SPH 202 Modern Physics

Dr. N. O.Hashim
Department of Physics
Kenyatta University

January 13, 2015

 Abstract

This is an undergraduate course for Physics students. The course outline

is as follows: Introduction to special relativity. The Michelson-Morley Ex-
periment. The Lorentz transformation. The Lorentz-Fitzgerald contraction.
Time dilation. Meson decay. Relativistic mechanics. Einstein’s mass-energy
relation. Black body radiation. Photoelectric effect. Gravitational redshift,
spectral lines. Bohr model of the atom. Quantization of angular momentum
and energy in the Bohr model. de Broglie waves. Heisenberg’s uncertainty
principle. Standing wave model of the atom. The Davisson-Germer exper-
iment. Quantized atomic levels. Introduction to nuclear physics. Nuclear
models, the binding energy curve. Fission and fusion. Radioactive decay.
The course is presented in series of lectures and laboratory experiments.
These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the lectures. Students
are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly, solve as
many examples as possible on their own.
Contents

1 Special Relativity 2

2 The Quantum Theory of Light 34

3 Atomic Physics and Matter Waves 50

4 Nuclear Physics and Radioactive Decay 74

1
Chapter 1

Special Relativity

Lecture No. 1.

• Introduction to special relativity: time dilation

• The pi-, mu-mesons and their decay

• Length contraction

Lecture No. 2.

• The Michelson - Morley experiment

• Lorentz transformation

Lecture No. 3.

• Relativistic velocity transformation

• Relativistic momentum and energy

• Relativistic Doppler effect

Lecture No. 4.

• Gravitational redshift

• Tutorial Examples

Lecture No. 5.

• Tutorial Examples

2
 SPH 202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 1.
Outline
• Introduction to special relativity: time dilation
• The pi-, mu-mesons and their decay
• Length contraction
Introductory remarks:
Classical physics, which is based on Galilean and Newtonian kinematics,
has been very successful in describing the motion of large objects and for
example planetary motion. However at the turn of the 20th Century some
observed experimental phenomena could not be explained using classical the-
ories. An example is the observation and measurement of very short-lived
sub-atomic particles such as the pion (symbol π, lifetime 26ns at rest). Such
observations presented some challenges to the understanding of time, length
and relative velocities.

In one of the greatest achievements of the 19th Century , light could be de-
scribed as an electromagnetic wave. However, it remained the aim of physi-
cists to detect the hypothetical medium ether through which the Earth was
beleived to move and through which electromagnetic waves were thought to
oscillate. These challenges led to the then young Albert Einstein in 1905 to
formulate the theory of special relativity1 .

The two postulates of special relativity are as follows,

1. the laws of physics are same in all inertial frames of reference,
2. the speed of light in free space has the same value (c ' 3 × 108 m/s)
in all inertial frames of reference.
Assignment: Does free space really exist?

The first postulate, also known as the principle of relativity, is a statement

that the laws of physics are absolute, universal and same for all inertial
observers. The second postulate is on the principle of constancy of speed of
light. The two postulates imply that it is impossible to accelerate a particle
to speeds greater than c, no matter how much kinetic energy is provided.
This meant to set an upper limit for the speed of an object in a medium.
1
See the original publication: A. Einstein. Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper.
Annalen der Physik und Chemie Jg. 17(1905), S 819-921

3
 Time Dilation
Consider the operation of a clock in a laboratory illustrated on Figure 1.1
such that t0 represents the time interval between the ticks of the clock.

Figure 1.1: Light pulses measured by (a) stationary and (b) moving clock in
the laboratory. The clock in (b) moves at a speed v.

The time needed for the pulse of light to travel between the two mirrors is
t0 /2 for the stationary clock in (a). Hence,

t0 L0 2L0
= or t0 =
2 c c
In the case of the moving clock (b), the photon and the clock travel distances
given by ct/2 and vt/2 respectively, so that,

 2  2
ct 2 vt
= L0 +
2 2

4
which can be re-arranged to,

2L0 /c t0
t = q = q = γt0 (1.1)
2 v2
1 − vc2 1 − c2

where the factor γ is represented by,

1
γ = q
v2
1 − c2

For slow moving objects v << p c then γ ' 1 there is no change in time. For
fast moving objects v ' c, 1 − v 2 /c2 < 1, then t > t0 , that means the
moving clock appears to tick slower. This effect is known as time dilation
and is observable in, for example, elementary particle physics experiments.

Example 1: Consider a pion (life-time t0 = 26ns) produced in a laboratory

at a speed of 0.913c. The life-time of the pion as measured by a stationary
observer in the laboratory is,

t0 26 × 10−9
t = q = √ = 63.73 × 10−9 s
v2 1 − 0.9132
1 − c2

Classically, the pion would travel a distance of 0.913cto ' 7.12m before it
decays. However, due to the effect of time dilation on it’s life time, the pion
travels a distance of 0.913ct ' 17.46m.

The pi-, mu-mesons and their decay: In 1935 Yukawa2 proposed that
unstable mesons could be the possible candidate(s) for the mediation of the
strong nuclear force - the force that binds nucleons in a nucleus. It is inter-
esting to note that some elementary particles were first discovered in cosmic
ray experiments. In 1947 Lattes, Occhialini, Powell3 and Muirhead discov-
ered the strongly interacting charged pions using nuclear emulsions exposed
to cosmic rays at mountain altitudes. Figure 1.2 shows the tracks of charged
pions in nuclear emulsions (source: Lattes et. al. Nature 159. 694 (1947)).

2
Hideki Yukawa, Nobel Prize 1949 for his prediction of the existence of mesons on the
basis of theoretical work on nuclear forces
3
Cecil Frank Powell, Nobel Prize 1950 for his development of the photographic method
for studying nuclear processes and his discoveries regarding mesons made with this method

5
Figure 1.2: Tracks in nuclear emulsions showing the decay of charged pions.

The pi-mesons or pions are produced in particle physics experiments in the

laboratory and also in the interaction of cosmic rays in the atmosphere.
For example, a primary proton can interact with a nucleus in the Earth’s
atmosphere to produce pions,

p + nucleus → π + + π − + π 0 + anything , (1.2)

which in turn decay to produce mu-mesons or muons, neutrinos and photons,

π + → µ + + νµ , (1.3)
π − → µ− + ν̄µ , (1.4)
π 0 → γ + γ. (1.5)
Similar processes occur in the decay of kaons producing muons with high
momenta. These cosmic ray muons decay into electrons and neutrinos,

µ+ → e+ + νe + ν̄µ , (1.6)
µ− → e− + ν̄e + νµ . (1.7)

The neutrinos have a very small interaction probability in matter and hence
very difficult (or impossible?) to directly observe their tracks.

6
Muons are weakly interacting elementary particles, discovered by Anderson4
and Neddermeyer using a cloud chamber in 1937. They have a life-time of
2.2µs, a charge of ±e and a mass mµ ' 207me where me = 0.511 MeV/c2
represents the mass of an electron. Cosmic ray muons are produced at high
altitudes, typically several kilometers, above the Earth’s surface. Due to
their relativistic speeds, they are able to reach the Earth’s surface at suffi-
cient energies. This is due to the effect of time dilation on their life-times as
we shall see in the next example.

Example 2: Consider a µ-meson or muon produced at an elevation of 6km

in the atmosphere. The muon is created at a speed of v'0.998c in a perpen-
dicular direction toward the Earth. The muon has a life-time ∆t0 ' 2.2µs.
Classically, the distance traveled by the muon is,

d = v ∆t0 = 0.998 × 3 × 108 × 2.2 × 10−6 ' 658.68m

so that on average, the muon would decay in the atmosphere and therefore
not reach the Earth surface. However, as determined by an observer at rest
on Earth, the life-time of the muon is,

∆t0 2.2 × 106

∆t = q = √ ' 34.80 × 10−6 s
v2 1 − 0.998 2
1 − c2

so that the average distance, as determined by the stationary observer on

Earth is,

d = v ∆t = 0.998 × 3 × 108 × 34.80 × 10−6 ' 10419.12m ' 10.42km

Therefore, an observer on the Earth’s surface is able to detect cosmic ray

muons produced high up in the atmosphere. Some of the cosmic ray muons
have sufficient energies to propagate through the Earth’s crust and be mea-
sured in underground laboratories.

Assignment: What is the advantage of measuring cosmic ray muons un-

derground as compared to measurements on the Earth’s surface?

4
Carl David Anderson, Nobel Prize 1936 for his discovery of the positron

7
 Length Contraction: Consider the cosmic ray muon in the previous
example. In the muon’s frame of reference the life-time
p of the muon remains
∆t0 ' 2.2µs but the height h is reduced by a factor 1 − (v/c)2 , that is,
p
h = h0 1 − (v/c)2 (1.8)
In the previous example, the muon can travel a proper height h0 = 10.42km,
so that with v = 0.998c,
√
h = 10.42 1 − 0.9982 = 0.658km (1.9)

Within it’s own frame of reference, the muon has travelled a shorter distance.
This is an effect known as length contraction or Lorentz-Fitzgerald contrac-
tion. Lengths appear shorter to a moving observer (or an observer at rest
with respect to a moving frame of reference),
p
L = L0 1 − (v/c)2 (1.10)
where L0 is the proper length. Note that at low speeds v << c, L ' L0 , but
at speeds close to that of light, v ∼ c the effects of length contraction are
observable as illustrated on the Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: The ratio of the length of an object to it’s proper length as a
function of it’s speed.

8
 Example 3: A particle is produced in the laboratory at a speed of about
0.8c and it decays after a distance of 5m. Calculate it’s proper life-time.

For an observer at rest in the laboratory the particle’s life-time is,

d 5
t = = = 20.83ns
v 0.8 × 3 × 108
so that the proper life-time is,
p √
t0 = t 1 − (v/c)2 = 20.83 1 − 0.82 = 12.5ns

Example 4: A particle with a mean life-time of 2µs is produced in the

laboratory at a speed of about 0.7c. Calculate the distance travelled by the
particle as measured by an observer,

(a) at rest in the laboratory,

(b) at rest in the particle’s frame of reference.

The time dilation on the particle’s life-time is,

t0 2 × 10−6
t = p = √ = 2.8 × 10−6 s ' 2.8µs
1 − (v/c) 2 1 − 0.72

so that for the observer at rest in the laboratory,

d0 = vt = 0.7 × 3 × 108 × 2.8 × 10−6 = 588m

and for the observer at rest with the particle,

p √
d = d0 1 − (v/c)2 = 588 1 − 0.72 ' 420m

Note that in this example, the particle’s interaction with matter, for example
in detector material, has been ignored.

