CNC MACHINES AND AUTOMATION

IIMT Greater Noida, UP

Vishnu Kumar Singh

Mechanical Department
 UNIT 6
➢ Automatic Assembly
▪ Types of automated assembly systems
▪ Parts Feeding Devices
➢ CAD-CAM
▪ Similarities and Differences between CAD, CAM
▪ Popular CAD/CAM tools
➢ Flexible Manufacturing systems
▪ Types of Flexible Manufacturing system
▪ Components of Flexible Manufacturing system
▪ Flexible Manufacturing system Layout configuration
▪ Applications of Flexible Manufacturing systems
➢ Group Technology
▪ Part Family concept
▪ Implementing Group Technology
▪ Advantages of Group Technology
▪ Demerits of Group Technology
➢ Magnetic Tape
▪ Process of Manufacturing Magnetic tape
➢ Printed Circuit Boards (PCB)
▪ Steps to manufacture PCB
▪ Parts of PCB
 AUTOMATIC ASSEMBLY

• Assembly involves the joining together of two or more

separate parts to form new entity which may be assembly or
subassembly.
• Automated assembly refers to the use of mechanized and
automated devices to perform the various functions in an
assembly line or cell.
• Automated assembly system performs a sequence of
automated operations to combine multiple components in
to a single entity which can be a final product or sub
assembly.
 TYPES OF AUTOMATED ASSEMBLY SYSTEMS
Based on physical configuration:
❖Dial-type assembly machine
❖In-line assembly machine
❖Carousel assembly system
❖Single-station assembly machine

1. The dial-type machine, the base partare indexed around a

circular table or dial. The workstations are stationary and usually
located around the outside periphery of the dial. The parts ride
on the rotating table and at each station a new component is Figure 1: Example of 6 station rotary configuration for
added to base part. This type of equipment is often referred to as assembly
an indexing machine or dial index machine and. Example of six
station rotary is in figure 1.
2. The in-line configuration assembly system consists of a sequence of workstations in a more-or-less straight-line arrangement as shown
in figure 2. The in-line assembly machine consists of a series of automatic workstations located along an in-line transfer system. It is the
automated version of the manual assembly line.

Fig 2 In line configuration for assembly system

Figure 3: Example of 20 stations In-line configuration

The segmented in-line configuration consists of two or more straight-line arrangement which are
usually perpendicular to each other with L-Shaped or U-shaped or Rectangular shaped. The flow of
work can take a few 90° turns, either for workpieces reorientation, factory layout limitations, or other
reasons, and still qualify as a straight-line configuration.

Fi gure 4: L-s haped configuration

Figure 5: U-shaped configuration Figure 6: Rectangular-shaped

configuration
Figure 5: U-shaped configuration

Figure 6: Rectangular-shaped configuration

3. Carousel assembly system represents a hybrid between the
circular flow of work provided by the dial assembly machine and
straight work flow of the in-line. It is as shown in the figure 7.

Fi gure 7: Ca rousel assembly s ystem

4. Single- station assembly machine In the single-station
assembly machine, the assembly operations are performed at a
single location (stationary base part system) as shown in figure 8.
The typical operation involves the placement of the base part at
the workstation where various components are added to the
base. The components are delivered to the station by feeding
mechanisms, and one or more workheads perform the various
assembly and fastening operations.

Fi gure 8: Si ngle Station Assembly Ma chine

 PARTS FEEDING DEVICES
In each of the configurations described above, a means of delivering the components to the assembly
workhead must be designed. In this section we discuss these devices and their operation.
ELEMENTS OF THE PARTS DELIVERY SYSTEM
The hardware system that delivers components to the workhead in an automated assembly system
typically consists of the following elements as shown in figure 9

Fi gure 9: El ements of Part Delivery Sys tem

a) Hopper:
This is the container into which the components are loaded
at the workstation. A separate hopper is used for each
component type. The components are usually loaded into
the hopper in bulk. This means that the parts are randomly
oriented initially in the hopper.

b) Parts feeder:
This is a mechanism that removes the components from the
hopper one at a time for delivery to the assembly
workhead. The hopper and parts feeder are often combined
into one operating mechanism. The vibratory bowl feeder,
pictured in Figure 10, is a very common example of the
hopper-feeder combination.

Fi gure 10: Vi brator Bowl Feeder

c) Selector and/or orientor:

These elements of the delivery system establish the

proper orientation of the components for the assembly
workhead. A selector is a device that acts as a filter,
permitting only parts that are in the correct orientation
to pass through. Components that are not properly
oriented are rejected back into the hopper. An orientor
is a device that allows properly oriented pans to pass
through but provides a reorientation of components
that are not properly oriented initially. Several selector
and orientor schemes are illustrated in Figure 11.
Selector and orientor devices are often combined and
incorporated into one hopper-feeder system.

