Condensation and Boiling Heat Transfer

Department of Chemical Engineering

University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq

Presented by
Dr. Abbas J. Sultan 1
 University of Technology, Baghdad, Iraq

Introduction
Our preceding discussions of convection heat transfer have
considered homogeneous single-phase systems. Of equal
importance are the convection processes associated with a change
of phase of a fluid. The two most important examples are
condensation and boiling phenomena.

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In particular, we consider processes that can occur at a solid-liquid or

solid–vapor interface, namely, boiling and condensation. For these
cases latent heat effects associated with the phase change are
significant. The change from the liquid to the vapor state due to boiling
is sustained by heat transfer from the solid surface; conversely,
condensation of a vapor to the liquid state results in heat transfer to the
solid surface. Since they involve fluid motion, boiling and
condensation are classified as forms of the convection mode of heat
transfer.

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In many types of power or refrigeration cycles, one is interested in

changing a vapor to a liquid, or a liquid to a vapor, depending on the
particular part of the cycle under study.

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These changes are accomplished by boiling or condensation, and the
chemical engineer must understand the processes involved in order to
design the appropriate heat transfer equipment.

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Condensation Heat-Transfer Phenomena

Consider a vertical flat plate
exposed to a condensable vapor. If
the temperature of the plate is
below the saturation temperature of
the vapor, condensate will form on
the surface, and under the action of
gravity will flow down the plate. If
the liquid wets the surface, a
smooth film is formed, and the
process is called film condensation.
If the liquid does not wet the
surface, droplets are formed that fall
down the surface in some random
fashion. This process is called
dropwise condensation.
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Comparison between film and dropwise condensation

In the film-condensation process, the surface is blanketed by
the film, which grows in thickness as it moves down the
plate. A temperature gradient exists in the film, and the film
represents a thermal resistance to heat transfer.

a) film condensation

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• In dropwise condensation, a large portion of the area of the

plate is directly exposed to the vapor; there is no film
barrier to heat flow, and higher heat-transfer rates are
experienced. In fact, heat transfer rates in dropwise
condensation may be as much as 10 times higher than in
film condensation.

b) dropwise condensation
Figure 1: Steam condensation on a copper
tube. a) film condensation b) dropwise
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condensation
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Which one is the best? Film or dropwise condensation?
Because of the higher heat-transfer rates, dropwise condensation would
be preferred to film condensation, but it is extremely difficult to
maintain since most surfaces become wetted after exposure to a
condensing vapor over an extended period of time. Various surface
coatings and vapor additives have been used in attempts to maintain
dropwise condensation, but these methods have not met with general
success.

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The effect of plate coating on the condensation process
Figure 2 exhibits the steam condensation on a copper plate. The right
side of the plate is clean copper, where steam condenses as a
continuous film. The left side has a coating of cupric oleate, which
promotes dropwise condensation. The horizontal object is a
thermocouple probe with a diameter of 1.7 mm. In this case, the heat-
transfer coefficient for the dropwise condensation is about seven times
that for the film-wise condensation.

Figure 2: Steam condensation on a copper plate. The right side represents the film
10
condensation. The left side represents the dropwise condensation.
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Heat Transfer Correlations for Film Condensation

Film condensation on a vertical

plate may be analyzed in a manner
first proposed by Nusselt, 1916.
Consider the coordinate system
shown in Figure 3. The plate
temperature is maintained at Tw,
and the vapor temperature at the
edge of the film is the saturation
temperature Tg. The film thickness
is represented by δ, and we choose
the coordinate system with the
Tw
positive direction of x measured
Tg
downward, as shown in Figure 3.
The volume element of condensate on a vertical plate
considered in Nusselt’s analysis 11
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Nusselt first developed the analytical relation for the heat transfer coefficient in
film condensation on a vertical plate in 1916 under the following simplifying
assumptions:
1. Both the plate and the vapor are
maintained at constant temperatures of Tg
and Tw, respectively, and the temperature
across the liquid film varies linearly.
2. Heat transfer across the liquid film is by
pure conduction (no convection currents in
the liquid film).
3. The velocity of the vapor is low (or zero)
so that it exerts no drag on the condensate
(no viscous shear on the liquid–vapor
interface).
4. The flow of the condensate is laminar, Tw
and the properties of the liquid are constant.
5. The acceleration of the condensate layer Tg
12
is negligible.
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Then Newton’s second law of motion

for the volume element shown in the
right Figure in the vertical x-direction
can be written as:

෍ 𝐹𝑥 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 0
since the acceleration of the fluid is
zero. Noting that the only force acting
downward is the weight of the liquid
element, and the forces acting upward
are the viscous shear (or fluid friction)
force at the left and the buoyancy
Tw
force, the force balance on the volume
element becomes Tg

𝐹downward ↓ = 𝐹upward ↑
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𝐹downward ↓ = 𝐹upward ↑
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 = 𝐷𝑟𝑎𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝐹𝑔 = 𝐹𝐷 + 𝐹𝐵

𝑚𝑙 . 𝑔 = 𝜏. 𝐴 + 𝑚𝑣 . 𝑔
𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝑙 . 𝑉. 𝑔 = 𝜇 . 𝐴 + 𝜌𝑣 . 𝑉. 𝑔
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝑙 . 𝛿 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 1 . 𝑔 = 𝜇 . 𝑑𝑥 1 + 𝜌𝑣 . 𝛿 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑥 1 . 𝑔
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝑙 . 𝛿 − 𝑦 . 𝑔 − 𝜌𝑣 . 𝛿 − 𝑦 . 𝑔 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝛿 − 𝑦 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦 14
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𝑑𝑢
𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝛿 − 𝑦 = 𝜇
𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑢 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝛿 − 𝑦
=
𝑑𝑦 𝜇
By separation of variables, the above
equation can be written as follows:
𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔
𝑑𝑢 = 𝛿 − 𝑦 𝑑𝑦
𝜇
By integrating the above
equation, we obtain the following
equation:
𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝑦2
𝑢= 𝛿𝑦− +𝐶
𝜇 2
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𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝑦2
𝑢= 𝛿𝑦− +𝐶
𝜇 2

By using the following boundary condition that u=0

at y=0, we can find the value of constant (C=0).
Hence, the above can be written as follows:

𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝑦2
𝑢= 𝛿𝑦−
𝜇 2
The mass flow of condensate through any x position of the film is thus given by the following
equation:
𝛿
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑚ሶ = න 𝜌 𝑢 𝑑𝑦 1
0
𝛿
𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝑦2
𝑚ሶ = න 𝜌𝑙 𝛿𝑦− 𝑑𝑦
0 𝜇 2
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𝛿
𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝑦2
𝑚ሶ = න 𝜌𝑙 𝛿𝑦− 𝑑𝑦
0 𝜇 2

𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝛿 𝑦2
𝑚ሶ = න 𝛿𝑦− 𝑑𝑦
𝜇 0 2

𝛿
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝑦2 𝑦 3
𝑚ሶ = 𝛿 −
𝜇 2 6 0
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝛿2 𝛿3 02 03
𝑚ሶ = 𝛿 − − 𝛿 −
𝜇 2 6 2 6

𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝛿3 𝛿3
𝑚ሶ = − − 0
𝜇 2 6
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𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝛿3 𝛿3
𝑚ሶ = − − 0
𝜇 2 6

𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 𝛿3
𝑚ሶ =
𝜇 3

𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔𝛿 3
𝑚ሶ =
3𝜇

𝑔𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝛿 3
𝑚(𝑥)
ሶ =
3𝜇𝑙
whose derivative with respect to x is

𝑑𝑚ሶ 𝑔𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝛿 2 𝑑𝛿
=
𝑑𝑥 𝜇𝑙 𝑑𝑥
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𝑑𝑚ሶ 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔𝛿 2 𝑑𝛿
=
𝑑𝑥 𝜇𝑙 𝑑𝑥

which represents the rate of condensation of vapor over a vertical

distance dx.
The rate of heat transfer from the vapor to the plate through the liquid
film is simply equal to the heat released as the vapor is condensed and is
expressed as

𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
𝑑𝑞 = ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑑 𝑚ሶ = 𝑘𝑙 (𝑑𝑥)(1)
𝛿

𝑑𝑚ሶ 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
=
𝑑𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝛿

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𝑑 𝑚ሶ 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
=
𝑑𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝛿
𝑑 𝑚ሶ 𝑔𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 −𝜌𝜈 𝛿 2 𝑑𝛿
Since =
𝑑𝑥 𝜇𝑙 𝑑𝑥

𝑑 𝑚ሶ
Equating the above equations for to
𝑑𝑥
each other

𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔𝛿 2 𝑑𝛿 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
=
𝜇𝑙 𝑑𝑥 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝛿

3
𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
𝛿 𝑑𝛿 = 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔
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𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
𝛿 3 𝑑𝛿 = 𝑑𝑥
ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔

By integrating the above equation, we obtain the following equation:

𝛿 4 𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
= 𝑥+𝐶
4 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔

𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 0 𝛿=0⇒𝐶=0

𝛿 4 𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
= 𝑥
4 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔

4
4𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
𝛿 = 𝑥
ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔 21
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4𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
𝛿4 = 𝑥
ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔
By taking the fourth root for both sides, we obtain
1
4𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑥 4
𝛿=
ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔

The heat transfer rate from the vapor to the plate at a location x can be
expressed as
(𝑇g −𝑇𝑤 )
𝑞𝑥 = ℎ𝑥 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑘𝑙 →
𝛿
𝑘𝑙
ℎ𝑥 =
𝛿(𝑥)
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𝑘𝑙
ℎ𝑥 =
𝛿(𝑥)
Substituting the δ(x) expression,
1
4𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑥 4
𝛿=
ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔
the local heat transfer coefficient hx is determined to be
1
𝑘𝑙 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔 4
ℎ𝑥 = 1 = 𝑘𝑙
4
4𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑥
4𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑥
ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔
1
1
−4 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔 4
ℎ𝑥 = 𝑘𝑙 𝑘𝑙
4𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑥
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1
3 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 𝑔 4
ℎ𝑥 = 𝑘𝑙 4
4𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑥
1
3 4
𝑔𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑙
ℎ𝑥 =
4𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑥

Expressed in the dimensionless form in terms of the Nusselt number

as follows: 1
ℎ𝑥 𝑔𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑙 3 4
𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = =
𝑘𝑙 4𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑥 𝑘𝑙

1
𝑔𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 4
Τ4
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 𝑥 3Τ4 𝑘𝑙−1
4𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
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1
𝑔𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 4
Τ4
𝑁𝑢𝑥 = 𝑥 3Τ4 𝑘𝑙−1
4𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
3 1Τ4
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑥
𝑁𝑢𝑥 =
4𝜇 𝑘 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤
1
𝑔𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑥3 4
𝑁𝑢𝑥 =
4𝜇𝑙 𝑘𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤
The average heat transfer coefficient over the entire plate is determined
from its definition by substituting the hx relation and performing the
integration. It gives

1 𝐿 4
ത
ℎ = න ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ℎ𝑥=𝐿
𝐿 0 3
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1 𝐿 4
ℎത = න ℎ𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = ℎ𝑥=𝐿
𝐿 0 3
1
3 4
𝑔𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑙
ℎ𝑥 =
4𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑥
3 1Τ4
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑙
ℎത = 0.943
𝐿𝜇𝑙 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤

The above Equation, which is obtained with the simplifying assumptions

stated earlier, provides good insight on the functional dependence of the
condensation heat transfer coefficient. However, it is observed to underpredict
heat transfer because it does not take into account the effects of the nonlinear
temperature profile in the liquid film and the cooling of the liquid below the
saturation temperature. Both of these effects can be accounted for by
replacing hfg by h*fg.
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With this modification, the average heat transfer coefficient for laminar
film condensation over a vertical flat plate of height L is determined to
be
∗ 3 1Τ4
𝑔𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑙
ℎത = 0.943 WΤm2 ⋅ °𝐶 , 0 < Re < 30
𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝐿

where

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The temperature of the liquid film varies from

Tg on the liquid–vapor interface to TW at the
wall surface. Therefore, the properties of the
liquid should be evaluated at the film
temperature Tf=(Tg+Tw)/2, which is
approximately the average temperature of the
liquid. The hfg, however, should be evaluated at
Tsat since it is not affected by the subcooling of
the liquid.

As was the case in forced convection

involving a single phase, heat transfer in
condensation also depends on whether the
condensate flow is laminar or turbulent.
Again, the criterion for the flow regime is
provided by the Reynolds number, which is
defined as 28
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For a vertical plate of unit depth, P =1;

for a vertical tube, P =πd.
• The critical Reynolds number is approximately 1800, and
turbulent correlations for heat transfer must be used at Reynolds
numbers greater than this value. 29
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The evaluation of the hydraulic diameter Dh for some common
geometries is illustrated in the below figure. Note that the hydraulic
diameter is again defined such that it reduces to the ordinary diameter
for flow in a circular tube, as was done in previous Chapter for internal
flow, and it is equivalent to 4 times the thickness of the condensate film
at the location where the hydraulic diameter is evaluated.

