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January 2012

Digital reading
Ziming Liu
San Jose State University, [email protected]

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Recommended Citation
Ziming Liu. "Digital reading" Chinese Journal of Library and Information Science (English edition) (2012):
85-94.

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 Research Progress

Digital reading: An overview*

Ziming LIU†
School of Library and Information Science, San Jose State University,

San Jose, CA 95192-0029, USA

Received Jan. 4, 2012

Abstract Revised Jun. 26, 2012
Accepted Jun. 29, 2012
Purpose: Digital reading is an important research topic in contemporary information science
research. This paper aims to provide a snapshot of major studies on digital reading over the
past few years.

Design/methodology/approach: This paper begins by introducing the background in digital

reading, then outlines major research findings.

Findings: The paper demonstrates the growth of interest in information science and other
disciplines in digital reading behavior. Five areas are highlighted: Digital reading behavior,
print vs. digital, preference for reading medium, multi-tasking and learning, and technological
advancement and traditional attachment.

Research limitations: Only major studies in the North American and European countries
are covered.

Practical implications: Understanding reading behavior in the digital environment

would help develop more effective reading devices and empower readers in the online
environment.

Originality/value: The paper represents a first attempt to compare, evaluate, and synthesize
recent studies on digital reading. Implications for the changes in reading behavior are
discussed, and directions for future research are suggested.

Keywords Reading, Behavior, User studies

1 Introduction
The widespread use of digital resources has brought about significant changes in
reading practice and behavior as people spend more time reading online. Since CJLIS
2004, Google has partnered with major university libraries and other libraries to Vol. 5 No. 1, 2012
pp 85–94
National Science Library,
* The author appreciates constructive comments from the anonymous referees. Chinese Academy of
†
Correspondence: Ziming Liu (E-mail: [email protected]). Sciences
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Chinese Journal of Library and Information Science Vol. 5 No. 1, 2012
Research Progress
scan print books in their collections. According to The Economist[1], “Amazon now
sells more copies of e-books than paper books. The drift to digits will speed up as
bookshops close. Borders, once a retail behemoth, is liquidating all of its American
stores.” Electronic resources at libraries are increasingly popular. For example, the
number of usage of electronic resources at the Peking University Library has tripled,
from about 10 millions times in 2006 to 30 million times in 2011[2].
Cull[3] stresses: “Since readers are very familiar with reading — we do it every
day in many aspects of our lives — it is often taken for granted. It is easy to forget
how crucial reading continues to be to the formation and communication of human
knowledge. It is central to the operation of modern society. However, because read-
ing is so important, a seemingly small change is likely to have profound ramifica-
tions. Far from a small development, online digital text represents a revolution in
human learning and communication that we are only beginning to understand.” This
paper begins by introducing the background in digital reading, then outlines major
research findings. Implications and future research directions are also discussed.

2 Impacts of digital technology on reading

The increasing mechanization of print facilitated a shift from intensive reading to
extensive reading. Around 1750 there was a dramatic change in the way people read
documents. Before this time, people were reading intensively. They had only a few
books to read and they read them over and over again. By the early 1800s, however,
people started to read things extensively. They read all kinds of materials, especially
periodicals and newspapers, and moved through one item after another[4]. With the
advent of computers and the Internet, the recent decades have witnessed another
drastic change in the way people read: Browsing or scanning is becoming a princi-
pal reading pattern in today’s information-intensive environment. Birkerts stresses[5]:
“In our culture, access is not a problem, but proliferation is. And the reading act is
necessarily different than it was in its earliest days. Awed and intimidated by the
availability of texts, faced with the all but impossible task of discriminating among
them, the reader tends to move across surfaces, skimming, hastening from one
site to the next without allowing the words to resonate inwardly.” As a result, we
“know countless more ‘bits’ of information, both important and trivial, than our
ancestors.”
Bolter states[6]: “The shift from print to the computer does not mean the end of
literacy itself, but the literacy of print, for electronic technology offers us a new
kind of book and new ways to write and read.” Digital media contribute to a trans-
National Science Library,
formative shift in reading. They also introduce a number of powerful advantages
Chinese Academy of that are traditionally absent in the print environment, such as interactivity, nonlin-
Sciences earity, immediacy of accessing information, and the convergence of text, images,
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Research Progress
audio, and video. Lanham compares the difference between print literacy and
[7]

