the base saturation is 100 percent when the pH is above about 6.5. Since rainfall tends to
leach bases out of the soil, areas with higher rainfall tend to have lower base saturations than areas with lower
rainfall, unless the parent material is high in bases (such as limestone).

Calculation

Suppose the following ions were measured in 200mls NH4OAc extract obtained from leaching 20g of soil. Ca2+
100ppm, Mg2+ 30ppm, K+ 78ppm and NA+ 23ppm. (Equivalent weight of each element should be known) CEC=
((ppm* NH4OAc L/g of soil)/equivalent weight) 100. Calculate the base saturation? (Take home)

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SOIL REACTION (SOIL PH)

Soil reaction (pH) refers to the negative of the log of the concentration of hydrogen ions (moles per liter) in the
soil. pH generally range in number between 0 and 14. Any pH below 7.0 denote acidic condition while any number
above 7.0 denote alkaline condition. Water, H20 or HOH, is usually in equilibrium with its constituent ions, H+
and OH- and has a pH of 7.) In acid soils (pH < 7), H+ ions predominate. In alkaline soils (pH > 7), OH- ions
predominate. Soils with pH of 7 are neutral.

Effect of pH on nutrient availability and uptake

The pH of soil does not directly affect plants but it does affect the availability of different nutrients and toxic
elements and their uptake by plant. This is mostly due to the fact that pH changes the form of many of the nutrients
and many of the forms are relatively insoluble.

SOIL ACIDITY

Acidity refers to the condition of the soil when the exchange complex is dominated by hydrogen and aluminum
ions. There are two forms of soil acidity; their technical definitions are:

a) Exchangeable acidity (salt-replaceable acidity) - The aluminum and hydrogen that can be replaced from
an acid soil by an unbuffered salt solution such as KCl or NaCl.

b) Total acidity - The total acidity including residual and exchangeable acidity. Often it is calculated by
subtraction of exchangeable bases from the cation exchange capacity determined by ammonium exchange
at pH 7.0. It can be determined directly using pH buffer salt mixtures (e.g., BaCl 2 plus triethanolamine,
pH 8.0 or 8.2) and titrating the basicity neutralized after reaction with a soil.

Sources of Soil Acidity

i) Organic matter/Humus-soil organic matter contains carboxylic and phenolic group which behaves as a
week acid releasing hydrogen ions. the soil organic matter varies with environment, vegetation and soil
therefore, its contribution to acidity varies

ii) Clay minerals- the desolution of hydrogen ions from the broken edges of clay minerals and AL3+ and Fe2+
oxides contribute to the pH buffering in soils.

iii) Acid, neutral or basic salts in solution- these originates from mineral weathering, o.m decomposition or
additions of fertilizers and or manures

iv) Carbon dioxide- the pH is influenced by the partial pressure of Co2 in the atmosphere.
Factors Affecting Soil Acidity

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 i) Leaching: Refers to the washing down of plant nutrients below the soil beyond the reach of the plant
roots leaving behind hydrogen ion.

ii) Use of acid fertilizers: The use of acid fertilizers like ammonium sulphate and ammonium nitrate can
easily cause acidity in the soil.

iii) Nutrient uptake by plants: the absorption of soluble minerals by plants results in the accumulation of
hydrogen ions which cause soil acidity.

iv) Presence of acid parent materials: The presence of acid parent materials results in the easy dissolution
of the rocks, leaving behind minerals rich in hydrogen ions. .

v) Presence of sulphur in the soil: sulphur undergoes oxidation and dissolution to form acid in the soil.
Importance of Soil Acidity

1. Availability of Plant Nutrients:

Soil acidity affects availability of most soil nutrients especially phosphorus, nitrogen, sulphur, molybdenum
and other micronutrients such as iron, aluminium and manganese. The pH of any soil could be a good guide
in predicting which plant nutrients are likely to be deficient.

2. Effect of pH on Micro-organisms

The pH of soils affects growth activity of soil microorganisms. For example, bacteria and actinomycetes are
known to function properly at pH above 5.5, while fungi and sulphur-oxidizers function in acid medium. The
most favourable pH range for microbes responsible for organic matter mineralization and hence N-, P- and
S- availability is within 5.5 – 7.5. At low pH values, therefore, such process as nitrification and nitrogen
fixation are reduced. High soil acidity restricts micro fauna population. A common example here is the
earthworm population which is depressed under low pH (high acidity), thereby reducing the mixing of
surface litter with soil. Under those circumstances rate of organic matter decomposition is reduced.

3. Effect on Disease Pathogens

Soil pH affects some disease pathogens. Increase in soil pH had been known to favour potato scab disease
which is controlled by application of elemental sulphur.

4. Maintenance of Ionic Balance

Soil acidity especially hydrogen ion concentration, (H+) has some buffering effect in maintaining ionic
balance in soil. If the leaching of cations is greater than those of anions in soil there is net negative charges.
H+ is released from exchange sites to soil solution to maintain the ionic balance.

5. Effect of pH on Soil Physical Conditions

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 Soil structure is most easily affected by soil pH. In soils with pH 8.5 sodium, Na + causes dispersion of soil
colloids resulting in physical problem. The dispersed clay particles plug soil pores. Similarly, under extreme
condition of alkalinity colloidal materials could move to subsoil where they could precipitate to from hard
pan. Air and water movement become impeded and plant root growth and penetration into the soil
consequently become difficult. Under very acid conditions deficiency of Ca may affect soil structure.

BUFFER SYSTEMS

These are compounds that maintain the pH of a solution within a narrow range when small amounts of acid or
base are added. The term buffering is defined as the resistance to a change in pH.

Addition of an acid such as hydrochloric acid or a base such as sodium hydroxide to the system results in very
little change in the active acidity of the solution. The soil buffering ability is attributable to its humus and alumino
– silicate clays which have ability to retain hydrogen aluminium and other cations on their exchange sites with the
net result that there is little change in the active acidity of the soil solution.

Management of soil acidity

Land managers can manage soil acidity by raising the pH to a desired value through several methods:

 Flooding: flooding may be an effective technique in raising the pH of the soil. However, this effect is only
good for the time for which the soil is flooded. When they are flooded and become anaerobic (lack of oxygen
in the soil atmosphere) for a period of time, the pH rises toward neutrality even when the soil pH was
originally acidic. If the soil is subsequently drained and becomes more aerobic (more oxygen in the soil
atmosphere), the pH will return to an acidic state

 However, care must be taken if the soil contains manganese-oxide minerals, since flooding
conditions may lead to manganese toxicity.

 Crop consideration is also required. Flooding conditions reduces the oxygen within the soil, which
is needed for plant life. As a result, crops that do not tolerate high amounts of water and low oxygen
levels are not be suited for flooded conditions. Rice is an examples of a crop that grows well in
flooded lowlands.

 Additions of organic matter: Additions of organic matter is a viable option to manage problems associated
with soil acidity.

 Organic matter increases the cation exchange capacity of the soil. As the base saturation increases,
the relative amount of “acid cations” decreases.

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  In addition, organic matter forms strong bonds, known as “chelates,” with aluminum. Chelation
reduces the solubility of aluminum and soil acidity. Again, if your soil is prone to manganese
toxicity, it is not suggested that you add organic matter.

 Additions of wood ash: Like organic matter, wood ash increases base saturation and forms chelates with
aluminum.

 Conventional Liming: Various liming materials may be added to the soil that neutralize, or counteract, soil
acidity. Liming materials are bases that react with hydrogen ions in the soil solution to form water?

 Examples of common liming materials are limestone (calcium carbonate), dolomite

(calcium/magnesium carbonate), hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide), and quicklime (calcium oxide).
Calcium and magnesium silicates are also used as liming agents.

SOIL SALINITY AND ALKALINITY

Sources of Salt-Affected Soils

The salt-affected soils occur mainly in arid and semi-arid regions. Under these agro-climatic conditions there is
usually accumulation of salts in the upper layers of the soils such as NaCl, Na2 SO4, MgSO4, MgCl2, CaSO4, or
CaCO3.

