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Sophie Goldie
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Contents
I ntroduction
How to use this book
The Cambridge International AS & A Level
Further Mathematics 9231 syllabus

1 Matrices and transformations

2 Series and induction

3 Roots of polynomials

4 Rational functions and graphs

5 Polar coordinates

6 Matrices and their inverses

7 Vectors
 nswers
A
Index

Cover photo © Shutterstock/Dmitry Zimin

 1 Matrices and
transformations
1 MATRICESANDTRANSFORMATIONS

As for
everything
else, so for a
mathematical
theory – beauty
can be
perceived but
not explained.
Arthur Cayley
1883

© ironstuff - iStock via Thinkstock/Getty Images

UK

Philippines

Singapore

New Zealand
Australia

▲ Figure 1.1 Direct flights between countries by one airline.

?
Figure 1.1 shows some of the direct flights between countries by one airline.
How many direct flights are there from Singapore to Australia? What
about Australia to New Zealand? The UK to the Philippines?

1
1.1 Matrices
You can represent the number of direct flights between pairs of countries
(shown in Figure 1.1) as an array of numbers like this:
1
A N P S U
A 0 1 0 4 0
N 1 0 0 2 0
P 0 0 0 1 0

1.1 Matrices
S 4 2 1 0 2
U 0 0 0 2 0

The array is called a matrix (plural ‘matrices’) and is usually written inside
curved brackets:
 0 1 0 4 0 
 1 0 0 2 0 
 
 0 0 0 1 0 
 4 2 1 0 2 
 0 0 0 2 0 

It is usual to represent matrices by capital letters, often in bold print.

A matrix consists of rows and columns, and the entries in the cells are known
as elements.
 0 1 0 4 0 
 1 0 0 2 0 
 
The matrix M =  0 0 0 1 0  representing the flights between the
 4 2 1 0 2 
 0 0 0 2 0 

counties has 25 elements, arranged in 5 rows and 5 columns. M is described

as a 5 × 5 matrix, and this is the order of the matrix.You state the number
of rows first then the number of columns. So, for example, the matrix
 4 −4 
 3 −1 4 
M= is a 2 × 3 matrix and N =  3 4  is a 3 × 2 matrix.
 2 0 5   
 0 −2 

Special matrices
Some matrices are described by special names which relate to the number of
rows and columns or the nature of the elements.
 3 5 1 
Matrices such as  4 2  and  2 0 −4  which have the same number
 1 0   
 1 7 3 
of rows as columns are called square matrices.
2
  1 0 

1
The matrix  is called the 2 × 2 identity matrix or unit matrix,
 0 1 

 1 0 0 
and similarly  0 1 0  is called the 3 × 3 identity matrix. Identity
 
 0 0 1 
matrices must be square, and are usually denoted by I.
 0 0 
1 MATRICESANDTRANSFORMATIONS

The matrix O =  is called the 2 × 2 zero matrix. Zero matrices can

 0 0 
be of any order.
Two matrices are said to be equal if and only if they have the same order
and each element in one matrix is equal to the corresponding element in the
other matrix. So, for example, the matrices A and D below are equal, but B
and C are not equal to any of the other matrices.

 1 3   1 2   1 3 0   1 3 
A= B=  C=  D=
 2 4   3 4   2 4 0   2 4 

Working with matrices

Matrices can be added or subtracted if they are of the same order.
 2 4 0   1 −1 4   3 3 4  Add the elements
 −1 3 5  +  2 0 −5  =  1 3 0  in corresponding
positions.
 2 −3   7 −3   −5 0 
 4 1  −  −1 2  =  5 −1 
Subtract the elements in
corresponding positions.

 2 4 0   2 −3 
But  + cannot be evaluated because the matrices
 −1 3 5   4 1 
are not of the same order. These matrices are non-conformable for addition.
You can also multiply a matrix by a scalar number:
 3 −4   6 −8  Multiply each of
2 = the elements by 2.
 0 6   0 12 

TECHNOLOGY NOTE
You can use a calculator to add and subtract matrices of the same order
and to multiply a matrix by a number. If you have a calculator that can
handle matrices, find out:
● the method for inputting matrices

● how to add and subtract matrices

● how to multiply a matrix by a number for matrices of varying sizes.

3
 Associativity and commutativity
When working with numbers the properties of associativity and
commutativity are often used. 1
Associativity
Addition of numbers is associative.
(3 + 5) + 8 = 3 + (5 + 8)
When you add numbers, it does not matter how the numbers are grouped, the

1.1 Matrices
answer will be the same.

Commutativity
Addition of numbers is commutative.
4+5=5+4

When you add numbers, the order of the numbers can be reversed and the
answer will still be the same.

?
❯ Give examples to show that subtraction of numbers is not
commutative or associative.
❯ Are matrix addition and matrix subtraction associative and/or
commutative?

Exercise 1A 1 Write down the orders of these matrices.

 2 4   0 8 4 
(i)  6 0  (ii)  –2 –3 1  (iii) ( 7 –3 )
   
 –3 7   5 3 –2 
 1 
 2   
 2 –6 4 8 5

(iv)  3 

(v) 9  (vi)  –2 
 5 10 11 –4  0
 4   
 3 –9 
 5 
2 For the matrices
 2 –3   7 –3   3 5 –9   0 –4 5 
A =  B =  C =  D =
 0 4   1 4   2 1 4   2 1 8 
 1 
 7 –3   3 5 –9   0 –4 5   –3 5 
= C = D = E=  F=  3 
 1 4   2 1 4   2 1 8   –2 7   
 5 

4
 find, where possible

1 (i) A – E
(iv) F + D
(ii)
(v)
C+D
D–C
(iii) E + A – B
(vi) 4F
(vii) 3C + 2D (viii) B + 2F (ix) E – (2B – A)
3 The diagram in Figure 1.2 shows the number of ferry crossings on one
day offered by a ferry company between islands P, Q, R and S.
The same information is also given in the partly-completed matrix X.
2
Q
1 MATRICESANDTRANSFORMATIONS

P 1
To
2 P Q R S

( )
1
2 From P 0 2 1 0
1 Q 1
1
X=
R
S 1
R S

2
▲ Figure 1.2

(i) Copy and complete the matrix X.