Fi gure 11: a ) Selector b) Ori entor

d) Feed track:
The preceding elements of the delivery system are usually located some distance from the assembly
workhead. A feed track is used to transfer the components from the hopper and parts feeder to the
location of the assembly workhead, maintaining proper orientation of the parts during the transfer.
There are two general categories of feed tracks: gravity and powered. The gravity feed track is most
common. In this type the hopper and parts feeder are located at an elevation that is above the
elevation of the workhead. The force of gravity is used to deliver the components to the workhead. The
powered feed track uses vibratory action, air pressure, or other means to force the parts to travel along
the feed track toward the assembly workhead.

e) Escapement and placement device:

The purpose of the escapement device is to remove components from the feed track at time intervals
that are consistent with the cycle time of the assembly workhead. The placement device physically
places the component in the correct location at the workstation for the assembly operation by the
workhead. Several types of escapement and placement devices are shown
 DEVICE DESCRIPTION

Device used on dial-type assembly machines: parts move via

horizontal delivery into vacant nests on the dial, as they appear, from
the feed track; meanwhile the circular motion of the dial table means
that the nests are revolved away from the feed track, permitting the
next component in the feed track to move into the next vacant nest,
and so forth.

Horizontal placement device

Device used on dial-type assembly machines: here, the parts feeder is

arranged vertically above the dial table, so that when the table turns,
to reveal an empty nest, the component can fall by gravity from the
feed track into the empty nest. Successive parts fall by gravity to take
up their position at the mouth of the feed track in turn.

Vertical placement device

 This mechanism uses a pick-and-place unit with a
horizontal arm that may be extended and retracted as
necessary, so that parts may be removed from the feed
track, and placed into work carriers.

Pick and place mechanism

Video for reference-

(i) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GK8bFcvGD5A&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=36
(ii) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2-dMX-zP0Dk&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=35
(iii) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LqPfIGhMYHY&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=37
 CAD CAM
What is CAD?
CAD stands for computer-aided design. This is the use of computers to aid in the creation, modification,
analysis, function or application of design. Companies and individuals that use CAD software increase
their productivity and quickly create designs. They also improve the quality of their designs
What is CAM?
CAM is computer-aided manufacturing. CAM is also known as computer-aided modeling or computer-
aided machining. CAM involves the use of software to control machine tools in the manufacturing of
workpieces. With the correct, precise instructions CAM creates a toolpath or map which tells the
manufacturing machines the exact cuts that need to be made, creating an accurate product.
Differences between CAD and CAM
• CAD is concerned with only the creation of a design. This design may later be fed into computer-aided machines to
create manufactured products through the use of a CAM program.
• CAM tools differ from CAD tools. For CAD only a computer and CAD software are required for a technician or graphic
artist to create a design.
• CAM machines include a computer and, often, a CAM software package. But, in addition, the manufacturing process
requires a CAM machine.

Similarities between CAD and CAM

• Both computer-aided design and computer-aided manufacturing use a computer software program and both require
technicians who are computer literate and know how to use CAD/CAM software.
• Both software programs are dependent on computer operators to feed the right instructions so that the product fits
the client’s specifications.
• After the design has been created using computer-aided design software, it is exported to the CAM software program
that sends instructions to CAM tools or machines to create the actual two-dimensional or three-dimensional product.
Popular CAD/CAM tools
There are a number of tools available in the market for designing and manufacturing purposes. Some
of them offer CAD, some offer just CAM, while some software combine CAD and CAM. A list of
popular computer-aided manufacturing tools is as follows.
• Fusion 360
• Solidworks CAM
• Solid Edge CAM Pro
• CATIA
Video for Reference
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=igKq9ORkcHc&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=48
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x1rxXm6sG9Y&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=49
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3qEK7Lnk2TI&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=50&t=164s
4. https://fractory.com/what-is-computer-aided-manufacturing-cam/
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FdipJNG_vV8&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=51
 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEMS
FMS consists of a group of processing work stations interconnected by means of an automated material
handling and storage system and controlled by integrated computer control system.

FMS consists of numerical programmable machine tools connected by an automated material

handling system and controlled by a common computer network.
❖ FMS is a method used to manufacture and product goods that is able to adapt to changes. Whether these changes involve
the addition of a new product types, the modification of existing product types, etc., a FMS can handle these and more.
❖ FMS is called flexible due to the reason that it is capable of processing a variety of different part styles simultaneously at the
workstation and quantities of production can be adjusted in response to changing demand patterns.
To be considered flexible there are four reasonable tests that can be applied to the system to determine its level of flexibility;
these are:
1. Part variety test—can the system process different part styles in a non-batch mode?
2. Schedule change test—can the system readily accept changes in the production schedule, either in the product mix or the
expected production volume?
3. Error recovery test—can the system recover gracefully from equipment malfunctions and breakdowns, so that production is
not completely disrupted?
4. New part test —can new part designs be introduced into the existing product mix with relative ease?

The system is flexible if we can answer “yes” to all of these questions, with the most important criteria for flexibility being
numbers 1 and 2. Numbers 3 and 4 are softer criteria that may be implemented at various levels.
In Figure the automated manufacturing cell shall be
considered flexible if it:
(1) can machine different part mixes taken from the
carousel by the robot;
(2) allows for changes in the production schedule,
without affecting the operation of the robotic arm
and the two machine tools;
(3) is able to carry-on operating even if one
machine tool breaks down; and
(4) can accommodate new part designs if the
numerical control programme to do so is written
off-line and then downloaded by the system for
execution.
 TYPES OF FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM
Each FMS is custom-built and unique; however it can be
characterised by the number of machines it contains, or by
whether it is a dedicated or random-order FMS, in terms of the
parts it processes.
1. Number of Machines
(i) Single machine cell—contains one machine (often a CNC
machining centre) connected to a parts storage system, which
can load and unload parts to and from the storage system. It is
designed to operate in batch mode, flexible mode, or a
combination of the two. When in batch mode, the system
processes parts of a single style in specific lot sizes before
physical and programme changeover to the next batch
specifications; in flexible mode the system satisfies three of the
four tests for flexibility—the exception being error recovery,
since, if the CNC machine centre breaks down, the system
stops.