Two major conditions could give rise to excess salts in the plough soil layer, namely:

1. Evapo-Transpiration: In the dry regions, evapotranspiration might be in excess of precipitation especially

during the dry period of the year. This leads to whitish surface as a result of residue of inorganic salt left
behind after escape of water vapour.
2. Rise in Ground Water: Underground water contains salts. When the water rises, it brings up salts and when
it goes down again it leaves the salt on the soil surface.

Other conditions that give rise to salty soils are poor drainage and seepage from other areas, soluble salts from the
weathering of primary minerals, coastal soils with oceanogenic salinity and desert salinity usually caused by wind-
borne salts.

1. Saline soil: A non-sodic soil containing sufficient soluble salt to adversely affect the growth of most crop
plants. The lower limit of saturation extract electrical conductivity of such soils is conventionally set at 4 dS
m-1(at 25°C). Actually, sensitive plants are affected at half this salinity and highly tolerant ones at about twice
this salinity.

Saline soils are agriculturally unproductive because they give poor growth of plants and poor crop yields. In
saline soils osmotic pressure of soil solutions is usually too high for plants to absorb sufficient nutrients and

51
 water. The concentration of salts outside the roots is usually too high that water may be withdrawn from the
plant roots causing plasmolysis or oxosmosis and poor root growth or even outright death of roots. Other
deleterious effects of soil salinity on plant growth are reduced root elongation rate, reduced root permeability
due to upset in plant hormonal balance and reduced transpiration rates.

Increase soil salinity results in ionic imbalance of the soil solution, and in turn, affect the nutritional balance
of the plant. The high pH of saline soils affects solubility of many nutrients, soil structure, soil strength,
aeration, hydraulic and ionic conductivities.

2. Alkaline (Sodic) soil: A non-saline soil containing sufficient exchangeable sodium to adversely affect crop
production and soil structure under most conditions of soil and plant type. These are soils in which the sodium
content or Na saturation is greater than 15%. That is, if the exchange sites of the soil is occupied by sodium
to the tune of 15%. The term “exchangeable sodium percentage” (ESP) or sodium adsorption ratio (SAR) is
usually used and expressed as
ex Na meq/100g
𝐸𝑆𝑃 = )𝑥 100
CEC meq/100g

For example, (i) if C.E.C. of a soil is 10meq/100g in which Mg = 2.5, Ca = 2.0, K =1.0
Na = 2.5 and A1 = 2.0 meq/100g soil then % Na = 2.5 meq/100g x 100
10meq/100g = 25% Na
(ii) if Na = 1.0meq/100g soil
then % Na = 1.0 x 100
10 = 10% exchangeable sodium
Conclusion: Soil (i) is alkaline whereas soil (ii) is not.

3. Saline-Alkaline (sodic) soil: A soil containing sufficient exchangeable sodium to interfere with the growth
of most crop plants and containing appreciable quantities of soluble salts. A soil which is both saline
(electrical conductivity > 4mmhos/cm) and alkaline (ESP > 15%) is referred to as soil saline-sodic soil or
saline-alkali. Such a soil has pH value of less than 8.5: and if the salts are leached out, excess sodium reacts
with carbon dioxide to form sodium carbonate and the pH of the soil may be as high as 9 or 10, thus turning
the soil to pure sodic soil.

General Features of Saline and Alkaline Soils (Holomorphic Soils)

 The pH of these soils are usually high, between pH 7.5 and 10, which results in the deficiency of micro-
nutrients such as Zn, Cu, or Mn.
 In alkaline soils, the presence of sodium carbonate causes changes in the soil structure. There is decrease in
the permeability and pore-space. Clay and organic matter particles (soil colloids) are dispersed or
deflocculated and then washed down between the soil aggregates and may eventually form a hard pan. The

52
 dispersed humic materials give a black coating on the soil giving a black soil surface hence the term “black
alkaline soils”.
 The surfaces of alkaline (sodic) soils dry out into large massive hard clay pan always difficult to cultivate-
being plastic when wet and forms hard compacted clods when dry.
 Saline soils develop under conditions of low rainfall, but can also develop under poorly drained area, unusual
topography whereby salts accumulate in the depression and saline areas are left behind after evaporation.
 In most alkaline soils the activity of Ca is high. Under this high pH condition, there is precipitation of relatively
insoluble dicalcium phosphate and other basic calcium phosphate such as carbonates apatite and
hydroxylapatite.
 Soil alkalinity affects plants due to the toxicity of the Na+, OH- and HCO3- ions. These ions and the high pH
(above 8.5) usually emanate from the hydrolysis of sodium carbonate in soil:

Na2 CO3 + CO2 + H2O = 2Na+ + 2HCO3-

Extreme alkalinity (pH 8.5 – 10.5 or higher) is due to the presence of Na2 CO3 while the black colouration of the
soil surface is due to the dispersed humus carried upward by capillary water. Irrigation water containing excess
Na+ and HCO3- often causes soil alkalinity.

Reclamation and Management of Alkaline and Saline Soils

1. Establish Appropriate Drainage Systems: Where poor drainage is the cause of the salinity, it would be
necessary to establish good drainage systems to carry away the excess salty water. Such drainage systems
that are in use include pumping, tile drains, drainage ditches and canals depending on the topography and
soil type. Deep ploughing could be used to improve the soil permeability and therefore increase downward
movement of percolating salty water.

2. Leaching Excess Salt: Where the soil remains permeable with adequate internal and surface drainage
present, excess salt of saline soils could be leached with heavy application of low salt irrigation water. Good-
quality irrigation water must be used to leach excess salts out of the root zone.

In typical warm arid regions where many of the large irrigation schemes in the world are located,
accumulation of salts can be very substantial. Therefore irrigation schemes in such semi arid regions must
be well managed to remove excess salts regularly from the root zone of the crops. The salt contents of
irrigation water should not exceed 0.025 – 2.25 mmhos/cm.

In areas of water scarcity over irrigation is avoided by giving attention to leaching requirement (LR) which
is defined as the additional water needed for leaching, over that needed to wet the profile (Miller and
Donahue, 1990).

LR = ECix / ECdr

53
 Where ECir is the electrical conductivity of the irrigation water, and ECdr is the electrical conductivity of the
soil saturation extract at which a 50 percent decrease in yield is obtained in uniformly saline soil.

Example of Leaching Requirement Calculation

Assume that an irrigation water has a conductivity of 1.08 d Sm-1(or 1.08 mmhos/cm). The field corn planted
has a 50 percent yield reduction at a soil saturation extract conductivity of 6 d Sm-1. Calculate the additional
amount of water to add if the water needed to wet the profile is 6.35cm.

Solution: Substituting in the leaching requirement equation:

LR=ECix/ ECdr = 1.08DsM-1 /6DsM-1 = 0.18

This decimal (or fraction) is that fraction of the amount of water needed to wet the soil that must be added
additionally. Therefore, the total water needed is:

6.35cm + (0.18) (6.35) = 7.49cm

The determination of leaching requirement of a soil a times depends on the salt sensitivity of tolerance of the
crop to be grown. For example, wheat and sorghum have a LR or 0.08; while lettuce, a more sensitive plant,
has 0.20 implying that more water must be added to leach more salt under lettuce.

3. Application of Organic Mulch on Soil Surface

The idea here is to lower surface evaporation and thereby reduce salt movement to the soil surface in
evaporative water. In some place, cotton gin trash, chopped woody plants and crop residues have been found
helpful in reducing soil salinity.

4. Replacement of Excess Exchangeable Sodium

In saline-sodic and sodic (alkaline) soils, leaching directly with water low in salt may lead to further increase
in the percent sodium saturation thereby increasing the concentration of the hydroxyl ions (OH -) in the soil
solution. In such situation, the toxic sodium carbonate and bicarbonate are first converted to sodium sulphate
by treating the soil with heavy application of gypsum (CaSO4.2H20) or sulphur. The resulting sodium sulphate
is then leached out of the root zone with irrigation water. Use of sulphur also reduces the intense alkalinity
insodic soils. During the process of sulphur oxidation to suphate there is production of hydrogen ion (H +)
which leads to lowering the pH of the soil.