A second ferry company also offers ferry crossings between these four
islands. The following matrix represents the total number of ferry
crossings offered by the two ferry companies.

 0 2 3 2 
 2 0 2 1 
 
 2 2 0 3 
 1 0 3 0 

(ii) Find the matrix Y representing the ferry crossings offered by the
second ferry company.
(iii) Draw a diagram similar to the one in Figure 1.2, showing the ferry
crossings offered by the second ferry company.
4 Find the values of w, x, y and z such that
 3 w   2 −1   −9 8 
.
 −1 4  + x  y z  =  11 −8 
 
5 Find the possible values of p and q such that
 p2 −3   5 p −2   6 −1  .
  − =
 2 9   −7 q 2   9 4 

5
M 6 Four local football teams took part in a competition in which they each

1
played each other twice, once at home and once away. Figure 1.3 shows
the results matrix after half of the games had been played.
Goals Goals
Win Draw Lose for against

( )
Star 2 1 0 6 3
Cougars 0 0 3 2 8
Town 2 0 1 4 3
United 1 1 1 5 3

1.1 Matrices
▲ Figure 1.3

(i) The results of the next three matches are as follows:

Star 2 Cougars 0
Town 3 United 3
Star 2 Town 4
Find the results matrix for these three matches and hence find the
complete results matrix for all the matches so far.
(ii) Here is the complete results matrix for the whole competition.

 4 1 1 12 8 
 1 1 4 5 12 
 
 3 1 2 12 10 
 1 3 2 10 9 

Find the results matrix for the last three matches (Star vs United,
Cougars vs Town and Cougars vs United) and deduce the result of
each of these three matches.
M 7 A mail-order clothing company stocks a jacket in three different sizes
and four different colours.
 17 8 10 15 
The matrix P =  6 12 19 3  represents the number of jackets in
 
 24 10 11 6 
stock at the start of one week.
 2 5 3 0 
The matrix Q =  1 3 4 6  represents the number of orders for
 
 5 0 2 3 
jackets received during the week.
(i) Find the matrix P – Q.
What does this matrix represent? What does the negative element
in the matrix mean?

6
 A delivery of jackets is received from the manufacturers during the week.

1  5 10 10 5 
The matrix R =  10 10 5 15  shows the number of jackets received.
 
 0 0 5 5 
(ii) Find the matrix which represents the number of jackets in stock at
the end of the week after all the orders have been dispatched.
(iii) Assuming that this week is typical, find the matrix which
represents sales of jackets over a six-week period. How realistic is
1 MATRICESANDTRANSFORMATIONS

this assumption?

1.2 Multiplication of matrices

When you multiply two matrices you do not just multiply corresponding
terms. Instead you follow a slightly more complicated procedure. The following
example will help you to understand the rationale for the way it is done.
There are four ways of scoring points in rugby: a try (five points), a
conversion (two points), a penalty (three points) and a drop goal (three
points). In a match against Japan, Tonga scored three tries, one conversion,
two penalties and one drop goal.
So their score was
3 × 5 + 1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 1 × 3 = 26.
You can write this information using matrices.The tries, conversions, penalties
and drop goals that Tonga scored are written as the 1 × 4 row matrix (3 1 2 1)
and the points for the different methods of scoring as the 4 × 1 column
 5 
 
matrix  2  .
 3 
 3 

These are combined to give the 1 × 1 matrix

( 3 × 5 + 1 × 2 + 2 × 3 + 1 × 3 ) = (26).
Combining matrices in this way is called matrix multiplication and this
 5 
 2 
example is written as (3 1 2 1) ×   = (26).
 3 
 3 

The use of matrices can be extended to include the points scored by the
other team, Japan. They scored two tries, two conversions, four penalties and
one drop goal. This information can be written together with Tonga’s scores
as a 2 × 4 matrix, with one row for Tonga and the other for Japan.

7
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SAMPLE MATERIAL
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Cambridge
International AS & A Level

Further
Mathematics
Further Pure
Mathematics 2
Jean-Paul Muscat
Rose Jewell
Series editor: Roger Porkess
Help students to deepen their mathematical understanding with
our series for the latest Cambridge International AS & A Level
Further Mathematics syllabus (9231).
Student and Whiteboard eTextbook editions are available to
accompany each textbook.
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March 2018 April 2018 March 2018
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Mathematics 1
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Contents
I ntroduction
How to use this book
The Cambridge International AS & A Level
Further Mathematics 9231 syllabus

1 Hyperbolic functions

2 Matrices

3 Differentiation

4 Integration

5 Complex numbers

6 Differential equations
 nswers
A
Index

Cover photo © Shutterstock/Comaniciu Dan

 5 Complex numbers

x2 x3 x4 xr
5 COMPLEXNUMBERS

ex = 1 + x + + + +…+ +…
2! 3! 4! r!
It can be shown Replacing x by iθ in the expansion e x gives:
that this series
expansion is also ( iθ ) 2 ( iθ ) 3 ( iθ )4 ( iθ )5 ( iθ )6
e iθ = 1 + iθ + + + + + +…
true for complex 2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
powers.
   = 1 + iθ + i θ + i θ + i θ + i θ + i θ + …
2 2 3 3 4 4 5 5 6 6

2! 3! 4! 5! 6!
= 1 + iθ −
θ − iθ + θ + iθ − θ + …
2 3 4 5 6

2! 3! 4! 5! 6!