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The Reynolds number is sometimes expressed in terms of the mass

flow per unit depth of plate Γ, so that
4Γ
𝑅𝑒𝑓 =
𝜇𝑓
In calculating the Reynolds numbers, the mass flow may be related to
the total heat transfer and the heat transfer coefficient by the following
equation:
ത 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑚ℎ
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴 ሶ 𝑓𝑔
where A is the total surface area for heat transfer. Thus
𝑞 ത 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤
ℎ𝐴
𝑚ሶ = =
ℎ𝑓𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔
4𝑚ሶ ത 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤
4ℎ𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑓 = =
𝑃𝜇𝑓 𝑃𝜇𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔
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4𝑚ሶ ത 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤
4ℎ𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑓 = =
𝑃𝜇𝑓 𝑃𝜇𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔

𝐴 = 𝐿𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 = 𝑊

where L and W are the height and width of the plate, respectively, so
that

4𝑚ሶ ത
4ℎ𝐿𝑊 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤
𝑅𝑒𝑓 = =
𝑃𝜇𝑓 𝑊𝜇𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔
ത 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤
4ℎ𝐿
𝑅𝑒𝑓 =
𝜇𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔

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Film condensation on an inclined plate

The heat transfer coefficient for
laminar film condensation on the
upper surfaces of plates that are
inclined by an angle θ from the
vertical can be calculated by using the
following equation:
∗ 3 1Τ4
𝑔 cos 𝜃 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑙
ℎ = 0.943
𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝐿
Note that the condensation heat transfer coefficients on vertical and
inclined plates are related to each other by

ℎinclined = ℎvertical cos 𝜃 1Τ4

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Film condensation on vertical tubes

Equation for vertical plates can also be used to calculate the average
heat transfer coefficient for laminar film condensation on the outer
surfaces of vertical tubes provided that the tube diameter is large
relative to the thickness of the liquid film.

∗ 3 1Τ4
𝑔𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑙
ℎ = 0.943
𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝐿

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Film condensation on horizontal tubes and spheres
The average heat transfer coefficient for film condensation on the outer
surfaces of a horizontal tube is determined to be

∗ 3 1Τ4
𝑔𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑙
ℎ = 0.729
𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝐷

where D is the diameter of the horizontal tube.

The above equation can easily be modified for a
sphere by replacing the constant 0.729 by 0.815.
A comparison of the heat transfer coefficient relations for a vertical
tube of height L and a horizontal tube of diameter D yields
1Τ4
ℎvertical 𝐷
= 1.29
ℎhorizontal 𝐿 35
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Film condensation on horizontal tube banks

Horizontal tubes stacked on top of each other as shown in
the figure are commonly used in condenser design. The
average thickness of the liquid film at the lower tubes is
much larger as a result of condensate falling on top of
them from the tubes directly above. Therefore, the
average heat transfer coefficient at the lower tubes in such
arrangements is smaller. Assuming the condensate from
the tubes above to the ones below drain smoothly, the
average film condensation heat transfer coefficient for all
tubes in a vertical tier can be expressed as
∗ 3 1Τ4
𝑔𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝜈 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑙
ℎℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙,𝑁 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 = 0.729
𝜇𝑙 𝑇g − 𝑇𝑤 𝑁𝐷
1
ℎℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙,𝑁 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒𝑠 = ℎℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙,1 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
𝑁1/4 36
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Film Condensation Inside Horizontal Tubes
So far, we have discussed film condensation on the outer surfaces of
tubes and other geometries, which is characterized by negligible vapor
velocity and the unrestricted flow of the condensate. Most condensation
processes encountered in refrigeration and air-conditioning applications,
however, involve condensation on the inner surfaces of horizontal or
vertical tubes. Heat transfer analysis of condensation inside tubes is
complicated by the fact that it is strongly influenced by the vapor
velocity and the rate of liquid accumulation on the walls of the tubes.

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For low vapor velocities, Chato recommends this expression for
condensation

where the Reynolds number of the vapor is to be evaluated at the

tube inlet conditions using the internal tube diameter as the
characteristic length. 38
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For higher flow rates, an approximate empirical expression is given

by Akers, Deans, and Crosser 1958 as follows:
ത
ℎ𝑑 1Τ3
0.8
= 0.026 𝑅𝑒𝑚 𝑃𝑟𝑓
𝑘𝑓

where now 𝑅𝑒𝑚 is a mixture Reynolds number, defined as follows:

1Τ2
𝑑 𝜌𝑓
𝑅𝑒𝑚 = 𝐺𝑓 + 𝐺𝑣
𝜇𝑓 𝜌𝑣

The mass velocities for the liquid 𝐺𝑓 and vapor 𝐺𝑣 are calculated as if
each occupied the entire flow area.