5. Water Control

Application of light irrigation but at frequent intervals would keep the soil moist, dilute salts and lessen the
toxic and osmotic effects of salts in the soil. Young plant seedlings are more sensitive to salts than mature
plants. Therefore, light irrigation should be more frequent immediately after planting the crop.

54
 6. Appropriate Planting Position of Crops

Most salts concentrations are usually in the ridge and heap tops; planting methods should therefore avoid the
center of wide ridges and the tops of narrow ridges or mounds.

7. Choice of Crops

Crops such as cotton, sorghum and barley that are tolerant or resistant to salty environment could be cultivated
to successfully manage saline and alkaline lands. Other consideration may be the adaptation of the crop to the
crop to the climate or soil properties and the economic value of the crop. The revenue derived from a high
price crop would more than compensate the cost of managing the soil during cropping. In alkaline soils, crops
such as Atriplex spp that accumulate Na+ could be grown and then removed completely away from the
irrigated area.

8. A Good Crop Rotation can be an insurance against alkali trouble by building up the soil structure (through
root action of tolerant plants) and improving its stability. Crops such as sweet clover, grass, Lucerne leys,
and melon have been found useful in this regards.

SOIL BIOLOGY

SOIL ORGANIC MATTER

Soil organic matter is the organic component of the soil and it includes all parts of living and dead plants and
animals, micro-and macro-organisms and products of decaying processes that occur in the soil.

Definition: Soil organic matter (SOM) is any material produced originally by living organisms (plant or animal)
that is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition process.

Composition of Soil Organic Matter

About 75% of green tissue is made up of water while 90% of the remaining dry matter is made up of carbon,
oxygen and hydrogen. Nitrogen and other mineral elements constitute the remainder of organic matter. The major
source of soil organic matter (plant tissue) is made of very complex substances such as carbohydrates (Sugar,
starch, hemicellulose, cellulose, pectiles, muscilages) lignins, proteins (soluble proteins and crude proteins), fats
(oil), waxes, tannin, resins, pigments and organo-mineral compounds. The largest percentage of soil organic
matter is made of lignins and proteins. Lignin builds up as the plant ages and it is resistant to decomposition.

Sources of Soil Organic Matter

There are two main sources of organic matter in soils and these include:

55
(i) Plant sources: These are the most prevalent and they include dead and decayed plant roots, leaf droppings, crop
residues, green manures and dead and decayed “above ground” parts of plants.

(ii) Animal sources: These form the next most important source of soil organic matter. They include all residues
of animals and micro-organisms, domestic wastes, animal faeces, animal feeds, and animal manures.

Classification of soil organic matter

For practical purposes, organic matter may be classified into (a) aboveground and (b) belowground fractions.

(a) Aboveground organic matter comprises plant residues and animal residues; Organic matter existing on the soil
surface as raw plant residues helps protect the soil from the effect of rainfall, wind and sun. Removal,
incorporation or burning of residues exposes the soil to negative climatic impacts, and removal or burning deprives
the soil organisms of their primary energy source.

(b) Belowground organic matter consists of living soil fauna and microflora, partially decomposed plant and
animal residues, and humic substances. Organic matter within the soil serves several functions. From a practical
agricultural standpoint, it is important for two main reasons:

(i) as a “revolving nutrient fund”; and

(ii) as an agent to improve soil structure, maintain tilth and minimize erosion.

Importance of Soil Organic Matter

Organic matter is so important to the soil that it has been described as the life blood of the soil. Its importance is
enumerated as follows:

1) It is a storehouse of plant nutrients.

2) The stable organic fraction (humus) adsorbs and holds nutrients in a plant available form. Hence, it
contributes to the cation exchange capacity of the soil.
3) It improves soil physical conditions.
4) It provides medium for microbial growth and activities.
5) Humus adds substantially to the buffering capacity of soils making it less amenable to pH changes by bases
or acids.
6) Organic acids released during decomposition of the SOM aid in the process of rock mineral weathering.

Decomposition of Soil Organic Matter

When plant residues are returned to the soil, various organic compounds undergo decomposition.

Decomposition is a biological process that includes the physical breakdown and biochemical transformation of
complex organic molecules of dead material into simpler organic and inorganic molecules ones by the activities
of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, algae, and protozoa.
56
In the decomposition process, different products are released which include carbon dioxide (CO2), energy, water,
plant nutrients and re-synthesized organic carbon compounds. Successive decomposition of dead material and
modified organic matter results in the formation of a more complex organic matter called humus. This process is
called humification. Humus is a by-product of organic matter decomposition. It is resistant to further
decomposition and is the source of nutrient storage capacity. In the formation of soil humus, there is a rapid
decomposition of the water soluble constituents: sugars, organic acids, amino acids, lipids, and
nucleotides. SOM is frequently said to consist of humic substances and nonhumic substances.

Humic substances are series of relatively high-molecular-weight, brown to black colored substances formed by
secondary synthesis reactions. It comprises of humic acid, fluvic acid and humins.

Nonhumic substances are compounds belonging to known classes of biochemistry, such as carbohydrates, lipids
and amino acids.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Organic Matter Decomposition

i) The quality of organic material such as the type of plant material, age of the plant and the chemical
composition

ii) The physical environment which could be categorized into two:

a) Soil factors such as aeration, temperature, moisture, pH, and fertility status

b) Climatic factors such as rainfall and temperature

iii) Population of soil microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes and protozoa

Mineralization of Organic Matter

This is the process involved in the release of plant nutrients from organic matter. Most of the soil nitrogen,
phosphorus and sulphur are present in the organic forms which are only converted to the mineral forms, utilizable
by plants, through the mineralization process.

Mineralization of organic matter to release mineral nutrients is a two-step process, namely:

i. Ammonization which is the decomposition of organic matter by heterotrophic bacteria to release amino
acids and amides.
ii. Amonification which is the release of ammonium ion from amino acids and amides. The ammonium ion
(NH4+) further undergoes Amino acid amides heterotrophic bacteria oxidation process as a result of
participation of special purpose bacteria in another twostep process called nitrification.

Maintenance of Soil Organic Matter

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The maintenance of the organic matter in soils used for agricultural production is an important practice. Where
the rate of addition is less than the rate of decomposition, soil organic matter declines. Conversely, where the rate
of addition is higher than the rate of decomposition, soil organic matter increases. The term ‘steady state’ describes
a condition where the rate of addition is equal to the rate of decomposition. For adequate maintenance of soil
organic matter, the rate of addition must be equal to the rate of decomposition i.e. a steady state condition must
be maintained. The practices involved in the maintenance of soil organic matter include:

i) Addition of new organic materials: This is an essential part of good soil management practice. It
involves the addition of bulky manures, such as farmyard green manures, compost and processed
animal wastes at least once a year depending on the intensity of cultivation.
ii) Sound cropping system that reduces the intensity of cultivations and keeps the soil protected e.g.
cover cropping and good crop rotation.
iii) Green manuring: This is the practice of enriching the soil by turning under soil green tender plants,
usually legumes grown on the field or brought from outside.
iv) Management of crop residues: Crop residues provide varying amounts of organic carbon when
incorporated into the soil or used as mulch.

SOIL ORGANISMS

All the organisms living within the soil are collectively termed soil life or soil biota. Soil organism is any
organism inhabiting the soil during part or all of its life.

Classification of Soil Organisms

The soil organisms are classified into two broad groups, these include:

1. Soil flora – subdivided into:

a) microflora size range 1-100 micrometres, e.g. bacteria, actinomycetes, fungi and algae

b) macroflora: size range 20 mm upwards, e.g. roots of higher plants

2. Soil fauna – subdivided into:

(a) Megafauna: size range 20 mm upwards, e.g. moles, rabbits, and rodents.

(b) Macrofauna: size range 2–20 mm, e.g. woodlice, earthworm, beetles, centipedes, slugs, snails and ants.

(c) Mesofauna: size range 100 micrometer - 2 mm, e.g. tardigrades, mites and springtails.

(d) Microfauna: size range 1-100 micrometres, e.g. protozoa, nematodes and rotifers.