( ) ( )
Collecting together
= 1−
θ + θ − θ + … + i θ  − θ 3  + θ 5 − …
2 4 6
real and imaginary
terms.
2! 4! 6! 3! 5!
Therefore:
Using the series e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ
expansions for
cos θ and sin θ.
and so:
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ )
This is called the exponential
can be rewritten as: form of a complex number with
z = re iθ modulus r and argument θ.
This format is simply a more compact way of writing familiar expressions, as
the modulus-argument form z = r(cos θ + i sin θ ) can now be abbreviated to
z = reiθ.
This form allows you to derive de Moivre’s theorem very easily for all
rational n by using the laws of indices:
(cos θ + i sin θ )n = (e iθ )n
= e inθ
= cos(nθ ) + i sin(nθ )

1
 Example 5.12
(
π π
)
Write z = 6 cos 6 + i sin 6 in the form re iθ.
5
(i)
(ii) Write z = −1 + 3i in the form re iθ.

Solution
(i) ( 6
iπ
6 )
z = 6 cos π + i sin π has modulus 6 and argument π .
6
Therefore z = 6e .6

2π
(ii) z = −1 + 3i has modulus 2 and argument 3 .

5.3 The form z = reiθ

2iπ
Therefore z = 2e 3 .

?
❯ How would the result: z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) = re be adapted for a
iθ

complex number of the form: r (cos θ − i sin θ ) where −π < θ  π ?

In the discussion point above, you should have noticed that since:
cos ( −θ ) = cos θ and sin ( −θ ) = − sin θ
then:
r (cos θ − i sin θ ) = r (cos ( −θ ) + i sin ( −θ ))
Therefore:
r (cos θ − i sin θ ) = re − iθ

ACTIVITY 5.7
For a complex number z = x + iy, show that:
(i) e z = e x (cos y + i sin y )
(ii) e z + 2πni = e z
(iii) e iπ = −1

The results in Activity 5.7 are useful when simplifying results involving
exponential functions with complex exponents. Part (iii) is often written in
the form e iπ + 1 = 0 which is a remarkable result that links the five numbers
0, 1, i, e and π.
Notice that these The results from Activity 5.7 also give rise to two very interesting
expressions for mathematical results that are useful when working with complex numbers:
cos θ and sin θ
are very similar cos θ = 1 ( e iθ + e − iθ )
2
to the defi nitions
of the hyperbolic sin θ = 1 ( e iθ − e − iθ )
functions cosh θ 2i
and sinh θ. To prove these results, you can use:
e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ (1)
2
 and:

5 e − iθ = cos θ − i sin θ
Finding (1) + (2) gives:
(2)

e iθ + e − iθ = 2 cos θ
so:
cos θ = 1 ( e iθ + e − iθ )
2
Similarly, finding (1) – (2) gives:
5 COMPLEXNUMBERS

e iθ − e − iθ = 2i sin θ
so:
sin θ = 1 ( e iθ − e − iθ )
2i
You need to learn the proofs of these results.

Prior knowledge
You need to be familiar with geometric sequences and series, including
fi nding the sum to n terms and the sum to infi nity of a geometric series.

Summing series using de Moivre’s theorem

This section shows how complex numbers can be used to evaluate certain
sums of real quantities. It may be possible to do these summations without
using complex numbers, for example by induction if you already know the
answer, but this is a lot more difficult.
Sometimes it is worth setting out to do more than is actually required, as
shown in the next example.

Example 5.13 (i) Prove that:

1 + e iθ = 2 cos θ  e 2
iθ

2
and:

1 − e iθ = −2i sin θ  e 2
iθ

2
(ii) Show that the sum of the series:
1 + n C1 cos θ + n C 2 cos 2 θ + n C 3 cos 3θ + … + cos n θ

is:
2 n cos n θ cos θ
n
2 2

3
 Solution
(i)
iθ
The factor e 2 on the right-hand side suggests writing each term
on the left-hand side as a multiple of e 2 .
iθ
5
iθ − iθ
1= e2 ×e 2

iθ iθ
e iθ = e 2 × e 2

So: 1 + e iθ =  e 2 × e 2  +    e 2 × e 2 
iθ − iθ iθ iθ

   

5.3 The form z = reiθ

= e 2 e 2 + e 2 
iθ − iθ iθ iθ
Taking out a factor of e 2 .
 

= e 2 × 2 cos θ
iθ Using the earlier result
1
2 cos θ = ( e iθ + e − iθ ).
2

Similarly,

1 − e iθ =  e 2 × e 2  −    e 2 × e 2 
iθ − iθ iθ iθ

   

= e 2 e 2 − e 2 
iθ − iθ iθ

 
Using the earlier result
× −2i sin θ
iθ 1
=e 2 sin θ = ( e i θ − e − i θ ) .
2 2i

(ii) At first sight this series seems to suggest the binomial expansion
(1 + cos θ ) n . The binomial coefficients 1, ( n1),( n2 ), …,1 are correct,
but there are multiple angles, cos rθ, instead of powers of cosines,
cos rθ. This suggests that de Moivre’s theorem can be used.
The method involves introducing a corresponding sine series too.
Let: C = 1 + ( n1 )cos θ + ( n2 )cos 2θ + ( n3 )cos 3θ + … + cos nθ
and: S = ( n1 )sin θ + ( n2 )sin 2θ + ( n3 )sin 3θ + … + sin nθ
Then
C + iS = 1 + ( n1 )(cos θ + i sin θ ) + ( n2 )(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ ) + … + (cos nθ + i sin nθ )
iS = 1 + ( n1 )(cos θ + i sin θ ) + ( n2 )(cos 2θ + i sin 2θ ) + … + (cos nθ + i sin nθ ) Using de Moivre’s
= 1 + ( n1 )e iθ + ( n2 )e i2θ + … + e inθ theorem and
the fact that
= 1 + ( n1 )e iθ + ( n2 ) (e iθ ) 2 + … + (e iθ ) n e irθ = ( e iθ ) .
r