Figure : -Single machine cell with one CNC machining centre and
parts storage unit
(ii) Flexible manufacturing cell—contains two or three
processing workstations (often CNC machining or turning
centres), plus a parts handling system. This set-up can operate
in flexible mode and batch mode, as necessary, and can readily
adapt to evolving production schedule and increased
production volumes. Since there is more than one machine,
error recovery is possible by re-routing the failed machine’s
intended parts for processing to the other two machines in the
system; and new part designs can be introduced with relative
ease into the set-up. The flexible manufacturing cell satisfies all
four flexibility tests.
Flexible manufacturing cell with three identical processing
stations, a load/unload station, and parts handling system

Figure : -Flexible manufacturing cell

(iii) Flexible manufacturing system (FMS)—
consists of four or more processing stations
connected mechanically by a common parts
handling system and electronically by a
distributed computer system. FMS is larger than
the flexible manufacturing cell, not only in the
number of workstations it may contain, but also
in the number of supporting stations in the
system, such as part/pallet washing stations, co-
ordinate measuring machines, storage stations
and so on. Computer control is also more
sophisticated; it includes functions not found in
the flexible manufacturing cell such as
diagnostics and tool monitoring. The FMS
satisfies all four flexibility tests.

Figure: Plan view of a seven-station flexible manufacturing system

2 LEVEL OF FLEXIBILITY
There are two levels: dedicated FMS, and random-order FMS

Dedicated FMS
(i)Designed to produce a limited variety of part styles, and the complete universe of parts to be made on the
system is known in advance.
(ii) Product design is relatively stable, so the system is designed with a certain amount of process
specialization in place.
(iii)Machines designed for specific processes can be implemented within the system, which leads to an
increased production rate from the system.

Random-order FMS
(i)Designed to produce a large part family, where there are substantial variations in part configurations.
(ii)It is likely that new part designs will be introduced into the system, with engineering changes occurring to
existing parts.
(iii)The production schedule may also be flexible, changing from day to day. The random-order FMS must be
more flexible than the dedicated FMS to accommodate these requirements. It is equipped with general
purpose machines to deal with product variations, and is capable of processing parts in random order.
KEYPOINT
In dedicated FMS types a limited variety of parts is catered for on a custom-built FMS with specialist
machines to achieve high production rates. In the random-order FMS type, a large part family with
wide possibilities for future design changes, and changing production schedules, is catered for on a
general-purpose FMS with random-order sequencing of parts.

Figure: Comparison of dedicated and random-order FMS types

 COMPONENTS OF FMS
The basic components of FMS are:
1. Workstations
2. Automated Material Handling and Storage system.
3. Computer Control System
1. WORKSTATIONS:
In present day application these workstations are typically computer numerical control (CNC) machine tools that
perform machining operation on families of parts. The various workstations are-
(i)Machining centres-
These are usually CNC machine tools with appropriate automatic tool changing and tool storage features to
facilitate quick physical changeover, as necessary.
(ii)Load and unload stations-
Physical interface between the FMS and the rest of the factory, it is where raw parts enter the system, and
completely-processed parts exit the system. Loading and unloading can be performed manually by personnel, or it
can be automated as part of the material handling system. The station includes a data entry unit and monitor for
communication between the operator and computer system, regarding parts to enter the system, and parts to exit
the system.
(iii)Assembly work stations-
The assembly operation usually consists of a number of workstations with industrial robots that
sequentially assemble components to the base part to create the overall assembly.
(iv)Inspection stations
(v) Forging stations
(vi)Sheet metal processing-
Such as punching, shearing, and certain bending and forming processes.

2. AUTOMATED MATERIAL HANDLING AND STORAGE SYSTEM:

The various automated material handling systems are used to transport work parts and subassembly
parts between the processing stations, sometimes incorporating storage into function. The various
functions of automated material handling and storage system are: -
(i) Random and independent movement of work parts between workstations
(ii) Handling of a variety of work part configurations
(iii) Provides temporary storage—small queues of parts awaiting processing may be allowed to build-up
in front of each station in the system.
(iv) Provides convenient access for loading and unloading workparts at load and unload stations
(v) Creates compatibility with computer control—the handling system must be under the direct control
of the computer system which directs it to the various workstations, load/unload stations, and storage
areas.

3. COMPUTER CONTROL SYSTEM:

It is used to coordinate the activities of the processing stations and the material handling system in the
FMS. The various functions of computer control system are:
(i) Workstation control—fully automated FMSs use some form of workstation control at each station,
often in the form of CNC control.
(ii) Distribution of control instructions to workstations—a central computer is required to handle the
processing occurring at disparate workstations; this involves the dissemination of part programmes to
individual workstations, based upon an overall schedule held by the central computer.
(iii) Production control—management of the mix and rate at which various parts are launched into the system is
important; alongside data input of a number of essential metrics, such as: daily desired production rates, number
of raw workparts available, work-in-progress etc.