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Activities of Soil Organisms

Healthy soil is a jungle of rapacious organisms devouring everything in sight (including each other), processing
their prey or food through their innards, and then excreting it. The activities of these organisms have been
categorized into two, namely, beneficial and detrimental activities.

A) Beneficial Activities

1. Nutrient cycling

Soil organisms continually transform nutrients among many organic and inorganic forms. (Organic compounds
contain carbon. Inorganic compounds do not.) Plants primarily need simple inorganic forms of each nutrient. Soil
organisms create many of these plant available nutrients and help store nutrients in the soil as organic compounds.
Cycling of nutrients involves the following transformation processes:

 Decomposition: turning organic compounds into other organic compounds

 Mineralization: turning organic matter into inorganic compounds that may be used by plants
 Immobilization: turning inorganic compounds into organic compounds. Farmers depend on bacteria
for one more transformation:
 mineral transformation: turning inorganic matter into other inorganic compounds

Bacteria Involved in Mineral Transformations

Bacteria that perform mineral transformations are important in nitrogen cycling and these include the following:

i) Nitrogen fixing bacteria: The roots of legumes host nitrogen-fixing bacteria that convert large amounts
of dinitrogen (N2) from the atmosphere into forms that plants can use. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria
live free in the soil.
ii) Nitrifying bacteria convert ammonia (NH3) into nitrate (NO3-).
iii) Denitrifying bacteria convert nitrate into gases that are lost into the atmosphere. These species are
anaerobic so denitrification occurs only in places in the soil where there is little or no oxygen. Thus, the
conditions in which we find denitrifying organisms are characterized by:
a. a supply of oxidisable organic matter, and
b. absence of oxygen but availability of reducible nitrogen sources.

Other soil bacteria are important for similar mineral transformations of sulfur, iron, and manganese.

2. Forming soil structure

Soil organisms play an important role in the formation of a good soil structure. As the soil heats up, fungi grow
long filaments called hyphae that surround soil particles and hold them together in soil aggregates. Some bacteria
produce sticky substances that also help bind soil together.

59
Arthropods and earthworms consume soil, digest the bacteria, and excrete a clump of soil coated with secretions
from the gut. As beetles and earthworms chew and bury plant residue and burrow through the soil, they aerate the
soil and create nutrient-lined channels for roots and water to move through.

3. Controlling disease and enhancing growth

Soil organisms have many methods for controlling disease-causing organisms. Protozoa, nematodes, insects, and
other predatory organisms help control the population levels of their prey and prevent any single species from
becoming dominant. Some bacteria and fungi generate compounds that are toxic to other organisms. Some
organisms compete with harmful organisms for food or a location on a root.

In addition to protecting plants from disease, some organisms produce compounds that actually enhance the
growth of plants. Plant roots may excrete compounds that attract such beneficial organisms.

B) Detrimental Activities

1. Some cause plant diseases e.g. fusarium wilt caused by fungus attack.

2. Some cause root damage e.g. root knot nematode.

3. Some cause tuber destruction e.g. yam beetles in the soil.

Factors Affecting Distribution, Activity and Population of Soil Microorganisms

Soil microorganisms (Flora & Fauna), just like higher plants depends entirely on soil for their nutrition, growth
and activity. The major soil factors which influence the microbial population, distribution and their activity in the
soil are
- Soil fertility - Soil PH (H-ion Concentration)
- Cultural practices - Organic matter
- Soil moisture - Food and energy supply
- Soil temperature - Nature of soil and
- Soil aeration - Microbial associations.
- Light

SOIL FERTILITY AND PLANT NUTRITION

SOIL FERTILITY

Soil fertility is the ability of the soil to supply essential plant nutrients during growth period of the plants, without
toxic concentration of any nutrients”. i.e “the capacity of soil to supply nutrient in available forms to crop”.

Soil productivity

60
Soil productivity is ability of soil to produce a particular crop or sequence of crops under a specified managements
system” i.e the crop producing capacity of soil”.

All the productive soils are fertile but all the fertile soils may not be productive

A fertile soil has the following properties:

 The ability to supply essential plant nutrients and soil water in adequate amounts and proportions for plant
growth and reproduction; and

 The absence of toxic substances which may inhibit plant growth.

Factors Affecting the Fertility of Soil

The ability of soil to supply plant nutrients in the available forms is affected by many physical, chemical and
biological factors, including management practices.

The following properties contribute to soil fertility in most situations:

 Sufficient soil depth for adequate root growth and water retention;

 Good internal drainage, allowing sufficient aeration for optimal root growth (although some plants, such
as rice, tolerate waterlogging);

 Topsoil with sufficient soil organic matter for healthy soil structure and soil moisture retention;

 Soil pH in the range 5.5 to 7.0 (suitable for most plants)

 Adequate concentrations of essential plant nutrients in plant-available forms;

 Presence of a range of microorganisms that support plant growth.

PLANT NUTRIENT

Definition: They are elements needed by plants for growth and reproduction without which plants cannot
complete their life cycle (Vegetative, Flowering and seed production). Chemical elements that are essential for
the proper development and growth of plants are typically referred to as plant nutrients. The list of plant nutrients
recognized as being necessary for plant growth has increased over the years and now totals sixteen.

All the plant nutrients are present in the soil. However, the mere presence of plant nutrients in the soil does not
mean that such a soil is fertile. Plants absorb nutrients in ionic forms dissolved in soil solution. Also, for optimum
performance of crop, there must be sufficient amount of all the nutrients enough to meet the minimum requirement
of the crop. Thus the soil must be able to supply adequate amount of plant nutrients, in forms which can be
absorbed by the crop, within its lifespan. Thus soil fertility is defined as the ability of the soil to supply plant
nutrients in adequate quantity and in available forms.

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Available forms of plant nutrients are the forms (ionic) which can be absorbed by the growing plant.

Criteria for Nutrient Essentiality:

 Plant cannot complete its life cycle without it

 The function of the element cannot be replaced by another element

 The element is directly involved in the plant’s growth and reproduction

ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS

Plants require at least 16 essential elements for normal growth and for completion of their life cycle. The essential
nutrients are divided into three categories:

 Carbon (C), hydrogen (H) and oxygen (O): They are basic non-mineral elements supplied by air and
water and form the basis of all organic compounds.
 Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) are the primary macronutrients and the ones most
often in short supply in soils. Plants need relatively large amounts of these nutrients and are the ones most
frequently supplied to plants in fertilizers.
 Calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and sulfur (S) are the secondary macronutrients. They are required in
smaller amounts than the primary nutrients.
 Iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), molybdenum (Mo), boron (B), chlorine (Cl) and
nickel (Ni) are the micronutrients. These elements occur in very small amounts in both soils and plants,
but their role is equally as important as the primary or secondary nutrients.
A deficiency of one or more of the micronutrients can lead to severe depression in growth, yield, and crop quality.

FUNCTION DEFICIENCY SYMPTOM

NITROGEN

Nitrogen (N) is taken up by plants as nitrate (NO3 -) or ammonium Symptoms of N deficiency are general chlorosis
(NH4+) ions. of lower leaves (light green to yellow), stunted
and slow growth, and necrosis of older leaves in
Nitrogen is needed by plants for the production of proteins, nucleic severe cases.
acids (DNA and RNA), and chlorophyll.

PHOSPHORUS

Phosphorus (P) is taken up by plants as ortho-phosphate H2PO4- Slow growth, purplish coloration on foliage of
/HPO42-. P plays a major role in energy storage and transfer as some plants (older leaves first) and poor fruit or
ADP and ATP. Aids in root development, flower initiation, and seed seed development.
and fruit development.

POTASSIUM

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Potassium (K) is taken up by plants in the form of potassium ions Slow growth, tip and marginal chlorosis, weak
(K+). Potassium is essential for translocation of sugars and for stems and stalks and Small fruit or shriveled
formation of starch. It is required in the opening and closing of seeds.
stomata by guard cells. Increases plant resistance to disease.
Potassium increases size and quality of fruits, nuts, and
vegetables.

CALCIUM

Calcium (Ca) is taken up by plants as the calcium ion (Ca2+). A Tip burning of young leaves, death of growing
structural nutrient, it is an essential part in cell walls and points (terminal buds). Premature shedding of
membranes and is required for the formation of new cells. Ca is not blossoms and buds. Weakened stems.
mobile.