This is now recognisable as a binomial expansion, so that:

C + iS = (1 + e iθ )
n

To find C you need to find the real part of (1 + e iθ ) and here the
n

results from part (i) are useful. Using the result:

1 + e iθ = 2 cos θ  e 2
iθ

2
4
 g ives:

5 (
C + iS = (1 + e iθ ) = 2 cos θ  e 2
n
2
iθ n
)
= 2 n cos n θ e 2
inθ

2 (
= 2 n cos n θ cos nθ + i sin nθ
2 2 )
Taking the real part:
5 COMPLEXNUMBERS

C = 2 n cos n θ cos nθ
2 2

ACTIVITY 5.8
For Example 5.13, state the corresponding result obtained by equating the
imaginary parts.

Exercise 5D 1 Write the following complex numbers in the form z = re iθ where

−π < θ < π .

(
π
(i) 4 cos + i sin
3
π
3 )
(ii) 3 cos − ( ( )
5π
6
+ i sin −
5π
6 ( ))
(iii) −5i
(iv) −3 − 3i
(v) 3−i
2 Write the following complex numbers in the form x + yi:
3π 3π 23π i
(i) 5e iπ (ii) 2e 4 i (iii) 2e − 4 i (iv) 5e 4

i 3π π
Two complex numbers are given by z = 2e 4 and w = 3e 3 .
i
3
z
Find zw and giving your answers in the form z = re iθ , where r > 0
w
and − π < θ ≤ π .
4 (i) Write the complex number w = 32i in exponential form.
(ii) Find the five fifth roots of w, giving your answers in exponential form.

CP 5 Let:
C = 1 + cos θ + cos 2θ + … + cos (n − 1)θ
and:
S = sin θ + sin 2θ + … + sin (n − 1)θ
(i) Find C + iS and show that this forms a geometric series with
common ratio eiθ

5
 Show that the sum of the series in part (i) is 1 − e iθ
in θ
(ii)

5
1− e
(iii) By multiplying the numerator and denominator of this sum by 1 − e − iθ,
show that:
1 − cos θ + cos (n − 1)θ − cos nθ
C=
2 − 2 cos θ
and find S.
CP 6 (i) Show that 1 + e i2θ = 2 cos θ (cos θ + i sin θ ).
(ii) The series C and S are defined as follows.

5.3 The form z = reiθ

 n   n 
C = 1+   cos 2θ +  cos 4θ + …cos 2nθ
 1   2 
 n   n 
S=  sin 2θ +  sin 4θ + … sin 2nθ
 1   2 
By considering C + iS, show that:
C = 2 n cos n θ cos nθ
and find a corresponding expression for S.
CP 7 (i) Use de Moivre’s theorem to find the constants a, b, c in the identity
cos 5θ ≡ a cos 5 θ + b cos 3 θ + c cos θ .
(ii) Let:

( ) ( 
)
C = cos θ + cos θ + 2π + cos θ + 4π + …cos  θ +
n n 
( 2n − 2 ) π 
n 
and:

( ) ( ) 
S = sin θ + sin θ + 2π + sin θ + 4π + … sin  θ +
n n 
( 2n − 2 ) π 
n 

where n is an integer greater than 1.

Show that C + iS forms a geometric series and hence show that C = 0,
S = 0.
CP 8 Use the result e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ to prove that
e z∗ = (e z )
∗

for all complex numbers z = a + b.

CP 9 ∫ ∫
Let C = e 3 x cos 2x  dx  and S = e 3 x sin 2x  dx.
(i) Find C and S by using integration by parts twice.
e ( 3+ 2i)x + A
(ii) (a) Show that C + iS = where A is a constant.
3 + 2i
(b) Hence verify your answers for C and S from part (i).

6
 CP 10 The infinite series C and S are defined as follows:

5
cos θ cos 2θ cos 3θ cos 4θ
C= − + − +…
2 4 8 16
S = sin θ − sin 2θ + sin 3θ − sin 4θ + …
2 4 8 16
2e iθ + 1
Show that C + iS = and hence find expressions for C and S in
5 + 4 cos θ
terms of cos θ and sin θ.
5 COMPLEXNUMBERS

KEY POINTS
1 The modulus r of z = x + iy is z = x 2 + y 2 . This is the distance of
the point z from the origin on the Argand diagram.
2 The argument of z is the angle θ, measured in radians, between the
line connecting the origin and the point z and the positive real axis.
3 The principal argument of z,arg z, is the angle θ, measured in radians,
for which − π < θ ≤ π, between the line connecting the origin and
the point z and the positive real axis.
4 For a complex number z,  zz * = z 2.
5 The modulus-argument form of z is z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ), where r = z
and θ = arg z. This is often written as ( r , θ )
6 Multiplication in polar form: multiply the moduli and add the
arguments z 1z 2 = r1r2 [cos (θ 1 + θ 2 ) + i sin (θ 1 + θ 2 )]
7 Division in polar form: divide the moduli and subtract the arguments
z 1 r1
= [cos (θ 1 − θ 2 ) + i sin (θ 1 − θ 2 )]
z 2 r2
8 Geometrically, to obtain the vector z 1z 2 enlarge the vector z 2 by the
scale factor z 1 and rotate it through arg ( z 1 ) anticlockwise about O.
9 de Moivre’s theorem: (cosθ + i sinθ )n = cosnθ + i sinnθ, where n is
rational.
z n +   z −n z n − z −n
10 If z = cos θ + i sin θ then cos nθ = and sin nθ =
2 2i
e +  e
iθ − iθ e −  e θ
iθ − i
11 e iθ = cos θ + i sin θ ⇒ cos θ = 2 and sin θ = 2i
12 The n roots of unity can be written as 1, ω , ω , …, ω , where
th 2 n − 1