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

9
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 2.
Outline

• The Michelson - Morley experiment

• Lorentz transformation

The Michelson-Morley Experiment:

In the 19th Century light was successfully described as electromagnetic wave.

This led scientists to the expectation that some kind of medium called ether
exists to support the propagation of light. It was therefore important to
determine the velocity of the Earth relative to the hypothetical medium
ether5 . Michelson6 and Morley used a pair of light beams, in a Michelson
interferometer, one along the path of the hypothetical ether and the other in
a perpendicular direction as illustrated on Figure 1.4.

Figure 1.4: A schematic illustration of the Michelson-Morley interferometer.

5
Note that Maxwell had already pointed out that the Earth’s speed v relative to the
ether appears only in the second order (v/c)2 - an effect considered too small to measure.
6
Albert Abraham Michelson, Nobel Prize 1907 for his optical precision instruments and
metrological investigations carried out with their aid

10
The light that strikes the beam splitter, a partially-silvered mirror, is partially
refelcted to mirror A, and partially transmitted to mirror B. The two beams
are reflected and combine at the viewing screen. The clear glass plate ensures
that both beams pass through the same thickness of air and glass. Similar
transit times of the two beams would cause constructive interference, whereas
different transit times would cause destructive intereference.
For the path B,
−1
v2

L L 2cL 2L
t1 = + = 2 = 1 − 2
c−v c+v c − v2 c c

v2
 
2L
= 1 + 2 + ...
c c
For the moving mirror A in the Michelson interferometer,
√
u = c − v or |u| = c2 − v 2
so that,
1/2
v2

2L 2L
t2 = √ = 1 − 2
c2 − v 2 c c

1 v2
 
2L
= 1 + + ...
c 2 c2
and the time difference,
v2 1 v2 Lv 2
   
2L 2L
∆t = t1 − t2 = 1 + 2 − 1 + '
c c c 2 c2 c3
is detected by observing the interference patterns or the number of fringes,
2c∆t 2L v 2
∆N = = (1.11)
λ λ c2
where λ is the wavelength of light used in the experiment.

No shift was observed in Michelson’s first attempt of 1881, with L=1.2m,

λ = 590nm and ∆N ∼ 0.04 fringe. The repeat experiments of 1887 with
Edward W. Morley, this time with L=11m, showed no shift. The experiment
has since been repeated severally and no shift has ever been observed. The
negative result show that the hypothetical ether does not exist and that the
speed of light is the same for all observers.

11
The inexistence of the hypothetical ether means that there is no absolute
motion relative to the ether, but rather all motion is relative to a specified
frame of reference. The results of the Michelson-Morley experiment therefore
set the stage for the theory of special relativity by Albert Einstein in 1905.

Example 1: The original Michelson-Morley experiment used an interfer-

ometer with arms of length 11m and sodium light of wavelength λ ' 5900Å.
The experiment would reveal a fringe shift of ∆N = 0.005 fringes. What
upper limit would a null result place for the speed of the Earth through the
hypothetical ether?

Using the Equation (1.11) relative velocity v is obtained as,

2(11m) v2
0.005 = .
5900 × 10−10 m 3 × 108 m/s
hence, v ' 3.47 × 103 m/s. Note that the Earth’s orbital velocity is 3 ×
104 m/s, so the interferometer was sensitive enough to detect this motion.
However, no fringe shift was observed.

Lorentz Transformation
Consider two inertial frames of reference S and S0 with coordinates (x, y, z)
and (x0 , y 0 , z 0 ) respectively. At the time t = 0 the inertial frames have the
same origin. The inertial frame S’ moves along the X-axis at a velocity v
with respect to the inertial frame S as illustrated on Figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: Two inertial frames S and S0 . The frame S0 moves along the
X-axis at a velocity v relative to S.

12
Assuming that t0 = t and the measurements in one inertial system can be
transformed to the other inertial system using the following transformation
equations,
x0 = x − vt y0 = y z0 = z (1.12)
known as the Galilean transformations. The velocities are transformed as
follows,

dx0 dy 0 dz 0
vx0 = = vx − v vy0 = = vy vz0 = = vz (1.13)
dt dt dt
Note that there are no transformations along the Y- and Z-axis since the
relative motion is only along the X-axis. It follows that the speed of light
measured in the direction of the X-axis would be transformed to c0 = c − v.

The transformations seem straight forward but they violate the postulates
of special relativity. The first postulate requires the same set of equations in
both inertial frames of reference and the second postulate requires the same
value for the speed of light measured in both frames.
One can therefore introduce a factor k that is independent of x or t in the
transformations as follows,

x0 = k(x − vt) y0 = y z0 = z (1.14)

Note that in this case t0 6= t so that,

x = k(x0 − vt0 ) (1.15)

on substituting Equation (1.14) into the Equation (1.15),

x = k 2 (x − vt) + kvt0

one obtains,
1 − k2
 
0
t = kt + x (1.16)
kv
The Equations (1.14) to (1.16) constitute coordinate transformations that
satisfy the first postulate of relativity.

13
 p
The factor k can be shown to be given by k = 1/ 1 − (v/c)2 as follows: At
the time t = 0 both frames S and S0 have a common origin, i.e. t = t0 = 0
and observers in both frames measure the speed of a flash of light as follows,

x = ct x0 = ct0 (1.17)

so that Equation (1.16) becomes,

1 − k2
 
k(x − vt) = ckt + cx
kv

and solving for x to get,

 
1 + v/c
x = ct

1 − 1/k 2 − 1 c/v

Since x = ct the term in the parenthesis must be equal to unity,

 
1 + v/c

= 1
1 − 1/k 2 − 1 c/v

and the factor k or γ known as Lorentz factor is given by,

1
k = p (1.18)
1 − (v/c)2

so that one obtains the following transformation equations,

x − vt
x0 = p y0 = y z0 = z (1.19)
1− (v/c)2

t − vx/c2
t0 = p (1.20)
1 − (v/c)2
known as the Lorentz transformation7 . Using these transformation equations
one is able to derive the relativistic length contraction and time dilation
equations as seen in the next example.

7
developed by Hendrik Antoon Lorentz, Nobel Prize 1902 with Pieter Zeeman for their
researches into the influence of magnetism upon radiation phenomena

14
 Example 2: Consider a rod lying on the x0 axis of the moving frame S0 .
The proper length of the rod is,

L0 = x02 − x01

In order to determine it’s length in the frame S given by,

L = x2 − x1

one makes use of the Lorentz transformation as follows,

x1 − vt x2 − vt
x01 = p x02 = p
1− (v/c)2 1 − (v/c)2
so that,

p p
L = x2 − x1 = x02 − x01 1 − (v/c)2 = L0 1 − (v/c)2

which is the equation for length contraction.

Example 3: A particle enters a detector at a speed of 0.994c relative to

the detector and leaves a track of 1.02mm in length before it decays. Calcu-
late the proper life-time of the particle.

The particle’s life-time as measured by an observer at rest in the laboratory

is,
L 1.02 × 10−3
t = = 8
' 3.42 × 10−12 s
v 0.994 × 3 × 10
so that the particle’s proper life-time is,
p √
t0 = t 1 − (v/c)2 = 3.43 × 10−12 1 − 0.9942 ' 0.374 × 10−12 s

This represents the time the particle would last before decaying if it were at
rest with the detector.

Assignment: Derive the equation for time dilation.

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

15
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 3.
Outline
• Relativistic velocity transformation
• Relativistic momentum and energy
• Relativistic Doppler effect
Relativistic Velocity Transformation: Consider an object moving rel-
ative to both inertial frames S and S0 . The frame S0 moves at a velocity v
relative to the frame S. An observer in the frame S measures the following
components for the velocity of the object,
dx dy dz
vx = vy = vz =
dt dt dt
while an observer in the S0 frame measures,
dx0 dy 0 dz 0
vx0 = vy0 = vz0 =
dt0 dt0 dt0
Making use of the inverse Lorentz transformations,
x0 + vt0
x = p y = y0 z = z0 (1.21)
1 − (v/c)2
t0 + vx0 /c2
t = p (1.22)
1 − (v/c)2
then,
dx0 + vdt0 dt0 + vdx0 /c2
dx = p dy = dy 0 dz = dz 0 dt = p
1 − (v/c)2 1 − (v/c)2
so that the velocity components in the frame S are,
vx0 + v
vx = (1.23)
1 + vvx0 /c2
p
vy0 1 − (v/c)2
vy = (1.24)
1 + vvx0 /c2
p
vz0 1 − (v/c)2
vz = (1.25)
1 + vvx0 /c2
and they represent relativistic velocity transformations.

16
The relativistic velocity transformation equations can be used to show that
the speed of light has the same value c in all inertial frames of reference as
described in the next example.

Example 1: Consider a pulse of light emitted in the moving frame S0 along

it’s direction of motion, the X-axis. The speed of light measured in S0 is
vx0 = c. Using the relativistic velocity transformation Equation (1.23), an
observer in the frame S measures the speed of light as follows,

vx0 + v c+v c(c + v)

vx = 0 2
= 2
= = c
1 + vvx /c 1 + vc/c c+v

Therefore both observers measure the same speed of light c, in agreement

with the postulates of special relativity.

