INDIABOILER DOT COM

TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION

DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
CHAPTER – 17
Boiler Protection and Interlocks
1.0 Safety Controls on a Boiler.
Safety controls generally are those that limit energy input and thus shut down the
equipment when unsafe conditions develop.
They are:
(1) Pressure-limit or Temperature-limit Switches,
(2) Low-water Fuel Cutoffs,
(3) Flame-failure Safety Supervisory Systems (FSSS),
(4) Automatic Ignition Controls,
(5) Oil and Gas Fuel Shutoff Valve Controls,
(6) Air and Fuel Pressure Interlock Controls,
(7) Feed Water Regulating Controls and
(8) Safety Valves (or Relief Valves) are the most important safety device. While not
considered a control in the usual sense, it is the last measure against a serious
explosion.
The Safety Controls guard against the following:
(a) Overpressure leading to explosions from the waterside or steam side,
(b) Overheating of metal parts, possibly also leading to explosion in a fired
boiler (mainly due to low water or poor circulation) and
(c) Fireside explosions (furnace explosions) due to uncontrolled combustible
mixtures on the firing side.
These types of accidents are considered major and may lead to loss of life and serious
property damage. Other potential sources of accidents are cracking, bulging from local
overheating because of scale deforming such as tubes bowing, thinning of vital pressure
parts, which can lead to cracking or localized rupture, and expansion and contraction
failures causing cracking or rupturing of metal parts.
Manufactures and state laws are trying to prevent, with safety control equipment, the
three major types of accidents of overpressures, dry firing, and furnace explosions.
While the other types of failures are controlled somewhat by automatic controls,
prevention is mostly by legal inspection requirements and by proper operation and
maintenance practices expected from the owner-user of a boiler. Include are good feed-
water treatment and testing of controls at periodic intervals, including safety relief
valves.
1.1 Distinctive differences between Operating Controls and Safety Controls:
See Figure 1. Operating controls regulate the boiler so it operates under certain set
conditions involving load, feedwater, and combustion. The aim is to obtain the most
efficient output from the boiler for each pound of fuel burned. Operating controls can be
viewed as governing controls that make adjustments of feedwater, fuel, air, flue gas, and
steam flow as demanded by the load. The controls are often interlocked with such
auxiliaries to the boiler as feedwater pump, draft fans (depending on the size of the
boiler), and the programming controls set up for the unit.

C-1
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Boiler

Operating Controls Interlocks Safety Controls

Pressure Limits
Heat input – Working medium – Heat output -
Combustion Feedwater control Load
Controls
Temperature
Limits
Flow Flow
Fuel – air flow

Hi – Low
Pressure Pressure Water
Fuel – air Pressure

Temperature Temperature Ignition

Proving
Fuel – air temperature
Purity

Flue gas flow Combustion

Proving

Flue gas pressure Interlocks

and temperature
Fuel
Air
Ignition
Water

Steam
Burning
Flue gas

Fig. 1
Safety controls provide the upper or lower limits set for the safe operation of the boiler.
If the variable conditions involving the boiler go beyond a certain safe limit, an alarm
warns that corrective actions must be taken or the boiler is shut down. The larger and
more complex the boiler, the more safety controls may be needed.
1.2 Importance of Instruments for Properly Operating a Boiler:
Use of instruments and knowledge of such factors as normal operating pressures,
temperatures, flows, draft, CO2 content, Btu/ kCal/ kJ heat input, and permissible
variations in the readings observed are the most important responsibilities of any
operator or owner of a boiler. Instruments indicate conditions in the boiler. Thus any