(iv) Traffic control—management of the primary handling system is essential so that parts arrive at the right
location at the right time and in the right condition

(v) Shuttle control—management of the secondary handling system is also important, to ensure the correct
delivery of the workpart to the station’s workhead.

(vi) Workpiece monitoring—the computer must monitor the status of each cart or pallet in the primary and
secondary handling systems, to ensure that we know the location of every element in the system.

(vii) Tool control—this is concerned with managing tool location (keeping track of the different tools used at
different workstations, which can be a determinant on where a part can be processed), and tool life (keeping track
on how much usage the tool has gone through, so as to determine when it should be replaced).
4. HUMAN RESOURCES
Human personnel manage the overall operations of the system. Humans are also required in the FMS to perform a variety
of supporting operations in the system; these include: loading raw workparts into the system; unloading finished parts or
assemblies from the system; changing and setting tools; performing equipment maintenance and repair; performing NC
part programming; programming and operating the computer system; and managing the system.
The different types of flexibility that are exhibited by manufacturing systems are given below:
a) Machine Flexibility:- It is the capability to adapt a given machine in the system to a wide range of production
operations and part styles. The greater the range of operations and part styles the greater will be the machine flexibility.
The various factors on which machine flexibility depends are:
• Setup or changeover time
• Ease with which part-programs can be downloaded to machines
• Tool storage capacity of machines
b) Product Flexibility:- It refers to ability to change over to a new set of products economically and quickly in response to
the changing market requirements. The change over time includes the time for designing, planning, tooling, and fixturing
of new products introduced in the manufacturing line-up.
c) Routing Flexibility. It can define as capacity to produce parts on alternative workstation in case of equipment breakdowns, tool
failure, and other interruptions at any particular station.
Following are the factors which decides routing flexibility:
• Similarity of parts in the mix
• Similarity of workstations
• Common tooling

d) Volume Flexibility. It is the ability of the system to vary the production volumes of different products to accommodate changes
in demand while remaining profitable. It can also be termed as capacity flexibility. Factors affecting the volume flexibility are:
• Level of manual labor performing production
• Amount invested in capital equipment

e) Expansion Flexibility. It is defined as the ease with which the system can be expanded to foster total production volume.
Expansion flexibility depends on following factors:
• Cost incurred in adding new workstations and trained workers Easiness in expansion of layout
• Type of part handling system used
 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM LAYOUT
There are five categories of FMS layout; these are discussed in detail : CONFIGURATIONS
(i)IN-LINE

The machines and handling system are arranged in a straight line. In Figure(a) parts
progress from one workstation to the next in a well -defined sequence with work always
moving in one direction and with no back-flow. Routing flexibility can be increased by
installing a linear transfer system with bi -directional flow, as shown in Figure (b). Here a
secondary handling system is provided at each workstation to separate most of the parts
from the primary line. Material handling equipment used: in-line transfer system; conveyor
system; or rail-guided vehicle system.
(ii) LOOP
Workstations are organized in a loop that is served
by a looped parts handling system. In fig (c) parts
usually flow in one direction around the loop with
the capability to stop and be transferred to any
station. Each station has secondary handling
equipment so that part can be brought-to and
transferred-from the station workhead to the
material handling loop. Load/unload stations are
usually located at one end of the loop. An
alternative form is the rectangular layout shown in
Figure (d). This arrangement allows for the return
of pallets to the starting position in a straight line
arrangement.
(iii) LADDER

This consists of a loop with rungs upon which workstations are

located. The rungs increase the number of possible ways of
getting from one machine to the next, and obviates the need for a
secondary material handling system. It reduces average travel
distance and minimizes congestion in the handling system,
thereby reducing transport time between stations. See Figure (e).
(iv) OPEN FIELD