digital literacy. He asserts that “In the world of print, the idea and its expression are
virtually one. The meaning takes the form of words; words generate the meaning.
Digital literacy works in an inherently different way. The same digital code that
expresses words and numbers can, if the parameters of expression are adjusted,
generate sounds and images. This parametric variation stands at the center of
digital expressivity, a role it could never play in print.”
While new media bring unprecedented freedom for readers, they also induce a
new form of constraint[8]. In the print environment, the text is fixed and the author
determines the order in which ideas are presented. In hypertext, however, the author
provides options, but readers choose the order through activating links[9]. The
proliferation of hyperlinks has a profound impact on people’s reading behaviors
such as nonlinear reading (e.g., jumping from page to page and from site to site).
Even for readers who start reading from the same page, what they read may be
different depending on which link is activated. Hyper-reading may also reduce the
sustained attention to any textual source and lead to more fragmented reading, since
each page on the Web has to compete with many other pages for the user’s attention.
In terms of hypertext linking, the author’s conception of the connection’s relevance
may not be the same as the reader’s. Links imposed may not be logically associated
with the original topic, which may send readers to a site for no discernible purpose
and result in disorientation[10].
A number of scholars argue that the arrival of digital media together with the
fragmentary nature of hypertext is threatening sustained reading. Birkerts[11] and
Stoll[12] note that the digital environment tends to encourage people to explore many
topics extensively, but at a more superficial level. Hyperlinks distract people from
reading and thinking deeply about a single subject. In a study of readers who read
either a stimulated literacy hypertext or the same text in a linear form, Miall and
Dobson[10] also find that “hypertext discourages the absorbed and reflective mode
that characterizes literacy reading.” Thirunarayanan[13] observes that “if a Web page
does not load within three seconds, people click their way to another Web page or
site. Clicking is fast becoming a substitute for thinking. Clicking requires less effort
than thinking and is in some instances less painful than thinking.”

3 Research on digital reading

Over the past 15 years, especially with the popularity of e-readers, digital reading
National Science Library,
has been a focus of numerous studies. The intellectual ferment attending this Chinese Academy of
dramatic development has brought with a wealth of new studies and approaches. Sciences
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Chinese Journal of Library and Information Science Vol. 5 No. 1, 2012
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3.1 Digital reading behavior
A recent survey by Gartner Inc.[14] shows that the time people spend reading on a
screen is now almost equal to the time spent reading from print. With the growing
amount of digital information available and the increasing amount of time people
spend on reading electronic media, the digital environment has begun to affect
people’s reading behavior.
Liu[15] investigates reading behavior in the digital environment by analyzing how
people’s reading behavior has changed over the past ten years. His study shows
that with an increasing amount of time spent on reading electronic documents, a
screen-based reading behavior is emerging. This screen-based reading behavior is
characterized by spending more time on browsing and scanning, keyword spotting,
one-time reading, nonlinear reading, and reading more selectively, while less
time is spent on in-depth reading, concentrated reading, and decreasing sustained
attention. While people today spend more time reading than they did in the
print-only past, the depth and concentration associated with reading has declined.
Liu’s findings have been further confirmed by a series studies at University College
London[16,17] and University of Stavabger, Norway[18]. Nicholas and Rowlands[19]
characterize reading behavior in digital libraries as “power browsing”, where
scholars seldom read text online for a long period of time. In study of how expert
readers handle printed and digital documents, Hillesund[18] attempts to explain
differences in digital reading and paper-based reading. He finds that online reading
is characterized by browsing, skimming, and bouncing—that is “discontinuous and
often fragmented reading.” In contrast, concentrated reading is typically done on
paper. Online reading tends to encourage discontinuous reading. Baumann[20] finds
that nearly 6% of students and 8% of professors read the e-books they consult
entirely.
Mangen’s study[21] indicates that digital reading is dominated by shallow forms
of reading (e.g., scanning and skimming), and digital text makes us read in a
shallower, less focused way. Carr[22] notes that while there is nothing wrong with
browsing and scanning, “What is different, and troubling, is that skimming is
becoming our dominant mode of reading.” Cull[3] further stresses that: “University
educators are well aware of the Internet’s pervasive illusion of instantaneous
knowledge. In a world influenced by a powerful online culture, we must remain
committed to motivating our students to take the time required for in-depth reading.
Independent learning, which continues to be based on in-depth reading, will always
take time.”
3.2 Print vs. digital
National Science Library,
Chinese Academy of Many recent studies have found that online reading and reading on print differs
Sciences significantly in a wide range of aspects.
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Digital reading: An overview Ziming LIU
Research Progress
Sellen and Harper’s studies show that the computer system is superior in many
[23]