Relativistic momentum and energy

The relativistic mass of a particle moving at a speed v relative to an observer
is given by,
m0
m = p (1.26)
1 − (v/c)2
where m0 is the mass of the particle when it is at rest, i.e. the rest mass of
the particle. The relativistic momentum can therefore be expressed as,
m0 v
p = mv = p . (1.27)
1 − (v/c)2

If the particle experiences a force F, then the kinetic energy is,

Z S
KE = F dS (1.28)
0

where S is the distance moved by the particle. Using Newton’s second law
of motion the force is given by,
dp
F =
dt
which can be expressed relativistically as follows,
 
d d m0 v
F = (mv) = p
dt dt 1 − (v/c)2

17
so that the kinetic energy is,
Z S Z mv
d
KE = (mv)dS = vd(mv)
0 dt 0

Note the use of dS/dt = v and the change of variables from S to mv. Using
Equation (1.27) for the relativistic momentum, the kinetic energy can be
expressed as follows,
Z v  
m0 v
KE = vd p
0 1 − (v/c)2
where the integral is evaluated using the technique for intergration by parts.
Z v
mo v 2 −vdv
KE = p + m0 p
1 − (v/c)2 1 − (v/c)2
0

v
mo v 2

2
p
= p + m0 c 1 − (v/c)2
1 − (v/c)2 0

mo v 2
= p − m0 c2 = mc2 − m0 c2
1 − (v/c)2
which can be re-arranged to express the total mass of the particle,
mc2 = m0 c2 + KE (1.29)
which is the sum of the particle’s rest mass energy (m0 c2 ) and kinetic energy.
The total energy of a moving particle is therefore,
m0 c2
E = mc2 = p (1.30)
1 − (v/c2 )
At low speeds v/c << 1 and the expression for kinetic energy reduces to the
classical one, that is,
m0 c2
KE = mc2 − m0 c2 = p − mo c2
1 − (v/c)2

1 v2
 
1
' 1 + 2
m0 c2 − m0 c2 ' m0 v 2
2c 2
Note the use of the approximation in the binomial expansion,
(1 + x)n ' 1 + nx for x << 1.

18
The total energy of the particle can be expressed in terms of it’s momentum
as follows,

2 m20 c4 2 m20 v 2
E = p =
1 − (v/c)2 1 − (v/c)2

hence,


m2 c4 − m20 v 2 c2 m20 c4 1 − (v/c)2
E − pc = 0
2 2 2
= = m20 c4
1 − (v/c)2 1 − (v/c)2

or simply,
E 2 = E02 + p2 c2 (1.31)
showing that for mass-less particles, e.g. photons, the total energy is,

E = pc (1.32)

From the Equation (1.31), the rest mass energy is,

E02 = E 2 − p2 c2 = m20 c4 (1.33)

and it represents a Lorentz-invariant quantity - it has the same value in all

reference frames or systems. The Lorentz-invariant centre-of-mass energy
Ec ms is useful in determining the threshold energies, for example in particle
production.

Assignment: What is the origin of mass? Are neutrinos massless?

Assignment: Consider the photoproduction of a neutral pion on a target

proton at rest,

γ + p → p + π0

Calculate the minimum energy for the photon to produce the pion.

In particle physics the energy of particle are often expressed in units of

the electronvolt8 (eV). The mass and momentum of a particle are there-
fore expressed in units of (eV/c2 ) and (eV/c) respectively. For example, the
rest mass of an electron is m0 ' 0.511MeV/c2 or the rest mass energy is
E0 ' 0.511MeV.
8
an electronvolt is the energy gained by an electron accelerated through a potential
difference of 1 volt, i.e. 1eV ' 1.602 × 10−19 J

19
Example 2: Consider the following particles,

(a) an electron with momentum 2 MeV/c. The total energy is given by,
q p
E = m20 c4 + p2 c2 = (0.511MeV/c2 )2 c4 + (2MeV/c)2 c2 ' 2.064 MeV

(b) a photon with momentum 2 MeV/c. The total energy is given by,
 
E = pc = 2MeV/c c = 2MeV

(c) a muon with momentum 10 GeV/c. The total energy is given by,
q p
E = m20 c4 + p2 c2 = (105MeV/c2 )2 c4 + (104 MeV/c)2 c2 ' 104 MeV ' 10 GeV

Note that at such values of momentum (10GeV/c), the rest mass of a muon
m0 ' 105MeV/c2 has small contribution to the total energy.

Example 3: The decay of a neutral K0 -meson (or kaon) at rest is into

neutral π 0 -mesons (or pions) is as follows,

K0 → π 0 + π 0

Calculate the kinetic energy of the pions produced. The rest mass energies
are 498MeV and 135MeV for the K0 and π 0 respectively.

Using the principle of conservation of energy,

Einitial = Efinal

498 = 2(135) + 2KE

hence the kinetic energy for each of the pions is KE = 114MeV. It is assumed
here that the two pions share the kinetic energy equally.

20
 Relativistic Doppler effect: Recall the Doppler effect in sound9 - the
change in pitch of sound due to relative motion between the observer and
source. A similar effect known as the relativistic Doppler effect occurs for the
frequency of light emitted by source which is in motion relative to an observer.

Consider a source emitting light at frquency ν0 and moving at a speed v rel-

ative to an observer. The measured frequency is obtained in generally three
possible situations,

(a) the observer moving perpendicular to the source,

p
ν = ν0 1 − (v/c)2 (1.34)

known as the transverse Doppler effect in light.

(b) the observer receding from the source,

s
1 − (v/c)
ν = ν0 (1.35)
1 + (v/c)

the observed frequency is lower than the source frequency.

(c) the observer is approaching the source,

s
1 + (v/c)
ν = ν0 (1.36)
1 − (v/c)

the observed frequency is higher than the source frequency. This is also
known as the longitudinal Doppler effect. The Doppler effect provides an
important tool used to study the relative motion of stars and other objects
in the galaxies. This is achieved by measuring the intensity of light emitted
by the stars at their characteristic frequencies. The spectral lines are often
shifted according to the relative motion of the sources.

9
proposed by Christian Johann Doppler in 1842 in his treatise ӆber das farbige Licht
der Doppelsterne und einiger anderer Gestirne des Himmels” (On the coloured light of the
binary stars and some other stars of the heavens)

21
For example, the spectral lines of stars from distant galaxies are observed
to be shifted towards the low frequency (red) end of the spectrum. This is
called red-shift and is measured as follows,
∆λ λ − λ0
z = = (1.37)
λ0 λ
with the following approximations,

z = v/c for v << c classical approximation (1.38)

r
c+v
z = − 1 for v ∼ c relativistic motion (1.39)
c−v

Example 4: Consider a distant galaxy receding at a speed v = 7 × 107 m/s

relative to the Earth. A star emitts light at the wavelength λ0 = 500nm.
The redshift is calculated as follows,
r r
c+v 3 + 0.7
z = − 1 = − 1 ' 0.268
c−v 3 − 0.7

Also, noting that v/c ' 0.233, the observed light has wavelength,
s
1 + (v/c)
λ = λ0 (1.40)
1 − (v/c)

r
1 + 0.233
λ = 500nm ' 632.7nm
1 − 0.233
so that the redshift is,
∆λ 632.7 − 500
z = = ' 0.27
λ0 500
similar result to the earlier calculation.

22
The observation of redshift by many experiments, for example the Hubble
telescope, indicate an expansion of the Universe. The speeds of recesion are
observed to be proportional to the distance between galaxies,

V ∝ r(t) or V = H0 r(t) (1.41)

Known as the Hubble law10 and H0 = 70 ± 10 km/s MPc is the Hubble

constant. The expansion is believed to have started some 15 billion years
ago from the Big-Bang - the beginning of intensely hot mass of primordial
matter (see Figure 1.6). The physics (or science) at the times shortly after
the big-bang is yet to be understood. The Universe has since then cooled
down and allowed the formation of matter in the present-day galaxies. The
observation of the cosmic microwave background first discovered by Penzias
and Wilson11 - a remnant of the Big Bang - provides one of the experimental
evidences for the Big Bang theory.

Figure 1.6: An illustration of the evolution of the Universe. Source: NASA

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

10
after Edwin Hubble
11
Arno Penzias and Robert Wilson, Nobel Prize 1978 for their discovery of cosmic
microwave background radiation

23
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 4.
Outline
• Gravitational redshift
• Tutorial Examples
Gravitational Redshift: Consider a photon of frequency ν emmitted by a
star of mass M and radius R. On the surface of the star, the potential energy
for a particle of mass m is given by,
−GM m
PE = (1.42)
R
where G ' 6.67×10−11 Nm2 kg−2 is the gravitational constant. For a mass-less
particle, e.g. the photon, m = hν/c2 so that,
−GM hν
PE = (1.43)
c2 R
and it’s total energy is therefore,
 
GM hν GM
E = hν − = hν 1 − 2 . (1.44)
c2 R cR
Far away from the star, the photon energy is E = hν 0 so that,
 
0 GM
hν = hν 1 − 2 (1.45)
cR
or,
ν0 GM
= 1 − 2
ν cR
The relative change in frequency is,
∆ν ν − ν0 ν0 GM
= = 1 − = 2 (1.46)
ν ν ν cR
showing that the photon arrives at the Earth at a lower frequency. This is
known as gravitational redshift. For most stars M/R is too small to observe
any gravitational redshift. However, for a class of stars - white dwarfs, this
has been observed. Generally, the fractional change in frequency is less or
equal to unity, i.e.
∆ν ∆ν GM
≤ 1 but suppose ≥ 1 then ≥ 1
ν ν c2 R
which implies that the photon would never be able to escape the star. A star
of this kind cannot reflect any light and is thus invisible. They are known as
black holes.

24
Generally, for a black hole of mass M one has the condition,
GM 1
2
≥ (1.47)
c RS 2
so that,
2GM
RS = (1.48)
c2
known as the Schwarzschild radius12 , which defines the event horizon - the
region in which gravity is so strong that nothing can escape. Matter that
falls into a black hole liberates practically all it’s rest-mass energy with the
emission of particle jets. This enables the experimental observation of black
holes (see Figure 1.7). Only heavy stars end up into black holes. Lighter
stars evolve into white-dwarfs and neutron-stars. Massive balck holes are
typically found at the centre of galaxies where the matter density is highest.
This provides sufficient material for the formation of accretion disks arround
a black holes as illustrated on Figure 1.7.

Figure 1.7: A massive star in the vicinity of a black hole and the creation of
accretion disk. Source: NASA

12
K. Schwarzschild, ’Über das Gravitationsfeld eines Massenpunktes nach der Einstein-
schen Theorie’, Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin,
Klasse für Mathematik, Physik, und Technik (1916) pp 189.
K. Schwarzschild, ’Über das Gravitationsfeld einer Kugel aus inkompressibler Flussigkeit
nach der Einsteinschen Theorie’, Sitzungsberichte der Deutschen Akademie der Wis-
senschaften zu Berlin, Klasse fur Mathematik, Physik, und Technik (1916) pp 424.

25
Example 1: The average lifetime of µ-mesons or muons with a speed of
0.95c is measured to be 6 × 10−6 s. Calculate the average lifetime of muons
in a system in which they are at rest.