C-2
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
variations from design or stipulated conditions serve as warnings of impending danger
or inefficient operation.
1.3 The Two General Types of Instrumentation Found on Boilers:
Boilers have two types of Instruments namely, (i) Recording and (ii) indicating.
Recording Instruments provide a permanent record or readings of process parameters.
Indicating Instruments though provide only for the visual observation of Process
Parameter readings, they act as the eyes of the Operator through which he able is keep
keen watch on all-important parameters of the boiler and is able to ensure safety and
efficiency. Boiler Recording Instruments generally cover Steam Pressure, Steam Flow,
Airflow, Flue-gas Temperature, Feed Water Temperatures, etc. Any installation will be
improved by the use of instruments when trained operating personnel are in attendance
and make intelligent use of the data provided. Instrumentation of larger packaged boilers
should include an Orsat apparatus for obtaining flue-gas analysis and determining
combustion efficiency. Modern large sized boilers are, however, equipped with
Electronic Gas Analysers.
Some basic instruments needed for large power boilers, as a minimum, per
recommendations of the ASME Boiler Code are the following:
(1) Steam Pressure gage,
(2) Feed Water Pressure Gage,
(3) Furnace Draft Gage,
(4) An outlet pressure gage on the F.D. Fan and an inlet pressure gage on the I.D. Fan,
(5) Steam Flow Recorder for checking boiler output,
(6) CO2 recorded to check on combustion,
(7) Superheater Inlet and Outlet Temperature Recorder,
(8) Inlet and Outlet Temperature Recorders for Air Heaters,
(9) Thermometers indicating Inlet and Outlet Steam Temperatures for Boiler Reheaters,
(10) Feed Water Temperature Recorders for checking degree of deaeration and
economizer operation,
(11) Pressure Gauges on Pulverizers to check differential pressure for fuel-air mixtures
to burners,
(12) Pressure Gauges for oil-fired boilers on Oil Lines to Burners and temperature
gages before and after any Oil Preheaters,
(13) Pressure Gauges for gas-fired boilers on the main gas line to burners and on
individual burners.
1.3.1 Pressure Gages and principle of their function:
1.3.1.1 Description of Pressure Gauge:
The two main types of pressure gages are the Bourdon tube and the Diaphragm type. In
single-tube Bourdon gauge the pressure is applied to inside of a bent tube of oval cross
section which is closed at one end and connected at the other to boiler pressure. The
closed end is attached, by links and pins, to a toothed quadrant, which is turn meshes
with a small pinion on the central spindle. As pressure builds up inside the over tube, it
attempts to assume a circular cross section, thus tending to straighten out lengthwise.
This action turns the spindle by the links and gearing, causing the needle to move and
register the pressure on a graduated dial.

C-3
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
1.3.1.2 Siphon required in steam pressure-gage lines:
The siphon is simply a pigtail or drop leg in the tubing to the gage for condensing steam,
thus protecting the spring and other delicate parts from high temperatures. Three forms
of Siphons are used. If there is danger of freezing during long periods of shutdown, the
siphon should be removed or drained.
1.3.1.3 Methods of testing of Steam Gauges:
Pressure Gauges are tested in the following three ways:
1. By comparison on the boiler with a good factory-tested gage.
Here the test gage is attached to the boiler and the two gages are compared as boiler
pressure rises or falls.
2. With a screw plunger pump (fig. 2 a).
The test gage and gage to be tested are attached to a screw plunger tester. To
operate, unscrew the top cover, fill the cylinder with water or light oil, screw on the
top cover and force the plunger downward by turning the handle on the threaded rod.
This puts equal pressure on both gages.
3. With a deadweight plunger pump (fig. 2 b).
The plunger, working in a cylinder, floats on oil and is loaded by weights.

Fig. 2

1.3.1.4 The Code requirements for pressure gages on a steam boiler:

The boiler must have at least one pressure gage so located and of such size that it is
easily readable and which at all times indicates the boiler pressure. A valve or cock must
be placed in the gage connection adjacent to the gage so it can be removed for repairs.
The gage must be connected to the steam space or to the water column or its steam
connection. For a steam boiler the gage or its connection must have siphon for
maintaining a water seal to prevent steam from entering the gage tube. The connection
of a pressure gage must be a minimum of ¼ in. ID.
For temperatures over 4060F, no brass or copper tubing should be used. The pressure
gage dial should be graduated to twice the SV setting, but in no case less than 11/2 times
this setting. A valve connection of at least ¼-in. pipe size must be installed on the boiler