aspects such as storing, distributing, and retrieving documents. Paper, on the other
hand, is heavily used in tasks that required certain levels of sustained attention
(e.g., editing, planning, and collaboration). Liu’s study[15] finds that annotating and
highlighting while reading is a common activity in the print environment. However,
this “traditional” pattern has not yet migrated to the digital environment when
people read electronic documents, probably because technology as of now does not
allow easy annotating.
Many studies also show that reading a digital text leads to lower comprehension
compared to a printed text[24,25]. However, based on a study of 66 college students
in the US, Moyer[26] finds “no statistically significant differences in comprehension
across print, ebook, and audiobook modalities. Participants’ levels of comprehen-
sion for each text were the same regardless of the format in which it was received.”
Eden and Eshet-Akkalai[27] examine the active-reading activities of students, who
were asked to read, edit, and recognized errors in short articles, in a print and a
digital format. Again no significant differences are found between the performances
of students in the two formats. The finding suggests that today’s young readers are
proficient in digital reading as they read from print, because digital reading has
become an everyday practice among them. However, Eden and Eshet-Akkalai’s
study focuses on student reading activities and performances on short articles.
Future studies on student performances on long documents (e.g., research papers
and textbooks) would improve our understanding in this important area.
Readers’ choices and preferences for digital reading and reading on paper are
contextual. Previous research demonstrates that people prefer reading online over
reading on paper when they read short documents (e.g., emails), when they do
casual reading (e.g., news and entertainment), or when they feel bored. Readers,
however, prefer reading on paper over reading online when they read lengthy
documents (e.g., textbooks), when they need serious/in-depth reading, when they
read something that is difficult to understand, when they read scholarly/research
papers, or when they need to take notes[28].
Many studies reveal that note-taking while reading seriously is a common practice
in the print environment. However, today’s kids who were “born digitally” may not
have the same need to physically highlight and annotate on hard-copy books. Future
studies are needed to continually monitor the changes in reading behavior in the
digital landscape.
While it is true that students can view a lengthy document (e.g., e-textbook) on a
National Science Library,
cell phone or iPod, it is unlikely that they can concentrate on a tiny screen as long as Chinese Academy of
on a printed textbook. A study conducted by Jakob Nielsen in 2010 reveals that Sciences
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Chinese Journal of Library and Information Science Vol. 5 No. 1, 2012
Research Progress
compared with print, iPad readers were 6.2% slower and Kindle readers were 10.7%
slower[29]. Future research on the impact of e-readers and mobile reading will
improve our understanding in this area.

3.3 Preference for reading medium

Research finds that readers’ choices and preferences for reading medium are very
diverse and contextual[30]. Despite increasing popularity of digital resources,
we should note that not a single type of format has ever proven adequate for all
needs and ideal in all situations. Administrators and librarians need to be aware
of students’ continued desire to read on print as a source for in-depth reading[3].
For example, even though e-textbooks offer a number of features and functions that
are not available with printed textbooks such as searchability, built-in dictionary,
crossing referencing, and ease in copy and paste; it is somewhat surprising that
e-textbooks have not been embraced as whole-heartedly anticipated. According
to the National Association of College Stores, digital versions make up no more
than 3% of recent textbook sales[31]. A recent report published in New York Times
also reveals that students still cling to traditional paper textbook in the digital age[31].
The most critical challenge with wider acceptance of digital textbooks is reading
and navigation. Students usually highlight texts and write in the margin of their
paper textbooks as a way to improve retention and comprehension. While devices
have improved overtime, adequate note-taking and note management mechanism
remain problematic for many college students. E-book devices can support
expansive skimming, but have not yet crossed the critical hurdle of supporting the
intertwined reading and note-taking[32].