The lifetime measured in a system in which the muons are at rest is the
proper lifetime and is given by,
p p
∆t0 = (∆t) 1 − (v/c)2 = (6 × 10−6 s) 1 − (0.95)2 = 1.87 × 10−6 s

Example 2: An airplane is moving with respect to the earth with a speed

of 600 m/s. As determined by earth clocks, how long will it take for the
airplane’s clock to fall behind by two microseconds?

From the time dilation expression,

∆tplane ∆tplane
∆tearth = p = s
1 − (v/c)2  2
6×102 m/s
1 − 3×108 m/s

and also noting that,

(2 × 10−12 ∆tearth ' ∆tearth − ∆tplane = 2 × 10−6 s

From which ∆tearth ' 106 s ' 11.6 days, showing that at low speeds the rel-
ativistic effects are small.

Example 3: Observers O and O0 approach each other with a relative veloc-

ity of 0.6c. If O measures the initial distance to O0 to be 20 m, how much
time will it tak, as determined by O, before the two observers meet?

distance 20 m
∆t = = = 11.1 × 10−8 s
velocity 0.6 × 3 × 108 m/s

26
Example 4: Pions have a half-life of 1.8 × 10−8 s. A pion beam leaves an
accelerator at a speed of 0.8c. Classically, the expected distance over which
half of the pions should decay is given by,

d = v∆t0 = (0.8 × 3 × 108 m/s)(1.8 × 10−8 s) = 4.32 m .

The half-life of ∆t0 = 1.8 × 10−8 s is determined by an observer at rest with

respect to the pion beam, i.e. the proper half-life. For an observer at rest in
the laboratory, the half-life is dilated as follows,

∆t0 1.8 ×−8 s

∆t = p = p = 3 × 10−8 s
1 − (v/c)2 1 − (0.8)2

so that the distance travelled as observed by a stationary observer in the

laboratory is,

d = v∆t = (0.8 × 3 × 108 m/s)(3 × 10−8 s) = 7.20 m .

Example 5: A meterstick moves with velocity 0.6c relative to you along the
direction of it’s length. How long will it take for the meterstick to pass you?

The length of the meterstick as measured by you (assumed to be at rest) is

obtained from the Lorentz contraction,
p p
L = L0 1 − (v/c)2 = (1 m)( 1 − (0.6)2 ) = 0.8 m

so that the time for the meterstick to pass you is then,

d 0.8 m
∆t = = = 4.44 × 10−9 s
v 0.6 × 3 × 108 m/s

Example 6: It takes 105 years for light to reach us from the most distant
parts of our galaxy. Could a human travel there, at a constant speed, in 50
years?

The distance travelled by light in 105 years, according to an observer at rest

with respect to the earth is,

d0 = c(∆t) = 105 c

If the observer moves with constant speed v relative to the earth, the distance
d he/she has to travel is shortened according to the Lorentz contraction,
p p
d = d0 1 − (v/c)2 = (105 c) 1 − (v/c)2

27
The time interval available to travel this distance is 50 years, so that,
p
d (105 c) 1 − (v/c)2
v = =
∆t 50
resulting to,
v
' 0.999 999 875
c
Therefore a human travelling at this speed will find that when he/she com-
pletes the trip he/she has aged 50 years.

Example 7: Observer O0 , moving with a speed of 0.8c relative to some space

platform, travles to α-Centauri, which is at a distance of 4 light years and
the nearest star to the platform. When she reaches the star she immediately
turns around and returns to the platform at the same speed. Compare her
age, when she reaches the platform, to that of her twin brother O who stayed
at the platform.

According to the stationary observer O on the platform, the time elapsed

during the trip from the space platform to α-Centauri is,
d 4 years × c
∆t = = = 5 years
v 0.8 × c
Since the return trip takes place with the same speed, the total time elapsed,
as measured by the observer at rest on the platform is 10 years. This is rather
the dilated time interval. The moving observer O0 measures the proper time
interval between departure from the platform and the arrival at the star to
be,
p p
∆t0 = (∆t) 1 − (v/c)2 = (5 years) 1 − (0.8)2 = 3 years

so that the total time elapsed is 6 years. Therefore the moving observer O0
is 4 years younger than her twin brother O0 who remained stationary at the
platform. This illustrated the twin paradox in special theory of relativity.

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

28
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 5.
Outline

• Tutorial Examples

Example 1: Rocket A travels to the right and rocket B travels to the left,
with velocities 0.8c and 0.6c respectively, relative to the earth. What is the
velocity of rocket A measured from rocket B?

Using the Lorentz velocity transformation,

ux − v 0.8c − (−0.6c)
u0x = = = 0.964c
1 − (v/c2 )ux 1 − (−0.6c)(0.8c)
c 2

Example 2: A particle moves with a speed of 0.8c at an angle of 300 to the

x-axis, as determined by an observer O. What is the velocity of the particle
as determined by a second observer O0 , moving with a speed of -0.6c along
the common x − x0 axis?

For the observer O the velocity of the particle has components,

ux = (0.8c) cos 300 = 0.693c uy = (0.8c) sin 300 = 0.4c

so that using the Lorenttz velocity transformations, for oberver O0 ,

ux − v 0.693c − (−0.6c)
u0x = = = 0.913c
1 − (v/c2 )ux 1 − (−0.6c)(0.693c)
c 2

p p
u 1 − (v/c)2 (0.4c) 1 − (0.6)2
y
u0y = = = 0.226c
1 − (v/c2 )ux 1 − (−0.6c)(0.693c)
c 2

The speed measured by observer O0 is,

q p
u0 = u02x + u 02 =
y (0.913c)2 + (0.226)2 = 0.941c

and the angle φ0 the velocity makes with the x0 -axis,

u0y
−1 0.226c
φ0 = tan−1 = 13.90 .


0
= tan
ux 0.913c

29
Example 3: Consider a radioactive nucleus that moves with a constant
speed of 0.5c relative to the laboratory. The nucleus decays and emits an
electron with a speed of 0.9c relative to the nucleus along the direction of
motion. Find the velocity of the electron in the laboratory frame.

Using the Lorentz velocity transformation,

u0x + v 0.9c + (0.5c)

ux = 0
= = 0.996c
2
1 + (v/c )ux 1 + (0.5c)(0.9c)
c2

Example 4: Refer to Example 3. Suppose that the nucleus decays by emit-

ting an electron with a speed of 0.9c in a direction perpendicular to the
direction of (the laboratory’s) motion as determined by an observer ar rest
with respect to the nucleus. Find the velocity of the elctron as measured by
an observer in the laboratory frame.

Using the Lorentz velocity transformation,

u0x + v 0 + (0.5c)
ux = = = 0.5c
1 + (v/c2 )u0x 1+0

p
u0y 1 − (v/c)2
p
(0.9c) 1 − (0.5)2
uy = = = 0.779c
1 + (v/c2 )ux 1+0

so that the total velocity is,

q p
u = u2x + u2y = (0.5c)2 + (0.779c)2 = 0.926c

and
u0y
0.779c

φ0 = tan−1 0
= tan−1 = 57.30 .
ux 0.5c

30
Assignment 1: Briefly describe the Fizeau experiment13 . Your description
should include the following;
• the aim of the experiment,

• the experimental set-up,

• the main results and conclusion.

Example 5: The speed of light in still water is c/n where the index of
refraction for water is approximately n = 4/3. Fizeau, in 1851, found that
the speed (relative to the laboratory) of light in water moving with a speed
v (relative to the laboratory) could be expressed as,
c
u = + kv
n
where the dragging coefficient was measured to be k ' 0.44. Determine the
value of k predicted by Lorentz transformations.

An observer at rest relative to the water will measure the speed of light to
be u0x = c/n. Treating light as a particle, the laboratory observer will find
it’s speed to be,
−1
u0x + v
 
c v
ux = = + v 1 +
1 + cv2 u0x n nc

For small values of v one can make use of the approximation,

 −1
v v
1 + ≈ 1 −
nc nc
so that,
    
c v c 1
ux ≈ + v 1 − ≈ + 1 − 2 v
n nc n n

where the terms of order v 2 /c have been neglected. Thus,

1 1
k ≈ 1 − 2
= 1 − = 0.438
n (4/3)2
which is in agreement with Fizeaus’ experimental result.

13
named after Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau (1819 - 1896)

31
Example 6: A star is receding from the earth at a speed of 5 × 10−3 c. What
is the wavelength shift for the sodium D2 line (5890Å)?

The Doppler equation gives,

s r
1 + (v/c) 1 + 0.005
λ = λ = (5890 Å) = 5920 Å
1 − (v/c) 1 − 0.005

hence, the shift in wavelength is,

∆λ = 5920 − 5890 = 30 Å .

Example 7: Suppose that the Doppler shift in the sodium D2 line (5890Å)
is 100Å when light is observed from a distant star. Determine the star’s
velocity of recession.

From the Doppler equation,

s
1 + (v/c)
λ = λ
1 − (v/c)

s
1 + (v/c))
5990 Å = (5890 Å)
1 − (v/c)

which can be solved to give v = 0.017c.

Example 8: A body at rest spontaneously breaks up into two parts which

move in opposite directions. The parts have rest masses of 3 kg and 5.33 kg
and respective speeds of 0.8c and 0.6c. Find the rest mass of the original
body.

By conservation of energy Einitial = Ef inal ,

m01 c2 m02 c2
m0 c2 = p + p
1 − (v1 /c)2 1 − (v2 /c)2

3kg 5.33kg
m0 = p + p = 11.66kg .
1 − (0.8)2 1 − (0.6)2

Note that the rest mass is not conserved. Why?

32
Example 9: The rest mass of an electron is m0 ' 9.109 × 10−31 kg. Calcu-
late the rest mass in joules and also in electron-volts.

Using Einstein’s mass-energy relation,

E0 = m0 c2 = (9.109 × 10−31 kg)(3 × 108 m/s) = 8.187 × 10−14 J

and in electron-volts,
  
−14

1eV 1Mev
E0 = 8.187 × 10 J = 0.511 MeV
1.602 × 10−19J 106 eV

Example 10: An electron is accelerated to an energy of 2 GeV in an elec-

tron synchrotron. What is the ratio of the electron’s mass to it’s rest mass?