MAGNESIUM

Plant uptake of magnesium is in the form of the magnesium ion Interveinal chlorosis in older leaves, curling of
(Mg2+). The chlorophyll molecule, which is essential for leaves upward along margins.
photosynthesis. Magnesium (Mg) serves as an activator of many
plant enzymes required in growth processes.

SUPPHUR

Sulphur (S) is utilized in the form of sulfate ions (SO42-). Sulphur is Retarded growth rate and delayed maturity.
a constituent of three amino acids (cystine, methionine and Young leaves light green to yellowish color. In
cysteine) and is therefore necessary for protein synthesis. It is some plants, older tissue may also be affected.
essential for nodule formation on legume roots.

ZINC

Zinc (Zn) is taken up by plants as the zinc ion (Zn 2+) and is an Decrease in stem length and rosetteing of
essential constituent of several important enzyme systems in terminal leaves. Reduced fruit bud formation.
plants. It controls the synthesis of indoleacetic acid, an important
plant growth regulator.

IRON

Iron (Fe) is taken up by plants as ferrous ions (Fe2+) and is required Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves. Veins
for the formation of chlorophyll in plant cells. It serves as an remain green except in severe cases. Twig
activator for biochemical processes, such as respiration, dieback. In severe cases, death of entire limbs or
photosynthesis, and symbiotic nitrogen fixation. plants

MANGANESE

Manganese (Mn) uptake is in the form of the ion Mn 2+). Manganese Interveinal chlorosis of young leaves. Gradation of
serves as an activator for enzymes in plant growth processes. It pale-green leaf coloration, with darker color next
assists iron in chlorophyll formation. to veins. No sharp color distinction between veins
and interveinal areas as with iron deficiency.

COPPER

Plant uptake of copper is in the ionic form (Cu2+). Copper serves as Stunted growth, dieback of terminal shoots in
an activator of numerous plant enzymes and plays a role in the trees. Poor pigmentation.
development of plant pigments that influence color.
Wilting and eventual death of leaf tips.

BORON

Boron (B) is taken up by plants in as boric acid, H3BO3. It functions Death of terminal growth, thickened, curled wilted
in the differentiation of meristematic cells. Boron is also involved in and chlorotic leaves. Soft or necrotic spots in fruit
regulating metabolism of carbohydrates in plants. Nearly all fruiting or tubers. Reduced flowering or improper
crops have a high demand for boron in the early fruiting stage. pollination.

MOLYBDENUM

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 Molybdenum (Mo) is taken up by plants as the molybdate ion Stunting and lack of vigor. This is similar to
(MoO42-). It is required by plants for the utilization of nitrogen. nitrogen deficiency, because of the key role of
molybdenum in nitrogen utilization. Marginal
scorching and cupping or rolling of leaves.

Terms commonly used to describe level of nutrients in plants are

Deficient: When the concentration of an essential element is low enough to limit yield severely and distinct
deficiency symptoms are visible then that element is said to be deficient. Extreme deficiencies can result in plant
death. With moderate or slight deficiencies, symptoms may not be visible, but yields will still be reduced.

Critical range: The nutrient concentration in the plant below which a yield response to added nutrient occurs.
Critical level or ranges vary among plants and nutrients but occur somewhere in the transition between nutrient
deficiency and sufficiency.

Sufficient: Concentration range in which

Su fficie nt
added nutrients will not increase yield
Transition
but can increase nutrient concentration.
The term luxury consumption is used to
PLANT YIELD
Excessive
describe nutrient absorption by the plant

Or toxic that does not influence yield.

Deficient

Excessive or toxic: When the

concentration of essential or other
Steenberg effect elements is high enough to reduce plant
growth and yield then it is said to be
NUTRIENT CONCENTRATION IN TISSUE toxic. Excessive nutrient concentration
can cause an imbalance in other essential nutrients, which also can reduce yield

NUTRIENT ABSORPTION FOR PLANT GROWTH

Absorption of nutrients refers to the transfer of the nutrient ions across the soil root interfaces into the plant cell.
Crops take their nutrients in the form of inorganic ions from the solution that surrounds soil particle and roots.

Factors such as genetic make-up of a plant, root morphology and the environment influence nutrient absorption
and transport in plants.

The process of nutrient absorption starts from the release of nutrient ions from the soil solid phase to solution and
their movement to the root surfaces. The ions move from the root surface through membranes into the root system
and from the root system to the whole plant system.

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MOVEMENT OF IONS FROM SOIL TO ROOT SURFACES

Three mechanisms are recognized

1. Root interception (contact absorption):

Root interception occurs as the plant roots grow through the soil mass encountering ions in soil solution and
adsorbed ions on soil surfaces. Root interception occurs when a nutrient comes into physical contact with the root
surface. The occurrence of root interception increases as the root surface area and mass increases, thus enabling
the plant to explore a greater amount of soil.

Root interception is responsible for an appreciable amount of calcium uptake, and some amounts of magnesium,
zinc and manganese.

2. Mass flow

Mass flow occurs when nutrients are transported to the surface of roots by the movement of water in the soil (i.e.
percolation, transpiration, or evaporation). The rate of water flow governs the amount of nutrients that are
transported to the root surface. Therefore, mass flow decreases are soil water decreases. Most of the nitrogen,
calcium, magnesium, sulfur, copper, boron, manganese and molybdenum move to the root by mass flow.
Quantity of nutrients transported is proportional to:

i. Rate of flow (volume of water transpired)

ii. Solution concentration of nutrient Nutrients supplied primarily by mass flow are considered mobile
nutrients. e.g. N, S, B

3. Diffusion:

Diffusion is the movement of a particular nutrient along a concentration gradient. When there is a difference in
concentration of a particular nutrient within the soil solution, the nutrient will move from an area of higher
concentration to an area of lower concentration. This phenomenon is observed when adding sugar to water. As
the sugar dissolves, it moves through parts of the water with lower sugar concentration until it is evenly distributed,
or uniformly concentrated. Diffusion delivers appreciable amounts of phosphorus, potassium, zinc, and iron to
the root surface. Diffusion is a relatively slow process compared to the mass flow of nutrients with water
movement toward the root. Nutrients supplied primarily by diffusion are considered immobile nutrients e.g. P, K

MOVEMENT OF IONS INTO THE ROOT SYSTEM

The movement of nutrient ions from root surface into the root can be described by two processes: Passive
movement/transport and Active movement/transport

a) Passive movement or transport of ions

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Passive transport of ions occurs in the outer or free spaces in the wall of epidermal and cortical cells of roots and
is controlled by ion concentration (diffusion) and electrical (ion exchange) gradient.

The concentration of ions in the apparent free space is normally less than the bulk solution concentration and
therefore, diffusion occurs with concentration gradient, from high to low concentration.

Passive transport is non-selective process and does not require energy from the metabolic activities of the plant.

b) Active movement or transport of ions

Active transport of ions is the movement of an ion against its concentration gradient using energy i.e. when the
cell uses energy to pump a solute across the membrane against a concentration gradient.

The process of nutrient entry known as ion-carrier mechanism or carrier theory involves a metabolically produced
substance (carriers) that combines with free ions. The ion-carrier complex can then cross membranes and other
barriers not permeable to free ions and later dissociate to release ions into the inner space of the cell.

Active ion transport is selective process such that specific ions are transported across the plasma lemma by specific
carrier mechanism.

FERTILIZERS AS AN AGRICULTURAL INPUT

What is a fertilizer?

A fertilizer is any material, organic or inorganic, natural or synthetic, which supplies plants with one or more of
the nutrient elements required for normal growth and development. Fertilizers are of two types namely organic
and inorganic. The primary nutrients supplied by fertilizers are nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Their
concentration in a fertilizer is expressed as percentage of N, P2O5 and K2O.

Important Fertilizer Terminologies

Fertilizers are available in the form of single fertilizers, incomplete fertilizers and complete fertilizers. Single
element fertilizers contain only one fertilizer element. Examples are ammonium sulphate (N 2), Urea (N), super
phosphate (P205), Mariate of potash (K2O).