C-4
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
for exclusive purpose of attaching a test gage, when the boiler is operating, for checking
the accuracy of the boiler pressure gage. This connection is known as the inspector’s
connection.
The pressure gage must be illuminated, free from objectionable glare or reflection that
can in any way obstruct an operator’s view while nothing the setting on the gage. The
pointer on the gage must be in a near-vertical position when indicating the normal
operating pressure. This is also true of other pressure gages in the boiler room that are
used on auxiliaries. Pressure gages must not be tilted forward more than 300 from
vertical, and then only when it is necessary for proper viewing of the dial graduations.
1.3.2 The common or primary measurements used in controlling boilers:
Although manufacturers differ in approach, the following factors must be considered in
any control used on a boiler: (1) steam pressure and flow, (2) furnace pressure and draft,
(30 air pressure and flow, (4) feedwater pressure and flow (including low water), (5)
flue-gas flow and composition, and (6) proper ignition and burner0flame control.
1.3.3 Common components in an automatic control loop used on boilers:
A control loop, whether pneumatic or electric or electronic, is usually made up of the
following basic components:
1. Primary Measurement Elements as enumerated in an earlier question.
2. An Error Detector or Comparator that compares the measurement with
prefixed set points and makes adjustment signals to get the measured value to the
preset points (or efficiency point in comparator application). This is actually the
controller.
3. An Actuator that responds to the controller signals showing deviation from
set points.
4. The Final Control Element such as a valve, damper, or variable-speed motor
that makes adjustments as signaled from the controlled and actuator so as to bring
the variable within preset limits.

2.0 Control Theory

2.1 Modes of control:
Mode of control means the manner in which the automatic controller acts and reacts to
store a variable quantity on a boiler, such as pressure, flow, or temperature, to a
designed control or desired value.
2.2 Types of Controller Systems used to control a boiler:
There are three types of Controller Systems used in boilers. These are the following:
(1) Pneumatic,
(2) Electric, and
(3) Electronic.
2.3 Some common modes of control:
Assume that a human operator has to regulate the turbine stop value as load demand
increase. He can instantly open the valve wide, open it slowly at constant speed as
demand increase, open it more when demand rises, rapidly, or open it a constant amount
for each unit of demand change. Similarly, a pneumatic or electric controller can follow
any of the following five principal modes, either singly or in combination:
1. Two-position, or On-Off.

C-5
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
2. Fixed-position floating. This drives the final control element at a fixed speed
between its limit-switch contacts.
3. Proportional position. Here the controller changes the final control element’s
position in proportion to the measured variable’s deviation, shown diagrammatically
in Fig. 3. But since proportional control must sense a change in deviation (in this
case, pressure drop) so as to produce a new valve position, it provides exact
correction for only one load condition; at all other loads some deviation must
remain. This error is called ‘offset’ or ‘droop’. Thus in Fig. 3, a 10 percent pressure
error remains even after the valve has some to rest in its new position. The only
correction is to manually reset the controller’s set point, thus compensating for its
inherent offset characteristic.

Fig. 3

4. Variable-speed floating mode. Here the position of the final control element
is changed at a rate, which is proportional to the measured variable’s deviation. The
greater the deviation, the faster the valve moves. But as long as deviation continues,
so does the correction to valve position. Thus the controller continues to operate
until an exact correction has been made for any load change. And since valve
position varies as an integral of deviation and time, variable-speed floating is often
referred to as integral mode. It is usually applied in combination with proportional
control to produce the proportional-plus-integral mode shown in Fig. 4.

C-6
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Fig. 4
5. Derivation, or rate control (Fig. 5). This positions the valve in proportion to
the rate of change of deviation. It is sensitive to direction. Thus if pressure is rising,
the controller tends to close the valve and has a great stabilizing effect. But since it
cannot sense a datum, it must be combined with some other control mode, as shown
in Fig. 6.

Fig. 5

C-7
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Fig. 6

2.4 Application of On-Off Combustion Controls and principle of their operation:

On-off controls are limited to fire tube and small water tube boilers. As the name
implies, a drop is pressure actuates a ‘pressurestat’ or mercury switch to start the stoker
or burner and open the air damper, or to reverse the process when pressure rises again.
Since control is limited to varying the lengths of on-and off-periods, combustions
efficiency is low. Shown in the Figure 7 is a typical on-off combustion-control and
pressure control switches hooked up in electric series. Thus if either control opens, the
current to the burner motor is interrupted. The primary control consists of an
electromagnetic relay that is energized by the thermostat.
On demand for heat in a steam system, the thermostat will actuate (by means of low
voltage) the clapper in the relay. As the clapper is pulled in, it transfers current from the
No. 1 to the No. 3 terminal on the primary control (see the sketch in Fig. 7). The burner
motor and ignition will then come on, operating the unit. Either one of two controls
determines the sequence of normal operation of the system. These are the thermostat is
satisfied by a rise in room temperature, it will break its contact and de-energize the
relay, thus interrupting the flow of current from the No. 1 terminal to the No. 3, and
thereby stopping the burner. But if a longer period of time is required to bring up
enough heat to satisfy the thermostat, the pressure (limit) control setting may be
reached. This control will then shut off the current to the No. 1 terminal on the primary
control. This will de-energize the primary of the step-down transformer. Then the
thermostat will no longer be able to hold the clapper in, even though it is making
contact. Thus the primary control is deprived of all current, and the burner will stop.