The total energy of the electron is given by,

mc2 = K + m0 c2

so that,

m mc2 K + m0 c2 2000 MeV + 0.511 MeV

= 2
= 2
= = 3915
m0 m0 c m0 c 0.511 MeV
Example 11: An electron is accelerated from rest to a velocity of 0.5c. Cal-
culate its change in energy.

m 0 c2
change in energy = p − m0 c2
1 − (v/c)2

0.511 MeV
= p − 0.511 MeV = 0.079 MeV .
1 − (0.5)2

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

33
Chapter 2

The Quantum Theory of Light

Lecture No. 6.

• Thermal radiation

• The cosmic microwave background radiation

• The photoelectric effect

Lecture No. 7.

• Photon interactions: Compton scattering, pair production

• The LHC experiment at CERN (multi-media presentation)

34
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 6.
Outline

• Thermal radiation

• The cosmic microwave background radiation

• The photoelectric effect

Thermal radiation: This is the radiation in form of electromagnetic

waves emitted by a body because of it’s temperature. All bodies emitt and
also absorb thermal radiation from their sorroundings. The spectrum of ther-
mal radiation from a hot solid is continuous and it depends on the material.
For example, at 2000K, a polished flat tungsten (symbol W) emitts radia-
tion at a rate of about 23.5 W/cm2 while molybdenum radiates about 19.2
W/cm2 .

However,a cavity in a solid forms an ideal radiator such that the thermal ra-
diation has a simple spectrum that depends only on the temperature of the
walls and not the material of the cavity or it’s shape (size). Such thermal
radiation is called cavity radiation or black body radiation. An ideal black
body absorbs all radiation incident on it and emitts the same type of radia-
tion. Some properties of cavity radiation are as follows,

1. Radiant intensity I(T). This is the total radiated power per unit area
summed over all wavelengths,

I(T ) = σ T 4 (2.1)

known as the Stefan-Boltzmann law1 . σ ' 5.67×10−8 W/m2 K4 is the Stefan-

Boltzmann constant. The general form of the Stefan-Boltzmann law is,

I(T ) =  σ T 4 (2.2)

where  is the emissivity of the surface. For a cavity  = 1.

1
after Joseph Stefan and Ludwig Boltzmann

35
 2. Spectral radiancy R(λ). This describes the variation of intensity of
cavity radiation with wavelength, i.e.,
Z ∞
I = R(λ)dλ (2.3)
0

where λ is the wavelength of radiation emitted at a fixed temperature T.

Figure 2.1 illustrates the variation of radial intensity as a function of wave-
length.

Figure 2.1: Variation of spectral radiancy with wavelength. Note the shift in
the peaks at different temperatures.

The spectral radiancy curves have a maximum value at λmax. which depends
on the temperature T as follows,

λmax. T = 2898 µm K (2.4)

known as the Wien’s displacement law2 . The knowledge of the spectral radi-
ancy curve therefore enables one to infer the surface temperature of a source
of thermal radiation.

2
Wilhelm Wien, Nobel Prize 1911 for his contribution to knowledge on thermal radia-
tion

36
Example 1: The spectral radiancy curve of thermal radiation from a star
has a maximum value at a wavelength λmax. ' 500nm. Determine the surface
temperature of the stars and hence determine it’s radiant intensity.

Assuming the emitted starlight to be cavity radiation then,

2898µm K 2898µm K
T = = ' 5796K
λmax. 0.5µm

I = σT 4 = 5.67 × 10−18 Wm−2 K−4 (5796K)4 ' 6.4 × 107 Wm−2

Planck’s radiation formula: Consider a hole in the wall of a hollow object

approximating blackbody. The density of standing waves in the cavity is
given by,
8πν 2
G(ν)dν = dν (2.5)
c3
where ν is the frequency of radiation emmitted. Classically, the average
energy per standing wave is given by,

¯ = kT (2.6)

where k ' 1.381 × 10−23 J/K is the Boltzmann’s constant3 . The total energy
is per unit volume in the cavity is,
8πkT 2
u(ν)dν = ¯ G(ν)dν = ν dν (2.7)
c3
known as the Rayleigh-Jeans formula4 . This predicts a ν 2 increase in the
energy density leading to a discrepancy at high frequencies - known as the
ultra violet catastrophe.

Max-Planck5 considered oscillators in the cavity with discrete energy values

called quanta,
n = nhν n = 0, 1, 2, 3... (2.8)
where h ' 6.626 × 10−34 Js is Planck’s constant. The average energy per
standing wave is,
hν
 = hν

(2.9)
exp KT − 1
3
named after Ludwig Boltzmann
4
after Lord Rayleigh and Sir James Jeans
5
Max Planck, Nobel Prize 1918 for the discovery of the quantum of energy

37
so that the energy density is,
8πh ν 3 dν
u(ν) dν = 3 hν

(2.10)
c exp KT − 1

known as the Planck radiation formula6 which described observations very

well as illustrated on Figure 2.2.

Figure 2.2: The energy distribution for black body radiation. A comparison
is made between the Rayleigh-Jeans formula and the Planck formula.

Planck obtained very good agreement with experimental data for the spec-
tral distribution of black body radiation over all wavelengths. Note that at
low frequencies the Planck formula reduces to the classical Rayleigh-Jeans
formula (Equation 2.7).

The Planck’s constant h ' 6.626 × 10−34 Js is also known as the fundamental
quantum of action. For a physical system with every variable having the
dimension of action that is very large when measured in units of h, then the
quantum effects will be negligible and the laws of classical physics will be
sufficiently accurate.
6
M.Planck presented his results on the radiation energy distribution on 14th December
1900 during a meeting of the German Physical Society in Berlin, Germany.
M.Planck. Verh. D. Phys. Ges. 2. 202 (1900).

38
For example, a linear harmonic oscillator m = 10−2 kg, v = 10−1 m/s, ν =
1.6Hz has classical energy E = mv 2 /2 = 5 × 10−5 J and quantum energy
E0 = hν ' 1033 so that E0 /E ' 10−29 . The quantum effects are negligible.

The results by Max Planck indicated that energy is emitted in discrete val-
ues hν - the quantum of energy. That means that energy is quantised. This
marked the birth of quantum mechanics and indeed modern physics.

The Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR): Using a

large horn antenna(See Figure 2.3), Penzias and Wilson7 in 1964 detected an
isotropic signal in the cm and mm wavebands.

Figure 2.3: The horn antenna used by A. Penzias and R. Wilson to detect
the cosmic microwave background

The background signal in their antenna was independent of seasonal varia-

tions and it represented an excess antenna temperature of about 3K. This was
indeed the detection of the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR),
which was earlier predicted by theoretical physicists. The CMBR is a rem-
nant of the Big Bang that is suppossed to be the origin of the Universe.

7
A. Penzias and R. Wilson, Nobel Prize 1978 for the discovery of the cosmic microwave
background

39
Recent measurements, for example by the COBE8 satellite in 1990 indicate
that the frequency spectrum of the CMBR fits that of a blackbody as shown
in Figure 2.4. An analysis of the spectrum shows that the data are consistent
with a temperature of about 2.6K for the photons of the CMBR. The WMAP9
mission, which is the successor of the COBE mission, has recently produced
data on the all-sky-survey of the CMBR (see Figure 2.5)

Figure 2.4: The spectrum of the cosmic microwave background radiation

measured by the COBE satellite. Source: M.S. Longair. High Energy As-
trophysics. Vol. 2. Cambridge University Press. Reprint 2004.

Figure 2.5: An image of the cosmic microwave background measured by the

WMAP mission. Source: NASA

8
COsmic Background Explorer
9
Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe

40
The experimental detection and measurement of the CMBR is an important
discovery in astrophysics and provides evidence for the hot Big Bang model
for the origin of the Universe. In this model, the Universe is believed to have
started some 13 billion years ago, followed by a period of inflation and the
formation of the Universe upto the present time. However, the physics or
science at the times immediately after the Big Bang is yet to be understood.

The photoelectric effect: Even with the discovery of the quantum of en-
ergy, electromagnetic waves were understood from classical considerations
to be of continuous range of possible energies. However this understanding
could not explain the photo-electric effect - the emission of photoelectrons by
metals on exposure to light sources (See Figure 2.6). Observations showed
that the energies of the electrons liberated by light depend on the frequency
of light used to illuminate the surface.

In 1905 Albert Einsten10 explained the photoelectric effect as follows: the en-
ergy of light is concentrated in small packet or photons. Similar to Planck’s
quantum of energy, a photon of light of frequency ν has energy hν. A mini-
mum energy, called the workfunction φ = hν0 , is required for an electron to
escape the surface of a metal. Some values of the workfunction are as follows,
------------------------------------------
metal symbol workfunction (eV)
------------------------------------------
cesium Cs 1.9
potassium K 2.2
sodium Na 2.3
copper Cu 4.7
silver Ag 4.7
platinum Pt 6.4
------------------------------------------
The excess energy of the photon is taken away as kinetic energy by the
photoelectron according to the relation,
hν = φ + KEphotoelectron (2.11)
The maximum kinetic energy for the photoelectrons is therefore,

KEmax. = hν − φ.
10
Albert Einstein, Nobel Prize 1921 for his services to theoretical physics and especially
for his discovery of the law of photoelectric effect

41
 Figure 2.6: An illustration of the photoelectric effect

Example 2: Consider UV light (λ ' 350nm) incident on a potassium sur-

face. The photons from this source of light have energy,
hc 6.626 × 10−34 Js × 3 × 108 m/s
E = hν = = ' 5.7 × 10−19 J
λ 350 × 10−9 m
which can be expressed in eV as follows,
5.7 × 10−19 J
E = ' 3.54eV
1.602 × 10−19 J
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons is,
KEmax. = hν − φ = 3.54 − 2.2 = 1.34eV
Note that the photons from this particular source of UV light are of insuffi-
cient energy to eject any photoelectrons from the surface of a copper metal
(φ = 4.7eV).

Assignment: The threshold wavelength for photoelectric emission from the

surface of Tungsten is 230nm. What wavelength of light must be used in
order to emitt photoelectrons with maximum kinetic energy of 1.5eV?

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

42
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 7.
Outline

• Photon interactions: Compton scattering, pair production

• The LHC experiment at CERN (multi-media presentation)

Compton Scattering: Besides the photo electric effect, photons can also
be scattered by electrons in a target material. Consider a photon of energy
E = hν incident on an electron at rest as illustrated on Figure 2.7.