- Incomplete fertilizers contain two fertilizer elements, a typical example is Ammonium Phosphate (N + P205).
- Compound fertilizers containing three elements are designated complete fertilizers. Ammonium phosphate
which has an analysis of 11-45-0 is also called a compound two element fertilizer while an example of a
complete fertilizer is compound 15-15-15.

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 All the above named fertilizers are called inorganic fertilizers. Similarly organic fertilizers are available in
large quantities all over the world. In Nigeria, some of the organic waste considered to be possible sources of
organic fertilizers could be classified as Industrial Organic Fertilizers and Non-Industrial Organic Fertilizers.
- Industrial Organic Fertilizer: The Industrial Organic materials include waste from brewery factories like
molasses; waste from tobacco companies like tobacco leaf; waste from the canning industries such as orange
or fruit peelings; bones, hooves, bones and blood from meat canning factories; sawdust from saw-mills and
other by-products such as hey from milk factories. Industrial wastes in Nigeria depend upon the
industrialization and sophistication of the town or state.
- Non-Industrial Organic Fertilizers: These are many and vary from town to town and state to state depending
on their type of farming system or litter disposal. Non-Industrial Organic materials include cocoa pods, rice
brans, bean pod, sorted town refuse, sewage and city waste; poultry droppings, animal dung, human feaces
and urine. It also includes yam peelings, cassava peelings, straws of rices, maize, millet, sorghum and sugar-
cane leaves.
- Fertilizer Elements: are those nutrient elements the demand for which is particularly critical in plant nutrition
to the extent that they are focus of attention in fertilizer formulation. Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium
(NPK) are the primary elements, followed by the secondary elements calcium, magnesium and sulphur.
Micro-nutrient elements like zinc, boron and molybdenum are in more recent years being increasingly
included in fertilizer formulation to take care of micro-nutrient deficiencies where they occur.
- Carrier: A carrier is any material that contains (i.e carries) one or more of the fertilizer elements; ammonium
sulphate (or sulphate of ammonia) is a carrier supplying nitrogen. The superphosphates supply phosphorus.
Muriate of potash carries potassium. Ammonium phosphate contains both nitrogen and phosphorus.
- Straight/Single/Simple Fertilizer: Straight, single or simple fertilizers are those that supply only one primary
element.
- Mixed or Compound Fertilizer: are those that contain more than one primary element. Those that contain
only 2 of these elements are described as incomplete, while those that contain all 3 are referred to as complete
fertilizers. A mixed or compound fertilizer can be a home mixture of 2 or more straight carriers, or a directed
formulation from the factory.
- Fillers: Fillers are materials, which may or may not posses manorial value, added to compound fertilizers to
make up the weight required to get them conform to a predetermined specification in terms of percentages of
the active ingredient. Inert materials like fine river sand, powdered char-coal and kaolin were used in the past
for this purpose.
More recently, materials like gypsum, dolomite and dried poultry manure have been used, to act as fillers at
the same time that they serve other additive functions.

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- Active Ingredient: refers to the primary nutrient nitrogen (N) and the oxidated forms of phosphorus
(Phosphorus pentoxide, P205) and potassium (potassium oxide K20) in the straight carriers or mixtures
supplying them. Active ingredients also refer to the oxidized forms of such secondary elements as magnesium
(Mg0).
- Fertilizer ratio: This is a term which shows the percentages of the active ingredient N, P205 and K20 in this
order, in a compound fertilizer. A 5:10:12 NPK mixture, for example, contain 5% N, 10% P205 and 12% K20.
A 10:10:10 mixture contains 10% nitrogen, 10% P205 and 15% K20. (This is the relative proportion or ratio of
two or more nutrient elements in fertilizer grade e.g. NPK 10-10-10 has a ratio of 1:1:1). This ratio is obtained
by dividing the fertilizer grade figures by a factor that produces the smallest possible whole numbers.
- Fertilizer Grade: This is the numbering system of a particular element in the mixture or the compound. It is
usually written in real figures for mixed or compound fertilizers. It is often expressed in a set of three numbers
e.g. 15-15-15 indicating manufacturer’s guarantee of the percentage of N, P2O5 and K2O. When an element
is missing. it is represented as zero. Grade Ratio 5-10-10 1-2-2, 3-9-9 1-3-3, 4-8-12 1-2-3
- Fertilizer Analysis (or Fertilizer Guarantee): This is a statement of the proportion of plant food a fertilizer
contains. The analysis for a straight carrier is the percentage of the active ingredient it supplies. When applied
to a compound fertilizer, analysis refers to the sum of the percentage of the various ingredients it supplies.
Fertilizer analysis is graded. Fertilizers guaranteed to supply less than 15% total active ingredients are
described as low in analysis. 15-25% is medium analysis 25 – 30% in high analysis over 30% is concentrated.
- Fertilizer Rate: Fertilizer rate is the quantity (weight) of fertilizer that should be applied per unit area of farm
land for a given crop. Rate can be expressed as weight of straight carrier (or mixture of a given ratio) per
hectare. Consider the following hypothetical examples: 300kg of a 15:15:15 NPK mixture per hectare, 150kg
of ammonium sulphate per hectare. It is gradually becoming more conventional to express rate of fertilizer
application in terms of weight of active ingredients per unit area of land, in which case the quantities by
weight, of straight carriers that will supply them have to be proportionately calculated, so long as the analysis
of the constituent is true.

INORGANIC (OR MINERAL) FERTILIZERS

These are fertilizers mined from mineral deposits with little processing (e.g., lime, potash, or phosphate rock), or
industrially manufactured through chemical processes (e.g., urea). Inorganic fertilizers vary in appearance
depending on the process of manufacture. The particles can be of many different sizes and shapes (crystals, pellets,
granules, or dust). Inorganic fertilizer could be classified into three based on the nutrient composition as follows:

1. Straight fertilizers: These are fertilizers which contain and supply one or single nutrient element only. They
could be nitrogenous, phosphatic or potassic fertilizers supplying nitrogen, phosphorus or potassium, respectively.

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 a) Nitrogenous fertilizers: Nitrogen is the first fertilizer element of the macronutrients usually applied in
commercial fertilizers. Nitrogen is very important nutrient for plants and it seems to have the quickest
and most pronounced effect.

b) Phosphatic fertilizers: Phosphorus is the second fertilizer element and it is an essential constituent of
every living cell and for the nutrition of plant and animal. It takes active part in all types of metabolism
of plant. Phosphate present in phosphatic fertilizers maybe in the water soluble form or citrate soluble
form. That portion of phosphate which is soluble in water is called water soluble phosphate and that
which is not soluble in water but in 2 per cent neutral ammonium citrate solution is called citrate soluble
phosphate. The sum of water soluble and citrate soluble values is termed as available phosphates.

c) Potassic fertilizers: Potassium is the third fertilizer element. Potassium acts as a chemical traffic
policeman, root booster, stalk strengthener, food former, sugar and starch transporter, protein builder,
breathing regulator, water stretcher and as a disease retarder but it is not effective without its co-nutrients
such as nitrogen and phosphorus.

2. Complex/Compound fertilizers: These are fertilizers which contain two or more nutrient elements usually
combined in a homogeneous mixture by chemical interaction. Complex NPK fertilizers have the advantage of
having each nutrient in each granule.

3. Fertilizer blends or mixed fertilizers: These are fertilizers formed by physically blending mineral fertilizers
to obtain desired nutrient ratios. Two or more of the separate fertilizer carriers or straight fertilizers are mixed to
obtain the desired nutrient ratios. Examples are NPK 15-15-15, NPK 20-10-10 etc.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Inorganic Fertilizers

Advantages Disadvantages
 Leaching occurs beyond plant’s rooting zone
 Works immediately
 Too much may burn and kill plants
 Contains all necessary nutrients that are ready for use
 But Some are not affordable
 Affordable
 Accumulation of toxic wastes
 Convenient to use, it is easy to apply

Major limitations of Inorganic Fertilizers

 As inorganic fertilizers are both powerful and take effect too quickly, they can burn and totally destroy
plants when applied excessively.
 Excessive use of inorganic fertilizers can also kill earthworms and microorganisms in the soil that help in
the plants' growth.
 The nitrates contained in some inorganic fertilizers can actually pollute groundwater that we use for
drinking.