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Example 1: A vertical square plate, 30 by 30 cm, is exposed to steam at

atmospheric pressure. The plate temperature is 98 °C. Calculate the heat
transfer rate and the mass of steam condensed per hour.
Solution:
The Reynolds number must be checked to
determine if the condensate film is laminar or
turbulent. Properties are evaluated at the film
temperature:
100 + 98
𝑇𝑓 = = 99 °𝐶
2
From Appendix A of the heat transfer book (J.P. Holman), the physical
properties of water at a film temperature of 99 °C are as follows:

𝜌𝑙 = 960 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 , 𝜇𝑙 = 2.82 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚. 𝑠 , 𝑘𝑙 = 0.68 𝑊 Τ𝑚. °𝐶

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For this problem, the density of the vapor is very small in
comparison with that of the liquid, and we are justified in making the
substitution
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ≈ 𝜌𝑙2

In trying to calculate the Reynolds number we find that it is

dependent on the mass flow of condensate. But this is dependent on
the heat-transfer coefficient, which is dependent on the Reynolds
number. To solve the problem, we assume either laminar or turbulent
flow, calculate the heat-transfer coefficient, and then check the
Reynolds number to see if our assumption was correct.
Let us assume laminar film condensation. At atmospheric pressure
we have
𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 100 °𝐶, ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2255 𝑘 𝐽Τ𝑘 𝑔

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3 1Τ4 1Τ4
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓 𝜌𝑙2 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3
ℎത = 0.943 = 0.943
𝐿𝜇𝑓 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤 𝐿𝜇𝑓 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤

2 3 1Τ4
960 9.8 2255000 0.68
ℎത = 0.943 = 13150 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 . °𝐶
0.3 2.82 × 10−4 100 − 98

Now, we can check the Reynolds number from the following equation:
ത 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤
4ℎ𝐿 4 13150 0.3 100 − 98
𝑅𝑒𝑓 = = −4
= 49.6
𝜇𝑓 ℎ𝑓𝑔 2.82 × 10 2255000
So that the laminar assumption was correct. The heat transfer rate
is now can be calculated from the following equation:

ത 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 = 13150 0.3 × 0.3 100 − 98 = 2367 𝑊

𝑞 = ℎ𝐴
𝑞 2367
ത
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 = 𝑚ℎ
ሶ 𝑓𝑔 ⇒ 𝑚ሶ = = = 0.0015 𝑘𝑔 Τ𝑠
ℎ𝑓𝑔 2255000 42
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Example 2: One hundred tubes of 0.50-in (1.27-cm) diameter are

arranged in a square array and exposed to atmospheric steam. Calculate
the mass of steam condensed per unit length of tubes for a tube wall
temperature of 98 °C.

Solution:
Properties are evaluated at the film
temperature:
100 + 98
𝑇𝑓 = = 99 °𝐶
2

From Appendix A of heat transfer book (J.P. Holman), the physical

properties of water at a film temperature of 99 °C are as follows:
𝜌𝑙 = 960 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚3 , 𝜇𝑙 = 2.82 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑚. 𝑠 , 𝑘𝑙 = 0.68 𝑊 Τ𝑚. °𝐶
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For this problem, the density of the vapor is very small in
comparison with that of the liquid, and we are justified in making the
substitution
𝜌𝑙 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣 ≈ 𝜌𝑙2
1Τ4
𝜌𝑙2 𝑔 ℎ𝑓𝑔 𝑘𝑓3
ℎത = 0.725
𝜇𝑓 𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝑔 − 𝑇𝑤
2 3 1Τ4
960 9.8 2255000 0.68
= 0.725
2.82 × 10−4 10 0.0127 100 − 98

ℎത = 12540 𝑊 Τ𝑚2 . °𝐶

ത 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 = ℎ𝜋𝑑𝐿𝑁
𝑞 = ℎ𝐴 ത 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤
𝑞
ത
= ℎ𝜋𝑑𝑁 𝑇𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝑇𝑤 = 12540 𝜋 0.0127 100 100 − 98
𝐿
= 100014 𝑊 Τ𝑚 44
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𝑞
𝑞 = 𝑚ℎ
ሶ 𝑓𝑔 ⇒ × 𝐿 = 𝑚ℎ
ሶ 𝑓𝑔 ⇒ 100014 × 𝐿 = 𝑚ሶ 2255000
𝐿

𝑚ሶ 100014
= = 0.4 𝑘𝑔Τ𝑠 𝑚
𝐿 2255000

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