Consists of multiple loops and ladders, and may

include sidings also. This layout is generally used to
process a large family of parts, although the
number of different machine types may be limited,
and parts are usually routed to different
workstations—depending on which one becomes
available first. See Figure (f).
(v)ROBOT-CENTRED
This layout uses one or more robots as the material handling system see Figure (g).
 FLEXIBLE MANUFACTURING SYSTEM APPLICATIONS &
BENEFITS
(i) Increased machine utilization—owing to 24 hr per day operation, automatic tool changing of
machine tools, automatic pallet changing at workstations, queues of parts at stations, and dynamic
scheduling of production that compensates for irregularities
(ii) Fewer machines required—because existing machines are highly flexible, and because of higher
machine utilization
(iii) Reduction in the amount of factory floor space required
(iv) Greater responsiveness to change—owing to the inherent flexibility of the system
(v) Reduced inventory requirements—work-in-process is reduced because different parts are processed
together, and not in batches
(vi) Lower manufacturing lead times
(vii) Reduced direct labour requirements and higher labour productivity—higher production rates and
lower reliance on direct labour mean greater productivity per labour hour with an FMS than with
conventional production methods
Video for reference-
(i)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WIlS3vNSuQ4&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=39
(ii)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=peKvC7GdYNg&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=40
(iii)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzAwk74_eOw&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=41
(iv)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Szt20xNxB5M&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=42
(v)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zm5A2Ugw6ns&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=43
(vi)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=smilviq8tv0&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=44
(vii) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Br2eEpiiwvU&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=46
 GROUP TECHNOLOGY
• Group technology or GT is a manufacturing technique in which parts having similarities in geometry,
manufacturing process and functions are manufactured in one location using a small number of
machines or processes.
• Group technology is based on a general principle that many problems are similar and by grouping
similar problems, a single solution can be found to a set of problems, thus saving time and effort.
• The group of similar parts is known as part family and the group of machineries used to process an
individual part family is known as machine cell.
• It is not necessary for each part of a part family to be processed by every machine of corresponding
machine cell.
• The manufacturing efficiencies are generally increased by employing GT because the required
operations may be confined to only a small cell and thus avoiding the need for transportation of in-
process parts.
 PART FAMILY CONCEPT
• A part family is a collection of parts that are similar either because of geometric shape and size or
because similar processing steps are required in the manufacture.
• The parts within a family are different, but their similarities are close enough to merit their inclusion
as members of the part family.
 IMPLEMENTING GROUP TECHNOLOGY
There are two major tasks that a company must undertake when it implements Group Technology.
1. IDENTIFYING THE PART FAMILIES
If the plant makes 10,000 different parts, reviewing all of the part drawings and grouping the parts into families is
a substantial task that consumes a significant amount of time.
2. REARRANGING PRODUCTION MACHINES INTO CELLS
It is time consuming and costly to plan and accomplish this rearrangement, and the machines are not producing
during the changeover.
Here, red, green and blue indicate different parts.

Jumbled flows in a job shop without GT cells Line flows in a job shop with three GT cells
 ADVANTAGES OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY
(i) Better lead times result in fast response and more reliable delivery.
(ii) Material handling is reduced considerably.
(iii) Robots can be easily used for material handling.
(iv) Better space utilisation.
(v) Smaller variety of tools, jigs and fixtures.
(vi) Improved quality and less scrap.
(vii) Output is improved due to improved resource utilisation.
(viii) Work in progress and finished stock levels are reduced.
(ix) Simplified estimating, accounting and work management.
(x) Improved plant replacement decisions.
(xi) Improved job satisfaction, morale and communication.
(xii) Reduced product design variety.
 DEMERITS OF GROUP TECHNOLOGY
(i) High cost of implementation.
(ii) Identification of part family is a critical task.
(iii) If the plant makes 10000 different parts, reviewing all the part drawings and grouping the parts into
families is a substantial task.
(iv) Rearranging production machines in the plant into appropriate machine cells.
(v) It takes time to plan and accomplish this rearrangement , and the machines are not producing the
change over.

Video for reference -

(i)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_6ZpaJJJwBk
(ii)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QXgxV1IJR-o&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=51&t=127s
 MAGNETIC TAPE
• Magnetic tape is a medium for magnetic recording, made of a thin, magnetisable coating
on a long, narrow strip of plastic film. It was developed in Germany in 1928
• Devices that record and playback audio and video using magnetic tape are tape recorders
and video tape recorders respectively.
• In the manufacturing process, a mixture of magnetic particles, resins, and solvents is
coated on a thin plastic film or "web".

The process of manufacturing magnetic tape consists of:

1. MIXING AND DISPERSING
(i) The first step in the production of magnetic tape is that of mixing. Its purpose is to produce an extremely
uniform intermixture of the various constituents of the coating, namely oxide, resins, additives, and
solvents. The solvent will not or should not remain as part of the finished coating.
(ii)This step may be carried out in one or several stages. It is most commonly accomplished in two stages;
pre-mixing and dispersing.
(iii)If the resin is solid or granular, it must be dissolved in a solvent. The various additives are usually mixed in at
this point. The oxide may be added in several ways. It can be added all at once to the resin-solvent mixture or it
may be pre-mixed with only part of the resin mixture.
(iv)The function of dispersing is to distribute the oxide particles uniformly throughout the resin and to provide
wetting of the oxide particles by the resin.
(v)The small magnetic particles have a very strong tendency to agglomerate or form into clumps. The presence of
these clumps is deleterious to performance in several ways. They produce noise and non-uniformity.
(vi)The time required to achieve a uniform dispersion varies rather widely, namely, from a relatively few minutes to
a matter of days.
(vii)It is a function of a number of factors, such as the power input, the size, shape and density of the dispersing
media, the presence or absence of wetting agents, the type of resin, the type of oxide and the viscosity and other
rheological properties of the mix.
(viii)Various factors are used in evaluating the point at which a good dispersion has been attained. Small amounts
of the mix are usually drawn off at various stages of dispersion and coated in the form of tape.
(ix)The coated sample is then examined physically for presence of agglomerates with the aid of a
microscope.
(x)Once a satisfactory dispersion has been achieved, the mix may either go direct to the coater or,
more commonly, it may be held in a storage tank until it is required for coating.
(xi)The mix may be filtered as it is pumped from the dispersing mill to the storage tank or coater to
remove any agglomerates which may remain or foreign matter of any type which may be in the mix.