C-8
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Fig. 7
When the steam pressure drops, the circuit will be restored, and if the thermostat is still
calling for heat (making contact), the unit will resume operation. In case of abnormal
operation (no fire or insufficient fire appearing), the safety function of the primary
control takes over and the unit shuts down, going into safety.
2.5 Combustion Control generally used on packaged boilers:
A positioning control system is generally used, because it is more flexible. Steam
pressure is the measured variable, and a master pressure controller responds to changes
in header pressure and (by means of power units or actuators) positions the forced-draft
damper to control airflow and the fuel valve to regulate fuel supply. An independent
controller, positioning the uptake damper, maintains furnace draft within the desired
limits.
Although positioning-type control systems are an improvement over the on-off type,
airflow and fuel supply are at their theoretically correct ration at only one setting. This is
usually the point at which they were calibrated on installation. Positioning control also
assumes that a given output signal from the master controller always produces the same
change in the flow of combustion air, in stoker speed, or fuel valve setting. But stoker
speed might be affected by line voltage variations, and airflow by boiler slagging or
barometric conditions. Thus manual adjustment is still necessary, not only on load
changes but to counteract these longer-term effects.
2.6 A combustion control that is considered superior to a Positioning Control:
A metering control is considered superior to Positioning Control. It measures the fuel
flow and airflow and then modifies the valve and damper positions to maintain these
measured flows rather than implied ones. Thus it holds an optimum air/fuel ratio over a
wide load range without manual intervention. Especially valuable is its inherent
compensation for such variables as boiler cleanliness, voltage swings in electric
actuators, lost motion in mechanical or pneumatic devices, and changes in fuel quality.
For simplicity, let us consider one system having a pressure-responsive primary element
controlling fuel feed and airflow, plus an independent furnace-pressure controller. The
output signal from this primary element, or master pressure controller, is frequently
C-9
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
modified by elements sensitive to steam flow, airflow, fuel-feed rate, flue-gas analysis,
or other variables. And these elements may be combined in feed-forward control in
various ways.
2.7 Reasons for Combustion Controls being geared to Pressure Variation in a boiler:
To begin, pressure variation is caused by:
1. Load on the boiler. An increase in load without additional fuel input causes a
pressure drop. A decrease in load without an accompanying decrease in fuel input
causes a pressure rise.
2. Fuel input to the boiler. Too high an input will cause a pressure rise, while too
low an input will cause a pressure drop.
Thus pressure regulation and fuel regulation, or combustion controls, are directly
related. And for this reason combustion controls are geared for modulation by
pressure variations within close limits. While airflow and exhaust flow usually
follow fuel flow, the latter is determined by the pressure-set limits within which a
boiler is to operate.
2.8 Method of Measurement and Control of Furnace Draft:
Draft-measuring elements may be combined with a controller (fig. 8b). The spiral
Bourdon tube (Fig. 8a) handles draft measurements with greater sensitivity than the
fairly rigid element used for high-pressure applications. The diaphragm mechanism
(Fig. 8b) converts, through a pilot valve, furnace-draft variations into proportional
changes in the output signal.

Fig. 8

2.9 Method of Measurement and Control of Steam Flow:

The principle underlying flow measurement is shown in Fig. 9a. A pressure drop across
an orifice, in this case in the steam line, can be measured by tapping the pipe at each
side of the restriction. The resulting pressure differential is proportional to the square of
the fluid velocity. But correct location of the tapping points is important. By using
nozzle restriction (Fig. 9b), the best result (largest pressure differential for a given flow)
is obtained when connections are located about one pipe diameter upstream and one-half
diameter downstream from the nozzle’s inlet face.