ω = cos 2π + i sin 2π
n n
13 The sum of all the nth roots of unity is zero: 1 +  ω +  ω 2 +  …, +  ω n −1 = 0
14 The non-zero complex number r (cos θ + i sin θ ) has precisely n

where k = 0, 1, 2, …, n − 1
1
different nth roots, which are r n cos ( ( n ) (
θ + 2kπ + i sin  θ + 2kπ ,
n ))
These roots can also be written as α , αω , αω 2 , …, αω n −1 ,
1
( n n )
where α = r n cos θ + i sin θ   and ω = cos
2π + sin  2π
n n
7
15 The exponential form of a complex number is
z = r (cos θ + i sin θ ) = re iθ
For a complex number z = x + iy this can be written as
5
e z = e x (cos y + i sin  y )
16 For a complex number in exponential form e z + 2πni = e z
17 For the complex number z = r (cos θ + i sin θ )
1
cos θ = 1 ( e iθ + e − iθ ) and sin θ = 2i ( e iθ − e − iθ )
2

5.3 The form z = reiθ

LEARNING OUTCOMES
When you have finished this chapter, you should be able to
■ understand the geometrical effect of multiplication and division of
complex numbers
■ prove de Moivre’s theorem for a positive integer number

■ use de Moivre’s theorem

■ to express trigonometrical ratios of multiple angles in terms of

powers of trigonometrical ratios of the original angle
■ to express powers of sin θ and cos θ in terms of multiple angles

■ in the summation of series

■ in finding the nth roots of unity.

8
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Contents
I ntroduction
How to use this book
The Cambridge International AS & A Level
Further Mathematics 9231 syllabus

1 Motion of a projectile

2 Moments of forces

3 Centre of mass

4 Circular motion

5 Hooke’s law

6 Linear motion under a variable force

7 Momentum
 nswers
A
Index

Cover photo © Shutterstock/Arm Emer

 1 Motion of a projectile
1 MOTIONOFAPROJECTILE

Swift of foot
was Hiawatha;
He could shoot
an arrow from
him, And run
forward with
such fleetness,
That the arrow
fell behind
him! Strong
of arm was
Hiawatha; He
could shoot
ten arrows
upwards, Shoot
them with
such strength
and swiftness,
That the last © photo7/123RF
had left the
bowstring, Look at the water jets in the photograph Every drop of water in a water jet
Ere the first follows a path which is called its trajectory.You can see the same sort of
to earth had trajectory if you throw a small object across a room. Its path is a parabola.
fallen! Objects moving through the air like this are called projectiles.
The Song of
Hiawatha, Modelling assumptions for projectile motion
Longfellow
The path of a cricket ball looks parabolic, but what about a boomerang?
There are modelling assumptions which must be satisfied for the motion to
be parabolic. These are
» a projectile is a particle
» it is not powered
» the air has no effect on its motion.

1
1.1 Equations for projectile • The horizontal

motion
distance
travelled is
small enough
1
A projectile moves in two dimensions under the action to assume
that gravity is
of only one force, the force of gravity, which is constant
always acting
and acts vertically downwards. in the same
This means that the acceleration of the projectile is direction.
g m s−2 vertically downwards and there is no horizontal • The vertical
acceleration.You can treat the horizontal and vertical distance

1.1 Equations for projectile motion

motion separately using the equations for constant travelled is
small enough
acceleration.
to assume
that gravity is
constant.

Note
The value of g varies around the world from 9.766 m s−2 in Kuala Lumpur to
9.825 m s−2 in Oslo. A value of 10 m s−2 is used in this book.

To illustrate the ideas involved, think of a ball being projected with a speed of
20 m s−1 at 60° to the ground as illustrated in Figure 1.1.This could be a first
model for a football, a chip shot from the rough at golf or a lofted shot at cricket.

acceleration 20
height
y (m)
15 10 m s –2
60°

10 20 m s–1

20 sin 60°
5

60°
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 x (m) 20 cos 60°
horizontal distance

▲ Figure 1.1
Using axes as shown, the components are:
This is negative because the
positive y axis is upwards.
Horizontal Vertical
Initial position 0 0
as vectors
Acceleration ax = 0 ay = −10
Initial velocity ux = 20 cos 60° uy = 20 sin 60°  0
a = 
 –10 
= 10 = 17.32
 20 cos 60°
u = 
 20 sin 60° 
2
 Using v = u + at in the two directions gives the components of velocity.

1 Velocity
ax = 0 ⇒ vx
Horizontal
vx = 20 cos 60°
Vertical
vy = 20 sin 60° − 10t        10
v = 
 17.32 – 10t


is constant vx = 10 
1 vy = 17.32 − 10t 
2

Using s = ut + 1at2 in both directions gives the components of position.

2
Position Horizontal Vertical
x = (20 cos 60°)t y = (20 sin 60°)t − 5t 2
x = 10t y = 17.32t − 5t 2
1 MOTIONOFAPROJECTILE

3 
4

       10t 
r =  2 
You can summarise these results in a table.  17.32 t – 5t 

Horizontal motion Vertical motion

initial position 0 0
a ax = 0 ay = −10
u ux = 20 cos 60° = 10 uy = 20 sin 60° = 17.32
v vx = 10 
1 vy = 17.32 − 10t 
2

r x = 10t 
3 y = 17.32t − 5t 2 
4

▲ Table 1.1
The four equations  1 ,2 ,
3 and 
4 for velocity and position can be used to
find several things about the motion of the ball.
?
1 What can you say about the values of the variables x, y, vx and vy in
the table above when the projectile is at
(i) the top-most point of the path of the ball?
(ii) the point where it is just about to hit the ground?
2 What about the other four quantities in the table – ax, ay, ux, and uy?