Figure 2.7: An illustration of Compton scattering

Recall that the energy for a massless particle, such as the photon, is given
by E = pc so that the momentum of the photon is,
E hν
p = = .
c c
From the principle of conservation of energy, the loss in photon energy is
equal to the gain in electron energy, that is,

hν − hν 0 = KEelectron . (2.12)

Next, we consider the conservation of momentum,

(a) in the direction of the incident photon,

hν hν 0
+ 0 = cos φ + p cos θ (2.13)
c c

43
 (b) in the direction perpedicular to the incident photon,
hν 0
0 = sin θ − p sin θ (2.14)
c
where φ is the angle between the initial and scattered photon and θ is the
angle of the recoil electron as illustrated on Figure 2.7. Multiplying the
equations (2.13) and (2.14) with c and rearranging them,

pc cos θ = hν − hν 0 cos φ

pc sin θ = hν 0 sin θ

which can be squared and added to eliminate θ,

p2 c2 = (hν)2 − 2(hν)(hν 0 ) cos φ + (hν 0 )2 . (2.15)

Note that the total energy of a particle is given by,

q
E = m0 c2 + KE = m20 c4 + p2 c2

so that,
p2 c2 = (KE)2 + 2m0 c2 KE. (2.16)
Using the expression (2.12) for the kinetic energy, then the expression (2.16)
becomes,

p2 c2 = (hν)2 − 2(hν)(hν 0 ) + (hν)2 + 2m0 c2 hν − hν 0 .

(2.17)

On comparing the expressions (2.15) and (2.17) one gets,

2m0 c2 hν − hν 0 = 2(hν)(hν 0 ) 1 − cos φ

ν0 ν ν0
 
m0 c ν

− = 1 − cos φ
h c c c c
and since ν/c = 1/λ, ν 0 /c = 1/λ0
 
m0 c 1 1 1 − cos φ
− 0 =
h λ λ λλ0
which can be written as,
h
λ0 − λ =


1 − cos φ
m0 c

44
or,
∆λ = λ0 − λ = λc 1 − cos φ .


(2.18)

h
where λc = .
m0 c
This relation was first derived by A.H.Compton11 in the early 1920’s and
hence referred to as the Compton effect or Compton scattering. λc is the
Compton wavelength for the scattering particle. Note that for an electron
m0 ' 0.511MeV, then the Compton wavelength is,

6.62 × 10−34 Js
λc = ' 2.426 × 10−12 m
0.511 × 106 eV × 1.602 × 10−19 J/eV × 3 × 108 m/s

Example 1: Consider an X-ray beam of wavelength λ = 0.3Å that is scat-

tered at an angle φ = 600 by an electron at rest. The wavelength of the
scattered photon is calculated as follows,
h
λ0 = λ +


1 − cos φ
m0 c
 
0 0


λ = 0.3Å + 0.0243Å 1 − cos 60 ' 0.312Å

The kinetic energy of the recoil electron is evaluated by conservation of energy

as follows,
Eincident photon + Eelectron = Escattered photon + Erecoil electron

 
hc 2 hc 2
+ m0 c = 0 + KE + m0 c
λ λ
 
1 1
KE = hc − 0
λ λ
 
1 1
KE = 12.4keVÅ − ' 1.59keV
0.3 0.312

Note that hc ' 12.4keVÅ.

11
Arthur Holly Compton, Nobel prize 1927 for his discovery of the (Compton) effect
named after him. The Nobel prize was shared with Charles Thomson Rees Wilson - for
his method of making the paths of electrically charged particles visible by condensation
vapor.

45
Example 2: Consider the Compton scattering of a photon on a target elec-
tron at rest such that the maximum energy imparted to the electron is 60keV.

The photon energy is calculated as follows: assuming the incident photon

and the scattered photon have energies E and E’ respectively, then by con-
servation of energy,
 
2 0 2
E + m0 c = E + 60keV + m0 c

E − E 0 = 60keV

and by conservation of momentum,

E −E 0
= + pe
c c
The total energy of the electron is,

Ee2 = (pe c)2 + E02

(0.511MeV + 0.06MeV)2 = (pe c)2 + (0.511MeV)2

hence, pe = 255keV/c, so that, E + E 0 = 255keV . Therefore the photon

energy is,
255 + 60
E = = 157.5keV
2
and the photon wavelength is,

hc 12.4keVÅ
λ = = = 0.078Å
E 157.5keV
Note that 1Å = 10−10 m.

Assignment: What is the inverse Compton scattering?

46
Pair production: The presence of a photon of sufficient energy in the field
of the atomic nucleus leads to the production of an electron-positron pair as
illustrated on Figure 2.8. This process is called pair production.

Figure 2.8: Lowest order Feynmann diagram for the process of pair produc-
tion

The positron, an anti-matter of the electron, is positively charged and was

first discovered by C.D. Anderson12 in cosmic-ray tracks using the Wilson
cloud chamber in 1933 (see Figure 2.9).

Figure 2.9: The track of a positron in the Wilson cloud chamber observed
by C.D. Anderson in 1933. (C.D. Anderson (1933) Physical Review 43 491)

12
Carl David Anderson, Nobel prize 1936 for his discovery of the positron. The Nobel
prize was shared with Victor Franz Hess for his discovery of cosmic radiation.

47
The minimum photon energy required for pair production can be evaluated
as follows; the basic process,

γ → e− + e +

cannot conserve both energy and momentum simultaneously, but is allowed

in the presence of a nucleus,

γ + (Z, A) → e− + e+ + (Z, A).

By conservation of energy, the photon energy is equal to the sum of restmass

energies of the electron and positron and their respctive kinetic energies,

Eγ = hν = 2m0 c2 + KE

and hence,

hν ≥ 2m0 c2 ' 1.022MeV

the minimum photon energy is twice the restmass energy of the electron.

Assignment: Calculate the minimum photon energy required for pair pro-
duction in the Coulomb field of the electron.

In their own vicinity, the positron and electron would annihilate each other
vanishing simultaneously to produce photons, for example,

e+ + e − → γ + γ

The process is called pair annihilation (see Figure 2.10).

Figure 2.10: The lowest order contribution to the process of pair annihilation

48
Each photon will have an energy hν and half the kinetic energy of the particles
(e+ e− ) in their centre of mass. Generally, pair annihilation of order p is
represented by,
e+ + e− → pγ. (2.19)
For example, the third order process p = 3 is given by,

e+ + e− → γ + γ + γ. (2.20)

and can be represented as illustrated on Figure 2.11. Many-photon annihi-

lation is very rare compared to few-photon annihilation.

Figure 2.11: An example of the third order pair annihilation process

Particle collisions at high energy physics laboratories, for example e+ e− col-

lisions at the Large Electron Collider (LEP) at CERN13 made it possible to
study the electroweak sector. Such studies provided evidence for the exis-
tence of the Z- and W-bosons and indeed the three flavours of the neutrino.
The Z- and W-bosons are carriers of the electroweak force and were observed
at the LEP experiments led by C.Rubia and S. van der Meer14 .

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

13
European Laboratory for Particle Physics
14
Carlo Rubia and Simon van der Meer, Nobel prize 1984, for their decisive contri-
butions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z,
communicators of the weak interaction

49
Chapter 3

Atomic Physics and Matter

Waves

Lecture No. 8

• models of the atom

• the Franck-Hertz experiment

• de Broglie waves (or matter waves)

• the Davisson-Germer experiment

Lecture No. 9.

• Phase and group velocities of de Broglie waves

• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

50
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 8
Outline
• models of the atom

• the Franck-Hertz experiment

• de Broglie waves (or matter waves)

• the Davisson-Germer experiment

Models of the atom: With the discovery of the electron as a fundamental
constituent of matter1 , the next task was to explain the electrical neutrality
of the atom. Lord Kelvin and Thomson proposed that electrons move at high
speeds in concentric circles in a sphere of continuous positive charge. This
was known as the Kelvin-Thomson plum-pudding model of the atom. In 1911
E. Rutherford2 performed scattering experiments to investigate the structure
of matter. He used α-particles incident on a target of a thin metallic foil (of
gold) as illustrated on Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1: An illustration of the Rutherford experiment

In this experiment, the zinc sulphide screen was used to detect the α par-
ticles at varied angles of scattering. Rutherford observed that most of the
α particles went through the thin metallic foil, some were scattered in the
forward direction while others were scattered back to the source.
1
Sir J.J. Thomson was the first to measure the charge-to-mass ratio of the electron and
is therefore considered the discoverer of the electron
2
Ernest Rutherford, Nobel prize in Chemistry 1908, for his investigations into the
disintegration of the elements, and the chemistry of radioactive substances

51
The results by Rutherford3 showed that at the centre of the atom is a massive
concentration of matter - the nucleus of the atom, which caused the back-
scattering of the α particles. The observations were also made by Ruther-
ford’s students - H. Geiger and E. Marsden. Each atom with it’s specific
number of electrons must contain equal number of the opposite charge - the
positively charged proton. However, it was still not clear; what held the elec-
trons in place outside the nucleus, how the protons could be held together,
and, what caused the emission spectra of atoms4 . In addition, according to
classical physics, electrons in orbit would radiate continuously thereby loos-
ing energy and collapse into the nucleus. However, this does not happen.
Making use of the quantum of energy hν, Niels Bohr5 made the following
postulates on the atom,

1. electrons orbit round the nucleus in discrete energy states without em-
mitting radiation

2. the allowed states for the electron must satisfy the condition that the
orbital angular momentum is given by,
h
L = n n = 1, 2, 3, ... (3.1)
2π
where n is the quantum number of the discrete energy states.

3. when an electron jumps from an initial (higher) energy state En to

a final (lower) energy state Em , radiation of frequency ν is emmitted
where, hν = En − Em (3.2)

This is known as the Bohr model of the atom and it successfully explained
the observed atomic spectra.

This atomic model was refined by Arnold Sommerfeld taking into account
relativistic effects and nuclear motion - with the nucleus and electron both
orbiting round their common centre of mass in elliptic orbits. This is known
as the Bohr-Sommerfeld model (see Figure 3.2) and it was useful in the
interpretation of the shell structure of atoms.

3
more information: E. Rutherford, The Scattering of α and β Particles by Matter and
the Structure of the Atom, Philosophical Magazine. Series 6, 21 (May 1911) p. 669-688
4
first identified by Gustav Kirchhoff and Robert Bunsen
5
Niels Bohr, Nobel prize 1922 for the investigation of the structure of atoms, and of
the radiation emanating from them.