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  Some inorganic fertilizers may contain wastes that went through a recycling process. As such, they may
have in them lead or other heavy-metal residues which can be taken in by growing plants and which, in
turn, we eventually consume as food.
 When applied excessively or too liberally, inorganic fertilizers can be washed and transported by rain into
water sources (such as rivers and lakes) and end up polluting them
 It requires high purchasing power
 Availability is an obstacle, especially in remote areas

ORGANIC FERTILIZERS

These are natural materials of either plant or animal origin, including livestock manure, green manures, crop
residues, household waste, compost, and woodland litter. Organic fertilizers include both plant and animal bi-
products. They are slow acting. Organic nitrogen fertilizers include oil cakes, fish manure, dried blood from
slaughter houses etc., whereas organic phosphorus fertilizers are from bone meal and organic potassium from
cattle dung ash, wood ash, leaf mould, tobacco stems and water hyacinth.

Organic fertilizers are categorized into two:

1. Bulky: This consists of the slow acting organic manures with large quantities of organic matter. Examples
are Cattle, Sheep Poultry, Pig, Goat, Horse manures, Compost, Green Manures, and Sewage Sludge.
2. Concentrated: This consists of the quick acting organic manures with small quantity of organic matter.
Examples are Groundnut cake, Castor cake, Bone meal, Blood meal, Horn meal, Wood ash, and Cotton.

Advantages and Disadvantages of organic fertilizers

Advantages Disadvantages
 Generally require large amounts to have desired
 Organic fertilizers mobilize existing soil nutrients, so that
effects.
good growth achieved with lower nutrient densities while
 As a dilute source of nutrients when compared to
wasting less.
inorganic fertilizers, transporting large amount of
 They release nutrients at a slower, more consistent rate,
fertilizer incurs higher costs, especially with slurry
helping to avoid a boom-and-bust pattern.
and manure.
 They help to retain soil moisture, reducing the stress due
 The composition of organic fertilizers tends to be
to temporary moisture stress.
more complex and variable than a standardized
 They improve the soil structure.
inorganic product.
 They help to prevent topsoil erosion (responsible for
 Improperly-processed organic fertilizers may
desertification and the Dust bowl.
contain pathogens from plant or animal matter that

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  Organic fertilizers also have the advantage of avoiding are harmful to humans or plants. However, proper
certain problems associated with the regular heavy use of composting should remove them.
artificial fertilizers:  More labor is needed to compost organic fertilizer,
 The necessity of reapplying artificial fertilizers regularly increasing labor costs. Some of this cost is offset by
(and perhaps in increasing quantities) to maintain fertility. reduced cash purchase.
 Extensive runoff of soluble nitrogen and phosphorus  Unavailability of seed for green manures is one of
leading to eutrophication of bodies of water (which causes the major limitations.
fish kills).  Green manures must occupy land at a time when
 Costs are lower for if fertilizer is locally available. other food crops could be grown
 Organic fertilizer nutrient content, solubility, and nutrient
release rates are typically much lower than mineral
(inorganic) fertilizers.

METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

Fertilizers can be applied to soil before seeds are sown, at the time of planting and while the plants are growing.
Fertilizers can also be added to the hole when transplanting vegetables, flowers, trees, shrubs and other plant types.
The method of fertilizer application to be used is dependent upon the following factors:

i) Type of plant being fertilized

ii) Type of soil,
iii) Type of fertilizer, and
iv) Size of the area that needs fertilizing.

The following methods are adopted to apply fertilizers-

A) Application of fertilizer in solid form

1. Broadcasting: This type of application method basically refers to the spreading of the fertilizer uniformly over
the entire area. This is usually done with a spreader of some sort.

2. Band Placement: This is a method in which fertilizer is placed in a band about 5 cm to the sided of the plant.
Inserting or drilling or placing the fertilizer below the soil surface by means of any tool or implement at desired
depth to supply plant nutrients to crop before sowing or in the standing crop is called placement.

3. Drilling: This is a method where fertilizer is applied with a drill at the same time as the seed is sown.

4. Side Dressing: This is a method in which the fertilizer is placed either in a continuous band 4-5 cm deep near
the crop or in between the plants in a row.

B) Application of fertilizer in liquid form

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5. Foliar Application: This refers to the spraying on leaves of growing plants with suitable fertilizer solutions.
These solutions may be prepared in a low concentration to supply any one plant nutrient or a combination of
nutrients.

6. Starter Solutions: This is a method where solutions of fertilizers, generally consisting of N, P2O5, K2O in the
ratio of 1: 2: 1 and 1: 1: 2 are applied to young vegetable plants at the time of transplanting. These solutions are
known as 'Starter Solutions'. They are used in place of the watering that is usually given to help the plants to
establish. Only a small amount of fertilizer is applied as a starter solution.

7. Application through irrigation water (Fertigation): This is a method where fertilizers are allowed to dissolve
in the irrigation stream and the nutrients are carried into the soil in solution.

This saves the application cost and allows the utilization of relatively inexpensive waters.

Fertilizer Application and the Environment

Use of fertilizers has two major global effects on the environment.

1. Pollution of Drinking Water: The highly mobile nutrients such as nitrogen easily finds its way to
underground water and streams when added in large doses and repeated applications. It was found that
the amount absorbed by crops is about 50%, amount fixed in organic form by microbes is approximately
30%, amount lost through denitrification is 15% while the amount usually lost by leaching is 5%. Nitrogen
is lost by leaching in form of nitrate (NO-3) which in sub-soil could be reduced to nitrogen dioxide, NO2,
which in turn induces methaemoglobinemia in infants. There is also a risk of production of carcinogenic
nitrosamines from nitrates and nitrites. World Health Organization (WHO) does not allow to exceed
10ppm NO-3 – N so as to avoid nitrate poisoning.
2. Eutrophication and Fertilizers: Excess fertilizer – nutrients especially phosphates and nitrogen that find
their ways to lakes and rivers promote the growth of plants, animals and microbes in those lakes and
rivers. The result is usually oxygen deficiency, preponderance of anaerobic organisms, accumulation of
methane ethylene, hydrogen sulphide (H2S) which are toxic to aerobic organisms.

FERTILIZER CALCULATIONS

Like the numbering system for expressing an analysis of fertilizers, fertilizer recommendations are given in
kilograms of nutrient elements/ha in the order N.P.K. If only N is needed, the rate is given in kilograms of N Ha.
When the recommended rate of fertilizer is given, one must be able to weigh the exact amount of the appropriate
fertilizer material to be applied to each individual plot, bucket or pot.

Chemical Composition of Fertilizers

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The composition of a fertilizer element in a fertilizer formulation is expressed in percents. If ammonium sulphate
has an analysis of 21% N, it means that in every 100kg of ammonium sulphate there is 21kg of available nitrogen.
The analysis of most fertilizer materials available commercially is expressed by a numbering system showing the
percentage of composition of each element in the order N-P-K. These numbers are printed on the label of each
fertilizer container. Though the label is P and K in reality the percentage is expressed in terms of P2O5 and K2O.

The chemical composition of the common fertilizers is given below:

Sulphate of Ammonia (S/A) - 20 – 21%N

Urea (NH4)2SO4 - 24% S
CO (NH2)2 - 45 – 46%N
calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) - 25%N
Diammonium Phosphate - 21% N
Single Super Phosphate
Ca (H2PO4)2 H20 - 18.0, 21% Ca
CaS04 - 12% S
Super Phosphate double or triple - 45-50% P205
-
Ca (H2PO4)2 H20 -12 - 14% Ca, 12% S
Boronaced super phosphate (BSP) - 18.5% P205 2% Boron
Muriate of potash (MOP) - 60% K20
NPK 26-12-0 -26% N/+ 12% P205
NPK 20-20-0 - 20%N+20% P205
NPK 15-15-15 - 15%N+15%P2O5+15% K2O
NPK 27-13-13 – 27% N + 13% P205 + 13% K20.
The following procedures are adopted in calculating the various amounts of fertilizer material required.