C - 10
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Fig. 9 a
Converting differential pressure to a usable output signal may be done in various ways.
Two widely used secondary elements are a mercury-float manometer (Fig. 9c) or a
Ledoux bell mechanism (Fig. 9d). In Fig. 9c the two pressure-tapings from the primary
element are connected to two mercury chambers, joined by a U tube. Pressure variations
raise and lower the float. A pressure-tight shaft conveys this movement to mechanical
linkage within the controller. Check valves in the two legs of the U tube prevent damage
to the mechanism resulting from sudden changes or reversals in pressure differential.

Fig. 9 b & c

C - 11
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Fig. 9 d
2.10 A Pneumatic Differential Pressure Transmitter:
Fig. 10 illustrates a pneumatic system used for differential pressure transmission, which
is converted to steam flow in an indicating, recording, or control device. Diaphragm
motion moves the force beam and vane. Movement of the force beam changes the vane-
nozzle relationship, thus changing nozzle relationship, thus changing nozzle
backpressure (NBP) in chamber B of the reset booster relay. This opens either the inlet
valve (increase in NBP) or the exhaust valve (decrease in NBP) producing a change in
booster output repositions the restoring beam. The restoring beam, in contact with the
force beam through range adjustment, moves the measuring diaphragm back to the
normal centered position and restores vane-nozzle at balance distance. The booster
output pressure, which is proportional to the measured level, is also transmitted to
indicating, recording, and /or controlling equipment.

C - 12
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Fig. 10

2.11 Electric Pressure Transmitter:

Fig. 11
A true force-balance mechanism characterizes the dc transmitted shown in Fig. 11.
Deflection of the Bourdon tube exerts a force on the beam balance system; as the beam
starts to move, the air gap, and thus the inductance of the position detector, changes
proportionally and in turn varies the oscillator-amplifier output signal. The null-balance
force motor, a wire coil maintained in an air gap between permanent-magnet poles,
develops a feedback force balanced against the input force from the Bourdon tube, thus
restoring null balance.
No matter how the output signal is generated, nor what measured variable it represents,
whether it be alternating or direct current, it forms the input to an electric or electronic
controller whose circuits perform the same functions as the bellows, baffles, and nozzles
of the pneumatic controller. The unit illustrated handles pressures up to 10,000 psig. As
C - 13
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
the Bourdon-tube deflection reacts on the balance beam, its movement is sensed by the
position detector and converted into a proportional change in the 10- 15 mA output
current. The force motor, in series across this output, acts as feedback in opposing beam
movement.
2.12 Method of electrically transmitting a pressure measurement to indicating,
recording, and control equipment at a remote point and then show measured
pressure at that point:
In one device a Bourdon tube positions a movable core in a transformer. The core is
adjusted to travel the same distance for all pressure ranges, thus making it possible to
transmit to standard electronic receivers. The core position (fig. 12) determines the
magnetic flux linkage between the primary and the secondary windings.
The voltage induced in each secondary winding is proportional to the displacement of
the core form its center position. Thus, the core position determines the signal voltage
output. At 100 percent travel, voltage E2 is larger than E1 since the core is near the top of
the transformer. Downward motion of the core causes E2 to decrease linearly and E1 to
increase linearly until at 0 percent travel, the voltage magnitudes have reversed. At 50
percent travel, voltage E2 and E1 are equal since the core is centered between the two
secondary windings. Within the operating range, a definite linear relationship exists
between each of the two secondary voltages and the core position.

Fig. 12
Utilizing a movable core transformer with a duplicate set of secondary windings,
changing the external connections, or doing both, permits a wide range of applications
using the same basic transmitter. The output voltage on the secondary windings can be
calibrated for proportional pressure reading on the receiving end.
2.13 Trends in feed water control in modern boilers:
C - 14
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Most boilers today use two-element (drum level and steam flow) or three-element
controls in which steam flow and water flow form the primary measured variables, with
water level acting as a third input. But the single-element (drum level) regulator (fig. 13)
is still popular. This is a thermo-hydraulic device based on the principle that the volume
of a given weight of low-pressure steam is far greater than that of the water from which
it is generated.
The regulator forms a closed hydraulic system, including the annular space between
inner and outer tubes of the steam generator, the connecting tubing, and the metal
bellows of the regulating valve. Heat from steam in the upper portion of the inner tube
causes the surrounding water (in the space between the two tubes) to flash into steam.
The remaining water is thus forced out of this space until the water levels in the two
tubes are equal. The displaced water passes into the actuator bellows, thus partially
opening the regulating valve.