52
Figure 3.2: Models of the atom by (a) Thomson, (b) Rutherford, (c) Bohr,
and (d) Bohr-Sommerfeld.

Quantisation of the energy levels in an atom: Consider an electron

orbiting round the nucleus in hydrogen atom, Z = 1 (see Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.3: An illustration of an orbiting electron in hydrogen atom

The condition for stability of the electron in orbit requires that the centripetal
force equals the electrostatic force, that is,
mv 2 e2
= (0 is permittivity constant)
rn 4π0 rn2
from which one gets the linear speed of the oribting electron,
s
e2
v = (3.3)
4π0 mrn
and the linear momentum is,
s
me2
p = mv = (3.4)
4π0 rn
so that the angular momentum is,
s
me2 r
L = pr = . (3.5)
4π0

53
Using the quantization of angular momentum in Equation (3.1),
s
h me2 r
n =
2π 4π0
one gets an expression,
h2 0
rn = n2 = n2 r0 (3.6)
πme2
showing that the radius is quantized. For n = 1,
h2 0
r = r0 = (3.7)
πme2
which is known as the Bohr radius. For hydrogen atom, the Bohr radius is,
r0 ' 5.29 × 10−11 m. This is the radius of the Bohr orbit which corresponds
to n = 1 defining the ground state of the hydrogen atom. Ignoring the finite
mass correction of the nucleus, the total energy of an orbital electron in
hydrogen atom is,
1 2 e2 e2
E = mv − = − (3.8)
2 4π0 r 8π0 r
Substituting the expression (3.6) in the expression for energy,
e2 e2 πme2
En = − =
8π0 rn 8π0 n2 h2 0
and hence,
me4 1 E0
En = − 2 2
= n = 1, 2, 3, ... (3.9)
80 h n2 n2
showing that the energy levels are quantized. E1 is the ground state, E2 , E3 ...
are the excited states. This expression can be used to calculate, for example,
the binding energy of hydrogen atom - the energy that binds the electron to
the nucleus,
me4 (9.11 × 10−31 kg)(1.6 × 10−19 C)4
E0 = − = −
820 h2 8(8.85 × 10−12 C2 /Nm2 )2 (6.63 × 10−34 Js)2

E0 ' −2.17 × 10−18 J ' −13.6eV

also known as the Rydberg energy6 . This calculated value is in agreement
with the experimentally observed value.
6
after J.J. Rydberg

54
The work needed to remove an electron from an atom in it’s ground state
is called the ionisation energy. For hydrogen atom the ionisation energy is
given by,
 
1 1
E = −E0 − 2 ' 13.6eV
∞2 1

From Bohr’s third postulate, the energy of photons emitted when an electron
has a transition from n to m state is given by,

me4
 
1 1
hν = 2 2 − 2 (3.10)
80 h m2 n
or,  
1 1
E = −E0 − 2 . (3.11)
m2 n
The frequency of the emitted radiation is,

me4
 
1 1
ν = 2 3 − 2 . (3.12)
80 h m2 n

The wavelength of the emitted radiation is often expressed as follows,

 
1 1 1
= R − 2 (3.13)
λ m2 n

where R ' 1.097 × 107 m−1 is the Rydberg constant. This is known as the
Rydberg-Balmer formula.

The transitions are governed by some quantum mechanical selection rules,

that determine the transitions that are allowed. In general, the transitions
result into the emission of series of spectral lines as illustrated on Figure 3.4.

55
 Figure 3.4: An illustration of the electron transitions in hydrogen atom

Example 1: Consider the Lyman series of hydrogen. The longest wavelength

corresponds to n = 2,
 
1 −3 −1 1 1
= 1.097 × 10 Å − 2 or λmax. ' 1215Å
λ 12 2

and the shortest wavelength corresponds to n = ∞,

 
1 −3 −1 1 1
= 1.097 × 10 Å − or λmin ' 912Å
λ 12 ∞2

Example 2: Consider the transition from n = 1 to n = 2 in hydrogen atom.

Using Equation (3.11) the energy required for this transition is calculated as
follows,
 
1 1
E = −13.6eV 2 − 2 ' 10.2eV
2 1

Note that this represents the difference in energy for the two levels.

56
The Franck-Hertz experiment: In 1914 J. Franck and G. Hertz7 per-
formed experiments that confirmed the existence of atomic energy levels.
They bombarded vapors of various elements with electrons of known energy
(see Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5: The experimental set-up of the Franck-Hertz experiment

As the accelerating potential is increased, more electrons arrive at the collect-

ing plate (anode) thus increasing the current. After a certain critical energy
is reached, there is an abrupt drop in the anode plate current - suggesting
collision of the electron and the atoms in the vapor. A further increase in
the accelerating voltage leads to an increase in the anode plate current till
another critical energy is reached (see Figure 3.6). These represent inelastic
collisions. The critical energies represent the energies needed to raise the
atoms to the excited states, thus providing experimental confirmation for
the existence of atomic energy levels. These experiments were performed
shortly after N. Bohr made made the postulates on the atom and the results
confirmed them.

Figure 3.6: The results of the Franck-Hertz experiment using mercury

vapour. Note the critical energy of 4.9eV.

7
James Franck and Gustav Hertz, Nobel Prize 1925 for their discovery of the laws
governing the impact of an electron upon an atom

57
de Broglie waves: In 1924 Louis-Victor de Broglie8 proposed that moving
objects have wave as well as particle properties. That is, they have a particle-
wave dual nature. Consider a photon of light of frequency ν so that the
momentum is,
hν h
p = = (3.14)
c λ
and the wavelength of the photon is,
h
λ = . (3.15)
p
For a particle of mass m moving at velocity v, the momentum is p = mv
and, h
λ = (3.16)
mv
represents it’s de Broglie wavelength.

Example 3: Consider a 200g steel ball moving at a velocity 20m/s. Since

v << c then m = m0 so that the de Broglie wavelength is,
6.626 × 10−34 Js
λ = −3
' 1.66 × 10−34 m
(200 × 10 kg)(20m/s)

This is a very small value compared to the dimensions of the steel ball, there-
fore the wave nature of the steel ball would not be observable in every-day life.

Example 4: Consider an electron moving at a speed v = 107 m/s. Since

v << c then m = m0 so that the de Broglie wavelength is,
6.626 × 10−34 Js
λ = ' 7.3 × 10−11 m
(9.1 × 10−31 kg)(107 m/s)

This is of the order of the dimensions of orbits round the nucleus, hence the
wave nature of electrons is observable.

Example 5: Calculate the de Broglie wavelength of a 0.05eV neutron (ther-

mal neutron).
h hc 12.4 × 103 eV · Å
λ = = √ = p ' 1.28Å
p 2m0 c2 K 2(940 × 106 eV)(0.05eV)

Note the rest mass energy of a neutron is approximately 940 MeV.

8
Prince Louis-Victor Pierre Raymond de Broglie, Nobel Prize 1929 for his discovery of
wave nature of electrons

58
The Davisson-Germer Experiment: De Broglie’s hypothesis that mov-
ing objects posses both particle and wave properties, that is the particle -
wave duality, was confirmed in experiments in 1927 by C. Davisson9 and L.
Germer in the USA and also independently by G. P. Thomson in England.
They showed that electrons are diffracted by crystals or regular atomic struc-
ture. A sketch of the experimental set-up by Davisson and Germer is shown
on Figure 3.7(a). The energy of the incident electrons and the incident angle
were varied and the scattered electrons were measured at all angles.

Figure 3.7: The Davisson - Germer experiment (a) the experimental set-up
and (b) a sketch of the main result obtained.

Classical physics predicts that the scattered electrons emerge in all direc-
tions. Their intensity depends rather little on the scattering angle and even
less on the energy of primary electrons. This was confirmed by Davisson and
Germer.

Later on, using a pure nickel target, they observed distinct maxima and
minima in the scattered intensities. The position of the maxima and minima
depended on the energy of the incident electron. As the potential difference
(accelerating voltage) is increased, a small spurr occurs at about 500 to the
incident direction. The spurr is most pronounced at an accelerating voltage
of 54V as illustrated on Figure 3.7(b).

9
C. Davisson, Nobel Prize 1937 with G.P. Thomson for their discovery of diffraction of
electrons by crystals

59
Explanation to the observation: A nickel crystal has a face centred
cubic (fcc) lattice with lattice spacing (or grating distance) d = 0.091nm.
The beam of electrons are scattered by the atoms of nickel as illustrated on
Figure 3.8.

Figure 3.8: Scattering of an incident beam by a cubic crystal structure.

The glancing angle of incidence given by,

180 − 50
θ = = 650
2
Using the condition for Bragg10 diffraction,
n λ = 2 d sin θ n = 1, 2, 3...
for the maxima in the diffraction pattern (n = 1) the wavelength of the
electron beam is,
λ = 2 d sin θ = 2 × 0.091nm × sin 650 = 0.165nm
At an accelerating voltage of 54V, the electrons’ kinetic energy (EK = 54eV)
is much less than
√ it’s rest mass energy (E0 = 511keV) so that the momentum
is p = mv = 2mEK . The de Broglie wavelength of the electrons is therefore,
h h
λ = = √ ' 0.167nm
p 2mEK
which is in agreement with the observed wavelength (λ = 0.165nm). This re-
sult provides experimental verification of de Broglie’s hypothesis of the wave
nature of particles or objects in motion.

10
W.L. Bragg, Nobel Prize 1915 with W.H. Bragg for their services in the analysis of
crystal structure by means of X-rays

60
The wave nature of moving electrons formed the basis of electron micro-
scopes. They provide superior magnification capabilities compared to the
conventional microscopes. In addition to electrons and X-rays, neutrons
have also been used for the investigation of crystal structures.

Example 5: Consider thermal neutrons incident on a sodium chloride crys-

tal (interatomic spacing d = 2.81Å). They undergo first-order diffraction
from the principal Bragg planes at an angle of 200 . The energy of the ther-
mal neutrons is calculated as follows,

λ = 2d sin θ = 2(2.81Å)(sin 200 ) ' 1.922Å

so that from the de Broglie relationship,

h hc
λ = = √
p 2m0 c2 EK

with m0 c2 ' 940 MeV for neutrons, the kinetic energy is,

h2 c2 (12.4eVÅ)2
EK = = ' 0.02214eV
2m0 c2 λ2 2(940 × 106 eV)(1.922Å)2

Assignment: A 0.083eV neutron beam scatters from an unknown sample

and a Bragg reflection peak is observed at an angle of 220 . Calculate the
Bragg plane spacing.