2. STORAGE
(i)The length of time a mix may be held in a temporary storage tank is limited by the rate at which the
oxide will either agglomerate or settle out.
(ii)Most thermosetting resins have a rather limited "shelf life" be-cause the cross-linking reaction will
often start even ~t room temperatures, resulting in either a viscosity increase, or at worst, complete
gelling.
(iii)On the other hand it is possible to achieve stable dispersions which will have shelf life of weeks or
even months, just as with some modern paints.
(iv)After storage for a relatively long time, the mix can be re-dispersed with a relatively short time in a
dispersing mill and then coated.
3. COATING

Figure: Knife Coater: The coating is metered onto the web through the gap between
the "knife" and the web.

(i)The function of this step is to apply a very thin, uniform coating of the mix to a web of base film at a reasonably
high speed. The key word here is uniform. The coating must be uniform both along the web and across the web. It
should also be very smooth and not contain ridges, bumps, bubbles, pits, or craters.

(ii)The simplest and therefore perhaps the most com-mon form of coating is knife coating. The blade of the "knife;'
which may be sharp or very blunt, extends across the web and forms a dam behind which is the mix. There is a
small gap between the bottom of the knife and the top of the base film, which produces a metering action.
(iii)Thickness will also depend on the mix viscosity and coating speed.

Figure: Reverse Roll Coater :The coating thickness is determined by the gap
between applicator and metering rolls

(iv)Another method for coating is reverse roll coater. The mix is applied in a relatively thick layer to a
very accurate, smooth-surfaced roll called the applicator roll. The layer of mix carried around the roll is
then metered by another roll rotating in the same direction.

(v)The metered mix is then transferred from the applicator roll to the base film, the surface of which is
supported on one or more rolls so that the film is moving opposite to the surface of the applicator roll.
The coating is thus applied in a wiping action.
(vi)An entirely different sort of metering action is utilized in gravure coating. The surface of the gravure
roll is engraved with a series of fine grooves closely spaced together. The grooves, of given shape and
pitch, will pick up and hold the mix.

Figure: Gravure Coater The amount of coating applied to the web is determined by
size and pitch of the gravure grooves, and by the characteristics of the wet mix
(vii)All excess mix is then doctored off the surface of the roll so that the only material left is that
contained in the grooves.
(viii)The mix is finally transferred to the base material which is moving in the same direction and at the
same speed as the gravure roll.
(ix)As applied to the base material, it is of course in the form of small ridges usually running diagonally
across the base material. These must be smoothed out if a truly uniform coating thickness is to be
achieved.
(x)There are a number of other coating processes which have not found commercial application for
magnetic tape. These include spray coating, dip coating.

4.ORIENTING
(i) Immediately after coating, while the mix is still very fluid, a magnetic field may be applied.
(ii) The individual oxide particles will tend to rotate and align their long axes with the ap-plied magnetic
field. The degree of alignment achieved in commercial magnetic tapes is by no means ideal or
complete but nonetheless considerably enhances the magnetic properties.
(iii) The magnetic field is usually applied in the direction of tape motion but may, as is the case for
video tape, be applied across the tape, or at any angle. Both permanent magnets and electro-magnets
are commonly used.
Figure: Coated Web after leaving the curing/drying oven
5. DRYING
The coated web then passes through a drying oven, where the solvents in the coating evaporate.

6. SURFACE TREATMENT AND CALENDERING

The dry coated web may be passed through several calendering rolls to compact the coating and to smooth the surface
finish.

7. SLITTING
• Wide web of tape which typically ranges from six to sixty inches wide must then be slit to a width appropriate to its
intended application.
• Circular knives make intimate contact with one another per-forming a scissor-like action on the tape.

8.REWINDING AND PACKAGING

• During slitting the tape may be wound onto the reel upon which it will be used, in which case the next operation
involved is merely that of boxing.
• Prior to shipping each reel is placed in a dust-proof plastic container and sealed so that it will arrive at its destination in
as nearly as possible the same condition as it left the manufacturing plant.
9. INSPECTION AND TESTING

(i)Testing during manufacture falls into three categories. In-process testing, 100% inspection, and statistical
sampling.
(ii)In process testing may be accomplished by removing small samples from the process and testing them in
the laboratory, or it may be accomplished with in-line testing instruments.
(iii)One hundred percent inspection is used on tapes for computer use which must be certified to be
completely error free. This means that each reel is placed on a computer tape handler and actual recordings
are made on all tracks using the same format as the computer for which it is intended.
(iv) Every lot of precision tape must be subjected to a series of physical and performance tests to insure
its compliance with manufacturers' and users' standards. In addition to lot-by-lot testing, periodic
samples are selected from among production lots and given a wide range of magnetic, physical,
chemical, and performance tests.