Fig. 13
As steam demand increases, the water level in the drum and generator will fall; more
water in the annular space between the tubes flashes into steam, and the regulating valve
opens still farther. Thus if the drum level rises, the water in the generator rises also;
cooled by the radiating fins, this water condenses part of the steam in the annular space
and in turn permits the regulating valve to partially close. Since this is a proportional
device, it is suitable only for small boilers with relatively stable steaming rates.

C - 15
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Fig. 14

In larger units, drum level measurement forms a trimming signal, with steam and water
flow as the primary variables. Displacer-type units are also replacing the self-acting,
thermo-hydraulic device. In these, a cylindrical float or displacer is lightened by the
weight of the liquid it displaces. This change in weight is detected by either a torque-
tube or a force-balance system (Fig. 14) and converted into a pneumatic or electric
output signal to a controller.
2.14 How does the three-element feedwater control system work?
In this system (fig. 15) steam flow, feedwater flow, and water level are measured and
recorded by mechanically operated meters. Measurements of steam flow and water flow
are balanced against each other with differential linkage. A pilot control is connected to
the linkage so that any difference between the amounts of steam flow and of water flow
causes a change in the pneumatic output signal. This signal is transmitted to an air relay
where it is combined with the pneumatic signal from the water level recorder.

C - 16
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Fig. 15
A change in boiler load unbalances the differential linkage, thus producing a change in
the output of the pilot control. That in turn changes the output of the air relay. This new
signal repositions the feed-water control valve, admitting required water into the boiler
equal to the steam flow out of the boiler. The resulting change in feedwater flow
rebalances the differential linkage and brings the pilot-control signal back to its neutral
point. As a final check, and to ensure having the proper drum level, the signal from the
pilot control in the water level recorder readjusts the feedwater control valve, if
required. The selector valve in the system provides automatic or remote manual control.
Under normal operating conditions the control pressure gage on the selector valves is an
indication of valve position.
2.15 Usual method of control of water level in boilers of small commercial, and
industrial types:
On a closed-loop heating boiler, it is common to find no automatic water feeding to the
boiler. Instead, the attendant checks the gage glass periodically and maintains the water
level manually. The owner relies on the automatic low-water cutoff to save the boiler in
case of a low-water condition.
Water level is usually controlled by:
1. Manual feed (Fig. 16a)
2. Automatic feeder, either a mechanical or an electrical solenoid-operated valve,
actuated by a float or electrode in the water space of the boiler (Fig. 16b)
3. Combination low-water fuel cutoff and feeder, based on the water level in the
boiler (Fig. 16c).
4. Combination low-water cutoff and pump control (Fig. 16d).

C - 17
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001

Fig. 16 a & b
Fig. 16 (a) Manual makeup feed system. (b) Solenoid-operated makeup water
feeder; solenoid, actuated from switch, contacts a float-operated low-water cutoff.
(c) Combination water feeder and low-water cutoff. (d) Combination low-water
cutoff and pump-control feed. (e) Combination law-water cutoff and feeder and
pump controller with makeup feeder on condensate tank.

Fig. 16 c & d

This system is installed at the normal boiler waterline. The water level is maintained by
connecting the pump control directly to the condensate pump. For the additional
makeup water required, a receiver tank makeup feeder is installed on the condensate
receiver tank. In addition to functioning as a pump controller acts as a low-water
cutoff. This stops the burner if a low-water condition occurs. This type of water feed
is used also on packaged boilers of up to about 10,000 lb per hr and 200 psi pressure.
NOTE: Feed is actuated electrically by a float-switch combination turning on and off
the pump. If the valve from the receiver tank to the boiler is closed, this circuits will
not sense the need for more water, because the pump could still operate but
obviously deliver no water. Then the boiler would have to be shut down by the low-
water cutoff to protect it from damage.
5. Combination low-water cutoff and feeder actuated by the direct contact wit the
boiler water level and pump controller (Fig. 16e). This is an improvement upon the
system described in No. 4 above.