When you have decided the answer to these questions you have sufficient
information to find the greatest height reached by the ball, the time of flight and
the range (the total distance travelled horizontally before it hits the ground).

The maximum height

When the ball is at its maximum height,
no vertical velocity
H m, the vertical component of its y
velocity is zero. It still has a horizontal
component of 10 m s−1 which is constant.
Equation  2 gives the vertical component as
H
vy = 17.32 − 10t
At the top: 0 = 17.32 − 10t
17.32 O x
t = 10
3 ▲ Figure 1.2
= 1.732
 To find the maximum height, you now need to find y at this time.

1
Substituting for t in equation 
4,

y = 17.32 × 1.732 − 5 × 1.7322

= 15
The maximum height is 15 m.

The time of flight

The flight ends when the ball returns to the ground, that is when y = 0.

1.1 Equations for projectile motion

Substituting y = 0 in equation 
4,

y = 17.32t – 5t 2
0 = 17.32t – 5t2
0 = t(17.32 – 5t)
t = 0 or t = 3.46
Clearly t = 0 is the time when the ball is projected, so t = 3.46 is the time
when it lands and the flight time is 3.46 s.

The range y
The range, R m, of the ball
is the horizontal distance it
travels before landing. y = 0, x = R
R is the value of x when y = 0.
O x
R

▲ Figure 1.3
3 : x = 10t. The range is
R can be found by substituting t = 3.46 in equation 
10 × 3.46 = 34.6 m.

?
1 Notice in this example that the time to maximum height is half the
flight time. Is this always the case?
2 Decide which of the following could be modelled as projectiles:
a balloon a bird a glider a cannonball
a golf ball a parachutist a rocket a tennis ball
What special conditions would have to apply in particular cases?

Exercise 1A In this exercise take upwards as positive. All the projectiles start at the origin.
1 In each of the following cases you are given the initial velocity of a
projectile.
(i) 10 m s−1 at 35° above the horizontal.
(ii) 2 m s−1 horizontally, 5 m s−1 vertically.
(iii) 4 m s−1 horizontally.
4
 (iv) 10 m s−1 at 13° below the horizontal.

1 (v) U m s−1 at angle α above the horizontal.

(vi) u0 m s−1 horizontally, v0 m s−1 vertically.
(a) Draw a diagram showing the initial velocity and path.
(b) Write down the horizontal and vertical components of the
initial velocity.
(c) Write down equations for the velocity after time t seconds.
(d) Write down equations for the position after time t seconds.
1 MOTIONOFAPROJECTILE

2 In each of the following cases you are given the initial horizontal and
vertical velocities of a projectile.
(i) Initial velocity 5 m s−1 horizontally and 15 m s−1 vertically.
(ii) Initial velocity 10 m s−1 at 30° above the horizontal.
(a) What is the time taken for the projectile to reach its highest
point?
(b) What is the maximum height?
3 In each of the following cases you are given the initial horizontal and
vertical velocities of a projectile.
(i) Initial velocity 20 m s−1 horizontally and 20 m s−1 vertically.
(ii) Initial velocity 5 m s−1 at 60° above the horizontal.
(a) What is the time of flight of the projectile?
(b) What is the horizontal range?
 ux 
4 A ball is projected from ground level with initial velocity u =   . Find
 uy 
(i) the maximum height
(ii) the time of flight
(iii) the range.

1.2 Projectile problems

When doing projectile problems, you can treat each direction separately or you
can write them both together as vectors. Example 1.1 shows both methods.

Example 1.1 A ball is thrown horizontally at 5 m s−1 out of a window 4 m above the
ground.
(i) How long does it take to reach the ground?
(ii) How far from the building does it land?
(iii) What is its speed just before it lands and at what angle to the
ground is it moving?

5
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 This resource is endorsed by
Cambridge Assessment International Education
✓ S upports the full AS & A Level Further
Mathematics syllabus (9231) for
examination from 2020
Take mathematical understanding to the next level
with this accessible series, written by experienced ✓ H as passed Cambridge International’s
rigorous quality-assurance process
authors, examiners and teachers.
» Improve confidence as a mathematician with
✓ Developed by subject experts
clear explanations, worked examples, diverse ✓ For Cambridge schools worldwide
activities and engaging discussion points.
This textbook has been written for the latest
» Advance problem-solving, interpretation and
Cambridge International AS & A Level Further
communication skills through a wealth of
Mathematics syllabus (9231).
questions that promote higher-order thinking.
» Prepare for further study or life beyond the We are working with Cambridge Assessment
classroom by applying mathematics to other International Education to gain endorsement for
subjects and modelling real-world situations. this forthcoming series.
» Reinforce learning with opportunities for digital For over 25 years we have king for ove
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been trusted by Cambridge
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Mechanics, including motion of a projectile, equilibrium
teaching and learning. For
of a rigid body, circular motion, Hooke’s law, linear
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Further
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Further Probability
and Statistics

John de Feu
Series editor: Roger Porkess
Help students to deepen their mathematical understanding with
our series for the latest Cambridge International AS & A Level
Further Mathematics syllabus (9231).
Student and Whiteboard eTextbook editions are available to
accompany each textbook.
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March 2018 April 2018 March 2018
Further Pure 9781510421783 9781510422025 9781510422032
Mathematics 1
Further Pure 9781510421790 9781510422063 9781510422070
Mathematics 2
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Mechanics
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Contents
Introduction
How to use this book
The Cambridge International AS & A Level
Further Mathematics 9231 syllabus