Figure: Schematic drawing of a magnetic tape coating plant

Magnetic tape recording works by converting electrical audio signals into magnetic energy, which
imprints a record of the signal onto a moving tape covered in magnetic particles. Playback is achieved
by converting the recording on tape back into electrical energy to be amplified.
Video for reference-
(i) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FeKxC8pLTbI&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=33
(ii)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AKr0AMbcmRU&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=32&t=349s
 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
• Printed circuit boards, PCBs, can be made from
a variety of substances. The most widely used
in a form of glass fibre based board known as
FR4. This provides a reasonable degree of
stability under temperature variation and is
does not breakdown badly, while not being
excessively expensive.
• In order to make a PCB with tracks for the
components, copper clad board is first
obtained. This consists of the substrate
material, typically FR4, with copper cladding
normally on both sides. This copper cladding
consists of a thin layer of copper sheet bonded
to the board.
1. STEP ONE: DESIGNING THE PCB
The beginning step of any PCB manufacture is, of course, the design. PCB manufacture and design
always start with a plan: the designer lays out a blueprint for the PCB that fulfills all the requirements
as outlined. The most commonly-used design software used by PCB designers is a software called
Extended Gerber — also known as IX274X.
• Extended Gerber encodes all the information that the designer needs, such as the number of copper
layers, the number of solder masks needed and the other pieces of component notation. Once a
design blueprint for the PCB is encoded by the Gerber Extended software, all the different parts and
aspects of the design are checked over to make sure that there are no errors.
• Once the examination by the designer is complete, the finished PCB design is sent off to a PCB
fabrication house so that the PCB can be built. On arrival, the PCB design plan undergoes a second
check by the fabricator, known as a Design for Manufacture (DFM) check. A proper DFM check
ensures that the PCB design fulfils, at minimum, the tolerances required for manufacture.

2. STEP TWO: PRINTING THE PCB DESIGN/ FILE TO FILM

• A special printer called a plotter printer is used to print
the design of the PCB.
• A plotter printer makes a “film” of the PCB. The final
product of this “film” looks much like the
transparencies that used to be used in schools — it’s
essentially a photo negative of the board itself.
3. In order to gain the correct pattern of tracks, a PHOTOGRAPHIC PROCESS is used. Typically the copper on the bare
printed circuit boards is covered with a thin layer of photo-resist. It is then exposed to Ultra violet light to harden the
photoresist through a photographic film or photo-mask detailing the tracks required. In this way the image of the tracks is
passed onto the photo-resist.

[Photoresist (also known simply as a resist) is a light-sensitive material used in several processes, such as
photolithography and photoengraving, to form a patterned coating on a surface. This process is crucial in the electronic
industry.

The process begins by coating a substrate with a light-sensitive organic material. A patterned mask is then applied to the
surface to block light, so that only unmasked regions of the material will be exposed to light. A solvent, called a
developer, is then applied to the surface. In the case of a positive photoresist, the photo-sensitive material is degraded by
light and the developer will dissolve away the regions that were exposed to light, leaving behind a coating where the
mask was placed. In the case of a negative photoresist, the photosensitive material is strengthened (either polymerized
or cross-linked) by light, and the developer will dissolve away only the regions that were not exposed to light, leaving
behind a coating in areas where the mask was not placed.
The advantages of negative photoresists are good adhesion to silicon, lower cost, and a shorter processing time. The advantages of positive
photoresists are better resolution and thermal stability.
4. With this complete, the photo-resist is placed in a developer so that only those areas of the board
where tracks are needed are covered in the resist.

5. REMOVING UNWANTED COPPER

The next stage in the process is to place the printed circuit boards into the ferric chloride to etch the
areas where no track or copper is required. The hardened photoresist remains intact. Knowing the
concentration of the ferric chloride and the thickness of the copper on the board, it is placed into the
etch froth e required amount of time. If the printed circuit boards are placed in the etch for too long,
then some definition is lost as the ferric chloride will tend to undercut the photo-resist.

6. AUTOMATED OPTICAL INSPECTION

To confirm that there are no defects, the AOI machine compares the PCB with the Extended Gerber
design, which serves as the manufacturer’s model.
The AOI step is crucial for the operation of the printed circuit board. Without it, boards that could have
short circuits, not meet the design specifications or have extra copper that was not removed during
etching could pass through the rest of the process.
7. LAMINATING THE PCB LAYERS
• Once the layers have been confirmed as being defect-free, they’re ready to be fused.
• The outside of the PCB is made of pieces of fiberglass that have been pre-soaked/pre-coated with
an epoxy resin. The original piece of the substrate is also covered in a layer of thin copper foil that
now contains the etchings for the copper traces. Once the outer and inner layers are ready, it’s time
to push them together.

• The sandwiching of these layers is done using metal clamps on a special press table.
• The technician doing the laminating process starts by placing a layer of pre-coated epoxy resin
known as pre-impregnated or prepreg — on the table’s alignment basin. A layer of the substrate is
placed over the pre-impregnated resin, followed by a copper foil layer.
• Once the copper press plate is in place, the stack is ready to be pressed. The technician takes it over
to a mechanical press and presses the layers down and together. As part of this process, pins are
then punched down through the stack of layers to ensure that they’re fixed properly.
• If the layers are fixed properly, the PCB stack is taken to the next press, a laminating press. The
laminating press uses a pair of heated plates to apply both heat and pressure to the stack of layers.
The plates’ heat melts the epoxy inside of the prepeg — it, and the pressure from the press combine
to fuse the stack of PCB layers together.