C - 18
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
Fig. 16e
A state code for low-pressure steam boilers requires adding a mechanical water
feeder to an electrical pump system in these words:
“Where water of condensation of all of the steam generated by the boiler cannot be
returned by gravity to the boiler, and pumps, traps, or other devices o\are used for this
purpose, or steam is used for processes where there would be no water of condensation
to return to the boiler, an automatic water feeding device should be installed.”
2.16 Description of three types of low-water cutoffs used in packaged boilers for the
prevention of low water:
The low-water cutoff (Fig.17), Separate from the programming sequence control,
immediately shuts down the boiler if the water drops to a dangerously low level. The
three types are as follows:

Fig. 17
1. The float-magnet type (Fig. 17a) has a ferrous plunger on one end of a float rod. The
plunger slides within a nonferrous sleeve. A permanent magnet, with a mercury
switch affixed, is supported by a pivot adjacent to the nonferrous sleeve. Under
normal water conditions, the ferrous plunger is above and out of reach of the
magnetic field. In this position the mercury switch is in a horizontal plane, keeping
the burner circuit closed. But if the boiler-water level drops, the float also drops,
bringing the ferrous plunger within the magnetic field. Then the magnet swings
through a small arc toward the plunger; the mercury switch tilts, opening the burner
circuit.
2. The float-linked type (Fig. 17b) has a float connected through linkage to a plate
supporting a mercury switch. Because the plate is horizontal in the normal water-
level position, the switch hold the burner circuit closed. If the water level drops, the
float drops, tilting the plate so the switch opens circuit.

3. The submerged-electrode type (Fig. 17c) uses boiler water to complete the burner
circuit. If the water level drops below the electrode tip, current flow is interrupted,
shutting down the burner. On ft boilers, the low-water cutoff generally includes an
intermediate switch that controls the feed pump.
2.17 The correct way to hook up two-water cutoffs, one of the electrode type, the other
of the float type:
For maximum protection, the second additional low-water cutoff should be mounted on
the opposite drumhead with individual connections and blowdown piping and valves.
And both units should be wired and properly interlocked.

C - 19
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
REMEMBER: Dual low-water cutoffs provide dual protection only when individual
drum connections are provided.

2.18 Reasons why are manual reset controls useful on pressure or temperature high-
limit controls:
The manual reset mechanism on the high-limit control calls attention if the operating
control (not high-limit) has malfunctioned, thus prohibiting further boiler operation until
corrected. At times, this malfunction may be due to fused contacts, a leaking gas valve,
a shorted wire, etc. Thus the boiler should not be operated until this is corrected.
2.19 Method of control of the fuel/air ratio in small industrial and commercial
automatic packaged-type boilers:
Valve control of the fuel/air ratio is achieved by use of constant pressure variable areas.
A simple mechanism can be used to cause the opening area or two valves to vary in
proportion to one another. If the valve characteristics are not the same, the fuel and
airflows will match at only two points throughout the range. If the movement is not
directly proportional, the mixture will be lean at some firing rates and rich at others.

Fig. 18
Figure 18a shows two rotary-type valves on a common shaft. Figure 18b shows two
rotary-type valves driven by a parallel-arm linkage. One or preferably both of the valves
should embody manual adjustment of the valve opening (in addition to the handle
adjustment) so as to permit adjustment of the fuel/air ratio. The valve control system
requires an air blower with a constant-pressure characteristic and oil or gas pressure
regulators ahead of the control valve. Thus the upstream pressures for both air and fuel
must be constant at the valve because variations in the oil viscosity would affect the
flow rate.
2.20 Description of a typical control system for pulverized-coal-fired boilers:
The basic principle is to control the fuel and combustion air simultaneously with
changes in steam pressure and readjusting airflow as needed to maintain the optimum
air/fuel ratio. Instead of directly connected controllers, actuated by the process variable
being measured, transmitters sense the variables directly and then transmit appropriate
pneumatic or electric signals to the controllers. It is equipped with pressurized, ball-type
pulverizers. The FD fan supplies preheated combustion air. In passing through the
pulverizer, this air picks up the coal and carries it to the burners. Thus regulating the
flow of primary air controls fuel supply.