1 Continuous random variables

2 Inference using normal and t-distributions

3 Chi-squared tests

4 Non-parametric tests

5 Probability generating functions

 nswers
A
Index

Cover photo © Shutterstock/Ed Samuel

 3 Chi-squared tests
3 CHI-SQUAREDTESTS

The fact that

the criterion
which we
happen to
use has a
fine ancestry
of statistical
theorems does
not justify
its use. Such
justification
must come
from empirical
evidence that it
works.
W. A. Shewhart

© Chloe Johnson / Alamy

What kind of films do you enjoy?
To help it decide when to show trailers for future programmes, the
management of a cinema asks a sample of its customers to fill in a brief
questionnaire to indicate which type of film they enjoy. It wants to know
if there is any relationship between people’s enjoyment of horror films and
action movies.

?
How do you think the management should select the sample of customers?

3.1 The chi-squared test for a

contingency table
The management of the cinema takes 150 randomly selected questionnaires
and records whether those patrons enjoyed or did not enjoy horror films and
action movies.

1
 Observed frequency fo Enjoyed horror films Did not enjoy horror films
Enjoyed action movies
Did not enjoy action
movies
51

15
41

43
3
▲ Table 3.1

This method of presenting data is called a 2 × 2 contingency table. It

is used where two variables (here ‘attitude to horror films’ and ‘attitude to
action movies’) have been measured on a sample, and each variable can take

3.1 The chi-squared test for a contingency table

two different values (‘enjoy’ or ‘not enjoy’).

Note
You will meet larger contingency tables later in this chapter.

The values of the variables fall into one or other of two categories.You want
to determine the extent to which the variables are related.
It is conventional, and useful, to sum the row and column totals in a
contingency table: these are called the marginal totals of the table.

Enjoyed horror Did not enjoy

Observed frequency fo films horror films Total
Enjoyed action movies 51 41 92
Did not enjoy action movies 15 43 58
Total 66 84 150
▲ Table 3.2

A formal version of the cinema management’s question is, ‘Is enjoyment of

horror films independent of enjoyment of action movies?’.You can use the
sample data to investigate this question.
You can estimate the probability that a randomly chosen cinema-goer will
enjoy horror films as follows. The number of cinema-goers in the sample
who enjoyed horror films is 51 + 15 = 66.
So the proportion of cinema-goers who enjoyed Notice how you use
66 the marginal totals
horror films is . 66 and 92 which
150
In a similar way, you can estimate the probability were calculated
that a randomly chosen cinema-goer will enjoy action previously.
movies. The number of cinema-goers in the sample who
enjoyed action movies is 51 + 41 = 92.
So the proportion of cinema-goers who enjoyed action movies is 92 .
150
If people enjoyed horror films and action movies independently with the
probabilities you have just estimated, then you would expect to find that, for
instance,
the number of people enjoying both types
= 150 × P(a random person enjoying both types)
= 150 × P(enjoying horror) × P(enjoying action)
2
 = 150 × 66 × 92

3
150 150
= 6072
150
= 40.48
In the same way, you can calculate the number of people you would expect
to correspond to each cell in the table.
Expected
frequency fe Enjoyed horror films Did not enjoy horror films Total
3 CHI-SQUAREDTESTS

Enjoyed
action 150 × 66 × 92 = 40.48 150 × 84 × 92 = 51.52 92
150 150 150 150
movies
Did not
enjoy action 150 × 66 × 58 = 25.52 150 × 84 × 58 = 32.48 58
150 150 150 150
movies
Total 66 84 150
▲ Table 3.3

Note that it is an inevitable consequence of this calculation that these

expected figures have the same marginal totals as the sample data.
You are now in a position to test the original hypotheses, which you can
state formally as:
H0: enjoyment of the two types of film is independent.
H1: enjoyment of the two types of film is not independent.
The expected frequencies were calculated assuming the null hypothesis
is true.You know the actual sample frequencies and the aim is to decide
whether or not those from the sample are so different from those calculated
theoretically that the null hypothesis should be rejected.
A statistic that measures how far apart a set of observed frequencies is from
the set expected under the null hypothesis is the χ2 (chi-squared) statistic.
It is given by the formula:
(f − fe ) ( observed frequency − expected frequency )
2 2
o
X 2 =Σ =Σ
fe expected frequency

The χ 2 test statistic is denoted by X 2.

You can use this here: the observed and expected frequencies are summarised
below.
Did not Did not
Observed Enjoyed enjoy Expected Enjoyed enjoy
frequency fo horror horror frequency fe horror horror
Enjoyed Enjoyed
action 51 41 action 40.48 51.52
Did not enjoy Did not
action 15 43 enjoy action 25.52 32.48

3 ▲ Table 3.4
The χ2 statistic is:

(f − fe )
3
2
o
X 2 =Σ  
fe
( 51 − 40.48 ) 2 ( 41 − 51.52 ) 2 (15 − 25.52 ) 2 ( 43 − 32.48 ) 2
= + + +
40.48 51.52 25.52 32.48
(10.52 ) ( −10.52 ) ( −10.52 ) (10.52 )
2 2 2 2
= + + + = 12.626
40.48 51.52 25.52 32.48

3.1 The chi-squared test for a contingency table

Note that the four numerators in this calculation are equal.
This is not by chance: it will always happen with a 2 × 2
table. It provides you with a useful check and short cut
2
when you are working out X .

Following the usual hypothesis-testing methodology, you want to know

whether or not a value for this statistic at least as large as 12.626 is likely to
occur by chance when the null hypothesis is true. The critical value at the
10% significance level for this test statistic is 2.706.
Because 12.626 > 2.706, you reject the null hypothesis, You will see how to
H0, and conclude that people’s enjoyment of the two fi nd critical values
for a χ 2 test later
types of film is not independent or that the enjoyment in this chapter.
of the two is associated.
The diagram below shows you the relevant χ2 distribution for this example,
the critical region and the test statistic.