3.4 Multi-tasking and learning

Multi-tasking while reading is not a new issue (e.g., reading while watching TV or
listening to the radio), but the online reading environment brings this issue to a new
level of research attention. Since people are so connected, they no longer exist in
their own space. Many people, especially younger ones, tend to work simultane-
ously on several tasks with multiple windows open. One participant in Liu’s study[15]
notes: “I have to admit that my attention definitely decreased when I read online.
I checked my fantasy football scores and stock quotes, surfed favorite news sites,
and listened for the ping of e-mail from a particular response I was expecting.”
Rubinstein et al. finds that people who engage in multitasking behaviors, such as
National Science Library,
Chinese Academy of switching back and forth between the two tasks, may spend 50% more time on those
Sciences tasks than if they just concentrate on one task before starting the other[33].
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Digital reading: An overview Ziming LIU
Research Progress
Birkerts observes that the younger generation growing up in the digital envi-
[11]

ronment is lacking the ability to read deeply and to sustain a prolonged engagement
in reading. In an article, “From Thinkers to Clickers,” Thirunarayanan[13] warns: “As
interactions with the Web increase, the clicking and wandering behavior gets more
deeply entrenched among human beings. Such aimless cyber wandering eventually
becomes a substitute for meaningful thinking.” Many scholars have raised concerns
about the potential effects of superficial digital literacy on learning. Raab[34] warns
that “A 2007 study showed that frequent television viewing during adolescence
caused attention deficiencies—a fact that can only make you wonder what the
added effect of all the new technology has done to the average attention span and
the ability to read anything longer than a blog entry.”
With the increasing popularity of hand-held communication devices, many people
have developed an addiction of constant connection, such as cell phone texting[3].
Digital technology allows us to have instant access to volumes of information
that help us improve comprehension. On the other hand, the improved access creates
a new challenge for readers as to what material they choose to read. In a world
where choices and opportunities are part of our daily lives, we need to set priorities
on the kind of materials we want to access. Future studies should focus on the
long-term effects on learning (e.g., distraction and memory retention).
3.5 Technological advancement and traditional attachment
According to Hillesund[8], reading is influenced by the design of handheld devices
and current multipurpose personal computers (e.g., iPad) because new designs intro-
duce new ways of using hands and fingers (e.g., touch screens). New technology
may make it possible to perform onscreen reading activities for an extended
period of time. How the arrival of new devices affects reading practices is another
interesting area for future research.
It is also important to study how reading practices evolve amidst rapid techno-
logical advancement. Studies have shown that people have traditional attachment
to print media (e.g., page numbering, ownership, and smell). Fixity is an inherent
feature of paper documents, while fluidity comes with digital documents. Fixity is
instrumental to maintaining communicative stability and repeatability. There are no
page numbers for books on the Kindle. What would happen when an instructor asks
students to turn to a certain page of the e-textbook? Young[35] stresses that “The
trickiest part of teaching with electronic textbooks is getting everyone on the same
page – or to the same part of the digital text.” Studies also show that printed docu-
ments provide a sense of ownership that is absent in their electronic counterparts. National Science Library,
Many people like the smell of print books. According to Darnton[36], nearly half Chinese Academy of
of French students now still consider the smell of a print book to be a key aspect Sciences
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Chinese Journal of Library and Information Science Vol. 5 No. 1, 2012
Research Progress
of their reading experience. However, it is unclear that this traditional attachment
will continue to extend to the next generation of online readers. It should also be
noted that the newest generation of readers (i.e., the texting, chatting, blogging, and
YouTubing kids) is likely to have a very different experience toward digital reading.
It is also important to examine how what reading practices have changed or remain
unchanged in the online reading environment. Ongoing research on the evolving
reading habits is needed, as we continue to experience rapid technological and
societal changes.

4 Conclusions
In an increasingly digital environment, readers (especially younger readers) are
likely to gradually develop the screen-based reading behavior, and to increasingly
use a variety of strategies (e.g., browsing and key-word spotting) to cope with the
information-abundant environment. On the other hand, readers will continue to
use print media for much of their reading activities, especially in-depth reading.
In-depth reading usually involves annotating and highlighting. People’s preference
for paper as a medium of reading (especially in-depth reading) also implies that
paper is unlikely to disappear in the digital age[37,23].
Rather than deprecating digital technology as hurting our reading quality in the
online environment, we should embrace its potential and expect technological
advances will reduce the problems even further. While many people do not see
digital media as a source for concentrated reading, we should keep in mind that
technology is constantly improving and reading practices themselves are evolving.

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