8. DRILLING
• Holes are drilled into the layers by a computer-guided drill to expose the substrate
and inner panels. Any remaining copper after this step is removed.
9. PLATING
After the panel has been drilled, it’s ready to be plated. The plating process uses a chemical to fuse all of the different
layers of the PCB together.
The board is then thoroughly cleaned by another series of chemicals. These chemicals also coat the panel with a thin
copper layer, which will seep into the drilled holes.
10. OUTER LAYER IMAGING
Earlier in the process a photoresist was applied to the PCB panel. In Step ten , it’s time to apply another layer of
photoresist.
Once the outer layers have been coated in photoresist and imaged, they’re plated in the exact same way the interior
layers of the PCB were plated in the previous step. However, while the process is the same, the outer layers get a plating
of tin to help guard the copper of the outside layer.
11. OUTER LAYER ETCHING
When it comes time to etch the outside layer for the last time, the tin guard is used to help protect the copper during
the etching process. Any unwanted copper is removed using the same copper solvent from earlier, with the tin
protecting the valued copper of the etching area.
12. OUTER LAYER AOI
As with the inner layer, the outer layer must also undergo automated optical inspection. This optical inspection ensures
the layer meets the exact requirements of the design.
13. SOLDER MASK APPLICATION
Panels require a thorough cleaning before the solder mask application. Once clean, each panel has an
ink epoxy and solder mask film covering the surface. Next, ultraviolet light strikes the boards to
indicate where the solder mask needs removal.
Once technicians take off the solder mask, the circuit board goes into an oven to cure the mask.
14. SILKSCREEN APPLICATION
Because PCBs need to have information directly on the board, fabricators must print vital data on the
surface of the board in a process referred to as silkscreen application or legend printing. This
information includes the following:
• Company ID numbers
• Warning labels
• Manufacturers marks or logos
• Part numbers
• Pin locators and similar marks
After printing the above information onto the printed circuit boards, often with an inkjet printer, the
PCBs have their surface finish applied. Then, they continue to the testing, cutting and inspection
phases.
15. FINISHING THE PCB
Finishing the PCB requires plating with conductive materials, such as the following:
• Immersion silver: Low signal loss, lead-free, RoHS compliant, the finish can oxidize and tarnish
• Hard gold: Durable, long shelf life, RoHS compliant, lead-free, expensive
• Electroless nickel immersion gold (ENIG): One of the most common finishes, long shelf life, RoHS compliant, more expensive than other options
• Hot air solder leveling (HASL): Cost-effective, long-lasting, reworkable, contains lead, not RoHS compliant
• Lead-free HASL: Cost-effective, lead-free, RoHS compliant, reworkable
• Immersion tin (ISn): Popular for press-fit applications, tight tolerances for holes, RoHS compliant, handling the PCB can cause soldering problems, tin whiskers
• Organic solderability preservative (OSP): RoHS compliant, cost-effective, short shelf life
• Electroless nickel electroless palladium immersion gold (ENEPIG): High solder strength, reduces corrosion, requires careful processing for proper performance, less
cost-effective than options that don’t use gold or palladium
The correct material depends on the design specifications and the customer’s budget. However, applying such finishes creates an essential trait for the PCB. The finishes
allow an assembler to mount electronic components. The metals also cover the copper to protect it from oxidation that can occur with exposure to air.
16. ELECTRICAL RELIABILITY TEST
• Before the PCB is considered complete, a technician will perform an
electrical test on the board. This will confirm the PCB functions and
follows the original blueprint designs.
• The main tests that are performed are circuit continuity and isolation
tests. The circuit continuity test checks for any disconnections in the
PCB, known as “opens.” On the other hand, the circuit isolation test
checks the isolation values of the PCB’s various parts to check if there
are any shorts.
• Advanced version of electrical testing called Flying Probe Testing.

17. PROFILING AND ROUTE OUT

Routing out, or scoring, allows for easier separation of the boards. A
router or CNC machine creates several small pieces along the edges of the
board. These edges can let the board quickly break off without damage.
18. PACKAGING AND DELIVERY
Packaging typically involves material that seals around the printed circuit boards to keep out dust and
other foreign materials. The sealed boards then go into containers that protect them from damage during
shipping. Lastly, they go out for delivery to the customers.

Video for reference -

(i)https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ljOoGyCso8s&list=PLkaII2UNYFS3E2lR5XvYBIO6fMxqVx4ip&index=36&t=469s
(ii)https://maker.pro/pcb/projects/how-to-get-printed-circuit-boards-manufactured-and-assembled
THE PARTS OF A PCB
There are four main parts to a PCB:
• Substrate: The first, and most important, is the substrate, usually made of fiberglass. Fiberglass is used because it provides a core strength to the PCB and helps
resist breakage. Think of the substrate as the PCB’s “skeleton”.
• Copper Layer: Depending on the board type, this layer can either be copper foil or a full-on copper coating. Regardless of which approach is used, the point of
the copper is still the same — to carry electrical signals to and from the PCB, much like your nervous system carries signals between your brain and your
muscles.
• Solder Mask: The third piece of the PCB is the solder mask, which is a layer of polymer that helps protect the copper so that it doesn’t s hort-circuit from coming
into contact with the environment. In this way, the solder mask acts as the PCB’s “skin”.
• Silkscreen: The final part of the circuit board is the silkscreen. The silkscreen is usually on the component side of the board used to s how part numbers, logos,
symbols switch settings, component reference and test points. The silkscreen can also be known as legend or nomenclature.