1 The critical region at the 10% level is shaded in grey.

0.8
The test statistic X 2 = 12.626 is inside the critical region.
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
X2

▲ Figure 3.1

Note
Notice that you cannot conclude that enjoying one type of fi lm causes people
to enjoy the other. The test is of whether enjoyment of the two types is
associated. It could be that a third factor, such as bloodthirstiness, causes
both, but you do not know. The test tells you nothing about causality.

4
 The chi-squared distribution
3 The χ2 distribution with n degrees of freedom is the distribution of the
sum of the squares of n independent standard normal random variables.
You can use it to test how well a set of data match
a given distribution. A number of examples of such The information
tests are covered in this chapter. about the χ2
These tests include that used in the example of the distribution is for
cinema-goers: that is, whether the two classifications your interest – you
do not need to use it
used in a contingency table are independent of one
3 CHI-SQUAREDTESTS

to carry out the tests

another. The hypotheses for such a test are: in this chapter.
H0: The two variables whose values are being A standard normal
measured are independent in the population. variable is drawn
H1: The two variables whose values are being from a normal
measured are not independent in the population. population with mean
0 and variance 1.
In order to carry out this test, you need to know more
about the χ 2 distribution.

Figure 3.1 is an example of a χ2 distribution. The shape of the χ2 distribution

curve depends on the number of free variables involved, the degrees of
freedom, υ. To find the value for υ in this case, you start off with the number
of cells which must be filled and then subtract one degree of freedom for
each restriction, derived from the data, which is placed on the frequencies. In
the cinema example, you are imposing the requirements that the total of the
frequencies must be 150, and that the overall proportions of people enjoying
horror films and action movies are 66  and  92 ,  respectively.
150 150
Hence υ = 4 (number of cells)
− 1 (total of frequencies is fixed by the data)
− 2 (proportions of people enjoying each type are estimated
from the data)
= 1.
So Figure 3.1 shows the shape of the χ2 distribution for 1 degree of freedom.
In general, for an m × n contingency table, the degrees of freedom is:
υ = m × n (number of cells)
− (m + n − 1) (row and column totals are fixed, but row totals
and column totals have the same sum.)
= mn − m − n + 1
= (m − 1)(n − 1).
As you will see later in the chapter, the calculation of the degrees of freedom
varies from one χ2 test to another.
Figure 3.2 shows the shape of the chi-squared distribution for υ = 1, 2, 3, 6
and 10 degrees of freedom.

Note
As you can see, the shape of the chi-squared distribution depends very much
on the number of degrees of freedom. So the critical region also depends on
5 the number of degrees of freedom.
 3
1

0.8

u=1
0.6 u=2
u=3

3.1 The chi-squared test for a contingency table

u=6
0.4
u = 10

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
X2
▲ Figure 3.2

You can see in Figure 3.3 a typical χ2 distribution curve together with the
critical region for a significance level of 1 – p. An extract from a table of
critical values of the χ2 distribution for various degrees of freedom is also
shown. The possible use of the left-hand tail probabilities (p = 0.01,
p = 0.025 etc.) is discussed later in this chapter.

Some typical critical values

of 1 – p are 0.1, 0.05, 0.025,
0.01 and 0.005.

1–p

0 X2

p 0.01 0.025 0.05 0.9 0.95 0.975 0.99 0.995 0.999

31571 39821
v=1 0.0 0.0 0.023932 2.706 3.841 5.024 6.635 7.879 10.83
2 0.02010 0.05064 0.1026 4.605 5.991 7.378 9.210 10.60 13.82
3 0.1148 0.2158 0.3518 6.251 7.815 9.348 11.34 12.84 16.27
4 0.2971 0.4844 0.7107 7.779 9.488 11.14 13.28 14.86 18.47
5 0.5543 0.8312 1.145 9.236 11.07 12.83 15.09 16.75 20.51
6 0.8721 1.237 1.635 10.64 12.59 14.45 16.81 18.55 22.46
7 1.239 1.690 2.167 12.02 14.07 16.01 18.48 20.28 24.32
8 1.647 2.180 2.733 13.36 15.51 17.53 20.09 21.95 26.12
9 2.088 2.700 3.325 14.68 16.92 19.02 21.67 23.59 27.88

▲ Figure 3.3 6
 Properties of the test statistic X 2
3 You have seen that the test statistic is given by
(f o − fe )
2

X = Σ
2
All classes fe
Here are some points to notice.
» It is clear that as the difference between the expected values and the
observed values increases then so will the value of this test statistic.
Squaring the top gives due weight to any particularly large differences. It
3 CHI-SQUAREDTESTS

also means that all values are positive.

» Dividing ( fe − fo)2 by fe has the effect of standardising that element,
allowing for the fact that the larger the expected frequency within a class,
the larger will be the difference between the observed and the expected.
» The usual convention in statistics is to use a Greek letter for a parent
population parameter and the corresponding Roman letter for the
equivalent sample statistic. Unfortunately, when it comes to χ2, there is no
Roman equivalent to the Greek letter χ since it translates into CH. Because
X looks rather like χ a sample statistic from a χ2 population is denoted by X 2.
(In the same way that Christmas is abbreviated to χmas but written Xmas.)

For example:
Population parameters Sample statistics
Greek letters Roman letters
µ m
σ s
ρ r

Note
An alternative notation which is often used is to call the expected frequency in
the ith class Ei and the observed frequency in the ith class Oi.
In this notation

X2 =Σ
(Oi − E i )
2

i Ei

7
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