Example 1a

How much of sulphate of ammonia is required for a top dressing of a gross experimental area of 500m 2. If the
dose is 30kg/ha N?

Solution: Recommendation is 30kg ha N. the % of N in sulphate of ammonia = 20. Quantity of ammonium

sulphate required for a hectare at the above recommendation is:

100/20 x 30 /1 = 150kg of ammonium sulphate/ha

Quantity required for 500m2 is: 100/20 x 30/1 x 500/10000 = 7.5 kg

Example 1b

How much of this fertilizer is required for a plot of 50m2?

Solution: Quantity required for 50m2 is 100/20 x 30/1 x 50/10000 =0.75kg or 750g.

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Example 1c

How much of this fertilizer is required for a pot containing 10kg of soil? Note 2,000,0000kg of soil is equivalent
to one hectare of land.

Solution: Quantity required for 10kg of soil 100/20 x 30/1 x 10/2,000,000 x 1000/1 = 0.75g

NUTRIENT CYCLE IN NATURAL ECOSYSTEM

Nutrient cycling describes the movement within and between the various biotic or abiotic entities in which
nutrients occur in the global environment.

Ecosystem nutrient balance is the net result of inputs minus outputs. Negative and positive balances are ultimately
unsustainable. The magnitude and duration of nutrient imbalance that can be tolerated is determined by an
ecosystem’s buffering capacity.

Input of nutrients to ecosystems occurs through five processes:

1. Weathering from geological sources generally produces relatively small quantities of nutrients over long
periods of time. The nature and composition of bedrock, in interaction with the climate, largely determines
the flux.
2. Atmospheric input of nutrients can occur through wet or dry deposition of elements previously released to the
atmosphere by fires (biomass or combustion of fossil fuels), intensive farming practices (such as pig farms or
cattle feedlots), and wind erosion.
3. Biological processes include the fixation of atmospheric C (CO2) through photosynthesis, and atmospheric N
(N2) through biological N fixation.
4. Nutrients can be released from the biomass of mobile organisms that enter an ecosystem and suffer mortality.
This also occurs through the lateral transfer of nutrients, primarily in water flows.
5. Direct anthropogenic inputs occur through fertilization practices used in intensive agriculture and through the
release of human sewage and livestock wastes.

BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION

Biological nitrogen fixation (BNF) is the process whereby atmospheric nitrogen (N=N) is reduced to ammonia in
the presence of nitrogenase. Nitrogenase is a biological catalyst found naturally only in certain microorganisms
such as the symbiotic Rhizobium and Frankia, or the free-living Azospirillum and Azotobacter.

Biological nitrogen fixation is brought about bath by free-living soil microorganisms and by symbiotic
associations of microorganisms with higher plants. Leguminous plants fix atmospheric nitrogen by working

76
symbiotically with special bacteria, rhizobia, which live in the root nodules. Rhizobia infect root hairs of the
leguminous plants and produce the nodules. The nodules become the home for bacteria where they obtain energy
from the host plant and take free nitrogen from the soil air and process it into combined nitrogen. In return, the
plant receives the fixed N from nodules and produces food and forage protein.

Mechanism of biological nitrogen fixation

The biochemical mechanism of N2 fixation can be written in simplified form as follows: nitrogenase

The above mechanism indicates that N2-fixing systems can thrive in soils poor in N. that they are a source of
proteins, and that they provide N for soil fertility. Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the source of energy necessary
for the cleavage and reduction of N2 into ammonia. In rhizobia, for instance, ATP results from oxidative
degradation of sugars and related molecules. These sugars are manufactured by the host-plant during
photosynthesis and transferred to the nodules.

Factors influencing nitrogen fixation

Biological factors

1. There has to be appropriate organism-host relationship or compatibility, because not all rhizobia can form
nodules in all legume roots.

2. The plant should be nutritionally healthy to carry out optimal photosynthesis so as to obtain enough carbon
for itself and the organism.

3. Infection by other organisms should be minimal, e.g. infection of roots by nematodes.

Chemical factors

1. High soil nitrogen content discourages nitrogen fixation.

2. Soil pH has a profound influence on the process, soil pH of 6 – 7.5 favour nitrogen fixation.

Physical factors

Aeration is important as most of the organisms involved are heterotrophic and aerobes. However, the presence of
oxygen could retard the process, since it is a reduction process.

The presence of a pigment called Legume hemoglobin salvages the problem by binding O2 thereby rendering it
inactive, to be released only when needed. A cross section of an active nodule is reddish brown due to the presence
of legume hemoglobin.

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Agronomic importance of nitrogen fixation

1. In symbiotic nitrogen fixation the organisms live inside plant root, nitrogen fixed is immediately
assimilated into products needed by plants such as amino acids, amines etc. In non-symbiotic fixation, the
nitrogen is fixed into soil and absorbed by plants.
2. When ploughed in as green manure or incorporated as crop residues, the nitrogen synthesized into organic
N can be mineralized as nitrates and be of benefit to crops that will be subsequently grown in the soil.
3. In mixed cropping, when legumes and non-legumes are grown in mixture, the non-legume benefit from
nitrogen fixed by legumes.
4. Nitrogen fixation is so important that where it is suspected that the appropriate strains of rhizobia are not
present in the soil, legume seeds are inoculated with such strains.

EUTROPHICATION

Eutrophication is the process by which a body of water acquires a high concentration of nutrients, especially
phosphates and nitrates. These typically promote excessive growth of algae which is called “Algal Bloom”. As
the algae die and decompose, high levels of organic matter and the decomposing organisms deplete the water of
available oxygen, causing the death of other organisms, such as fish.

Eutrophication, naturally is both prominent in fresh water bodies like lakes & rivers and large salt water bodies
like seas & oceans. Lakes and rivers generally experience Eutrophication because of increased phosphorous levels
and Seas & oceans because of increased Nitrogen levels.

Lakes: Classified based on the nutrient content present in them and production of organic matter:

1. Oligotrophic- Less nutrients- In low nutrient medium, life is also less

2. Mesotrophic - Not many nutrients and not very less nutrients
3. Eutrophic- High nutrients- some lakes naturally have higher contents of nutrients

In some water bodies, waste released from the living entities present inside them, rain water, atmospheric nitrogen
etc., add to the excess nutrients that constitute Eutrophication.

Takes a long time for the water body to get polluted to a considerable extent. Factors like availability of light and
other resources too influences the growth of unnecessary algae and other organisms that are responsible for
Eutrophication-only if it is a long natural process. But because of Human interference and the extent of pollution
that is going on now, it would take less than a century for even a large body to get succumbed to Eutrophication.

Cultural Eutrophication

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Eutrophication by human interference where large amounts of pollutants are released into water because of
societies. Release of pollutants into water which increase the nutrient concentration. Many ways:

1. Sewage disposal in water

2. Industrial waste disposal in water
3. Fertilizers and pesticides dissolved in water being channelized into water bodies
4. Organic fertilizers too can cause Eutrophication
5. Dissolution of pollutant particles on surface in rain water and flowing into water bodies

Eutrophication can occur naturally. It is considered as a natural ageing process of the water body but human
interference has paced up the degradation process. The natural process is called “Natural Eutrophication”

Steps in the process

The process of Eutrophication can be roughly divided into the following steps based on the progress of process:
1. Addition of nutrients 6. Suffocation and death of living entities,
2. Growth of plants/algae Sedimentation because of excess
3. Death of plants/algae waste(Detritus)
4. Growth of bacteria 7. Death of the water body and eventual drying of
5. Lack of Oxygen and other unfavorable land
conditions for existing living entities

Effects

• Because of algal bloom, sunlight cannot enter into the depths of the water body which makes plants unable
to live. Decrease in O2 levels occurs resulting in the eventual death of living organisms inside. During
this process of death of living organisms inside, more oxygen is consumed during the decomposition
process.
• Increased biomass like phytoplankton in water
• Decrease in harvestable fish and shell fish
• Increase in turbidity of water
• Loss of aesthetic value of water body

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