C - 20
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
Combustion air from the FD and primary-air fans is controlled from steam header
pressure, positioning a damper at the inlet to each pulverizer. Sensing this airflow is a
feeder control sub-loop (self-contained control system), which regulates the supply of
raw coal leaving the feeder, relative to airflow, in order to ensure a constant coal level in
the pulverizer. The air/fuel ratio is maintained by means of an air/steam-flow ratio
controller, sensing steam header flow and, in, turn, positioning the FD fan outlet
damper. Thus varying airflow through the pulverizers meets load changes.
A second sub-loop (coal-air temperature control) senses the pulverizer outlet
temperature and regulates the proportion of tempering air combined with that from the
air heater before it enters the primary air fan. As with the other control circuits, a hand
auto-selector enables the operator to assume manual control when required. When two
or more pulverizers are operated in parallel, either manual or automatic compensation is
made for the number in service, so that each shares the total load equally.
2.21 Method of Control of Superheat and Reheat Steam Temperatures:
Today steam temperature of 10000F is common and units are being installed for 1050
and 10000F. Because these high temperatures are limited only by metallurgy, steam
temperatures must be held to close limits for safety as well as for economy. Six basic
methods are used for controlling the temperatures of steam leaving the boiler:
1. Bypass damper control with a single bypass damper or series-and-shunt damper
arrangement for bypassing flue gas around the superheater as required.
2. Spray-type desuperheater control where water is sprayed directly into the steam
with a spray-water control valve for temperature regulation.
3. Attemperator control where a controlled portion of the steam passes through a
submerged tubular desuperheater and a control valve in the steam line to the
desuperheater or attemperator is used.
4. Condenser control with desuperheating condenser-tube bundles located in the
superheater inlet header and water-control valve or valves to regulate a portion of
the feedwater flow through the condenser as required.
5. Tilting-burner control where the tilt angle of the burners is adjusted to change
the furnace heat absorption and resultant steam temperature.
6. Flue-gas-recirculation control where a portion of the flue gas is recirculated into
the furnace by means of an auxiliary fan with a damper control to change the mass
flow through the superheater and the heat absorption in the furnace, as required for
maintaining steam temperature.
2.22 Basic controls used on once-through boilers:
Unlike the natural-circulation boiler, where varying the ratio of heat absorption between
steam-generating surface and superheating surface best attains steam-temperature
control, the once-through unit can maintain the desired steam temperature over a much
wider load range. If the ratio of heat input of fluid flow is correct, heat absorption is
self-adjusting. Spray attemperation then provides rapid temporary control of
temperature on load swings.
The firing rate of a simplified integrated control system for normal operation is closely
tied to feedwater flow control. And these are also being controlled to maintain both
desired load and desired steam temperature. The turbine governor controls are also tied
into the system to give quick response and stability. A small amount of spray
desuperheating is used in the up and down deviation of load for better steam-
temperature control during transient conditions.

C - 21
 INDIABOILER DOT COM
TUTORIAL FOR SECOND CLASS BOILER ENGINEER’S PROFICIENCY EXAMINATION
DLP/BOE-II/ 17- 01092001
2.23 Steps that are being taken to help a power plant operator understand better the
functions of the computer in aiding him to operate a plant:
The complexity of a modern power plant has led control engineers to search for better
communication between the computer and the human operator. One result is the use of
lighted, color-coded push buttons grouped adjacent to their respective edgewise
indicators. Actuation of “increase” and “decrease” buttons replaces the operation of
conventional control handles. Flashing alarm lamps, similarly located in the push
buttons, draw instant attention to the pieces of equipment concerned, saving the time
otherwise wasted in relating an alarm signal to its source.
Another solution to the same problem is to link the process computer with an audible
alarm Annunciator. One such power plant installation has an audible Annunciator
coupled with a continuous loop 16-track tape-recording unit. When the computer
recognizes an out-of-limit input signal, it simultaneously addresses both an alarm printer
and the tape unit. While the printer types a statement of the alarm occurrence, the tape
unit selects, from several hundred prerecorded vocal messages, the one message stating
what alarm signal has been received and broadcasts it over the Annunciator.
Should out-of-limit inputs occur faster than they can be announced; the computer is
programmed to store the signals and announce them either in the order in which they
occur or in order of their priority. Both alarm warnings and remedial instructions can be
prerecorded on the tape. A microphone data-input facility lets the programmer or
operator change this taped information at will.

C - 22