Example 6: Consider a proton whose de Broglie wavelength is 1fm (=10−15 m).

The protons total energy is calculated as follows,

hc (4.136 × 10−15 eVs)(3 × 108 m/s)

pc = = ' 1.24GeV
λ 1 × 10−15 m
so that with the rest-mass energy of the proton E0 = 0.938GeV,
q √
E = E02 + (pc)2 = 0.9382 + 1.242 ' 1.55GeV

The kinetic energy is therefore,

EK = E − E0 = 1.55 − 0.938 = 0.617GeV

61
The de Broglie relationship λ = h/p is key to the understanding of nature
at it’s fundamental level. For example, to study the structure of nuclei (nu-
clear physics) or hadrons (particle physics) one requires projectiles whose de
Broglie wavelengths are of the order of the effective radii of the nuclei or
hadrons being studied. The minimum value of the momentum (and hence
energy) for the projectiles is therefore p = h/λ.

Example 7: Consider the experimental observation of an object that is 2.5Å

in size. The minimum energy of a photon that can be used in the experiment
is given by,

hc 12.4 × 103 eV · Å
Emin = hνmin = = = 4.96 × 103 eV
λmax 2.5Å

Assignment: Calculate the minimum energy for an electron to be used for

the experiment in the Example 7.

Such experiments require particle accelerators and massive particle detec-

tors with very sophisticated data acquisition and analyses systems. The
Large Hadron Collider (LHC) at CERN the European laboratory for parti-
cle physics at Geneva is currently the largest particle accelerator facility. It is
designed to accelerate beams of protons to 7TeV. Such energies, previously
unattainable at particle accelerators, enable the investigation of matter at
the finest details.

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

62
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 9.
Outline
• Phase and group velocities of de Broglie waves
• Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Phase and group velocities of de Broglie waves: Consider the motion
of a moving body to be represented by a wave packet or wave group as
illustrated on Figure 3.9.

Figure 3.9: An illustration of a wave packet

The amplitude of the de Broglie waves associated with a moving object rep-
resent the probability of finding the object at a particular place and time.
The phase velocity vp for such a wavepacket is,
ω 2πν
vp = = = νλ (3.17)
k 2π/λ
where w = 2πν is angular frequency, and, k = 2π/λ is wavenumber. From
the de Broglie relationship,

h h mc2
λ = = and noting that ν =
p mv h
one gets, the de Broglie phase velocity,

mc2 h c2
vp = νλ = · = (3.18)
h mv v
Since v < c then vp > c that is, the de Broglie waves always travel faster
than light.

63
The angular frequency and wave number of de Broglie waves are,

2πm0 c2
ω = p (3.19)
h 1 − v 2 /c2

2πm0 v
k = p (3.20)
h 1 − v 2 /c2
so that the de Broglie group velocity vg is,

dω
vg = = v (3.21)
dk
Note that,
dω dω dv
= ·
dk dv dk

dω 2πm0 v dk 2πm0
= =
dv h(1 − v 2 /c2 )3/2 dv h(1 − v 2 /c2 )3/2

Example 1: Consider an electron whose momentum is 700keV/c. The total

energy of the electron is given by,
q p
E = p2 c2 + E02 = (700keV)2 + (511keV)2 ' 866.67keV

so that it’s velocity can be determined from the relation,

E0
E = p to get v ' 0.8077c
1 − v 2 /c2

The phase and group velocities of the de Broglie waves associated with the
moving electron are therefore,

c2
vp = ' 1.238c vg = v = 0.8077c
v

Assignment: Calculate the phase and group velocities of the de Broglie

waves of an electron whose kinetic energy is 500 keV.

64
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle: Consider the motion of two particles
represented by the de Broglie waves (a) and (b) on Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10: An illustration of wave packets

For the de Broglie wavegroup (a) ∆x is small, the position of the particle
can be precisely determined. However, since the number of waves are not
enough to precisely determine their wavelengths, the particle’s momentum
cannot be determined so precisely, that is, ∆p is large. In the wavegroup (b)
the number of waves is sufficient to precisely determine their wavelengths
and hence the particle’s momentum. The position of the particle cannot be
precisely located.

It is therefore impossible to know the exact position and exact momentum of

the particle at the same time (or simultaneously). The uncertainty associated
with the particle is evaluated as follows: from the de Broglie relationship
p = h/λ, the wavenumber for the de Broglie waves is,
2π p hk
k = = 2π or p =
λ h 2π
so that the uncertainty in the particle’s momentum is,
h
∆p = ∆k
2π
and since ∆x∆k ≥ 1/2, then,
h
∆p∆x ≥ (3.22)
4π
known as the Heisenberg uncertainty principle11
11
discovered by W. Heisenberg in 1927. Nobel Prize 1932 for creation of quantum
mechanics, the application of which has, among other things, led to the discovery of
allotropic forms of hydrogen.

65
The Heisenberg uncertainty principle is often expressed as,
~
∆p∆x ≥ (3.23)
2
where,
h
~ = ' 6.582 × 10−22 MeVs.
2π
is known as the reduced Planck’s constant. Similarly, the uncertainty in
energy and time is expressed as follows,
~
∆E∆t ≥ . (3.24)
2

Example 2: The position of a particle is known to within ±0.1Å. The

uncertainty in it’s momentum is,
~
∆p ≥ ' 9.874keV/c
2∆x

Example 3: The uncertainty in the energy of a nuclear state is 60 keV. The

average life-time of the nuclear state is calculated as follows,
~
∆t ≥ ' 5.485 × 10−21 s
2∆E

Assignment: The rest mass of a particle measured in the laboratory is

'3097MeV with a measurement uncertainty of '0.06MeV. The particle de-
cays extremely rapidly into particles of smaller mass. Calculate the mean
life-time between production and decay of the particle.

66
Particle in a box: Consider a particle of mass m confined in a box of width
L. The particle bounces back and forth like a standing wave such that the
wavelengths are, 2
λ = 2L , L , L, ... (3.25)
3
as illustrated on Figure 3.11. The de Broglie wavelengths of the trapped
particle are given by,
2L
λ = n = 1, 2, 3, ... (3.26)
n

Figure 3.11: An illustration of a particle confined in a box and the de Broglie

waves associated with the particle for (a) the ground state n = 1, and the
excited states (b) n = 2, (c) n = 3.

67
The kinetic energy of the particle is,

1 2 h2
EK = mv =
2 2mλ2
or
n2 h2
En = n = 1, 2, 3, ... (3.27)
8mL2
showing that a trapped particle;

1. has discrete values of energy, that is, quantization of energy,

2. cannot have zero energy En 6= 0.

Note that the quantization of energy is only observable for small masses in
small confinements as illustrated in the next example.

Example 4: Consider an electron confined to within 0.1nm length, the

energy levels are given by,

n2 (6.63 × 10−34 J · s)2

En = ' 6.0 × 10−18 n2 J
8(9.1 × 10−31 kg)(1 × 10−10 m)2

or En = 38n2 eV. Note that a 10g marble in a 10cm box has energy,

n2 (6.63 × 10−34 J · s)2

En = −3 −2 2
' 5.5 × 10−64 n2 J
8(10 × 10 kg)(10 × 10 m)

or En ' 3.44 × 10−45 n2 eV - an extremely small value of energy.

The box containing the particle can be represented by a square potential U

with infinitely high barriers as illustrated on Figure 3.12. Within the box,
the Schrödinger equation becomes,

d2 2mE
2
ψ + ψ = 0 (3.28)
dx ~
with the genral form of the wavefunction,
√ √
2mE 2mE
ψ = A sin x + B cos x (3.29)
~ ~

68
 Figure 3.12: An illustration of a square potential U

The boundary condition that ψ = 0 at x = 0, x = L requires B = 0, hence,

√
2mE nπx
ψn = A sin x = A sin (3.30)
~ L
represents the eigenfunction corresponding to energy eigenvalues En . The
constant A is found by normalising ψ, that is,
Z +∞
|ψn |2 dx = 1
−∞

to get,
r
2
A = .
L
The normalised wavefunction is therefore,
r
2 nπx
ψn = sin n = 1, 2, 3, ... (3.31)
L L
which is useful in calculating the probability of finding the particle anywhere
in the box. Generally, the probability of finding the particle between x = a
and x = b is given by,
Z b Z b
2 2 nπx
Pab = |ψn | dx = sin2 dx
a L a L

 b
x 1 nπx
= − sin
L 2nπ L a

so that for n = 1 a = 0 and b = 0.5, Pab ' 0.34 or 34%.

69
The expectation value of the position of the particle is given by,
R +∞
−∞
x|ψn |2 dx
< x > = R +∞ (3.32)
−∞
|ψn |2 dx

so that for a normalised wavefunction,

Z +∞
<x>= x|ψn |2 dx . (3.33)
−∞

This represents the average position of the particle.

Example 5: Consider a particle of mass m confined in a box of width L

such that is has a normalised wavelfunction given by the equation (3.31).
The expectation value < x > of the position of the particle is,
Z +∞
2 L
Z
2 nπx
<x>= x|ψn | dx = x sin2 dx
−∞ L 0 L

L
2 x2

x sin(2nπx/L) cos(2nπx/L)
= − −
L 4 4nπ/L 8(nπ/L)2 0

Since sin nπ = 0, cos 2nπ = 1, and cos 0 = 1, for all values of n the expecta-
tion value of x is
L
<x>= .
2
This shows that the average position of the particle is the middle of the
box in all quantum states. Similarly, the expecation value of the particle’s
momentum and energy is given by,
Z +∞
<p>= p|ψn |2 dx (3.34)
−∞
Z +∞
<E >= E|ψn |2 dx . (3.35)
−∞

Asignment: Calculate < p > for the particle in example 5.

70
Tutorial Examples

Example 6: The rest mass of a particle measured in the laboratory is

'3097MeV with a measurement uncertainty of '0.06MeV. The particle de-
cays extremely rapidly into particles of smaller mass. Calculate the mean
life-time between production and decay of the particle.

Using the Heisenberg uncertainty principle,

~ 6.582 × 10−22 MeV · s

∆t = = ' 5.485 × 10−21 s
2∆E 2(0.06MeV)

The particle, called ψ is about three times heavier than the proton and was
discovered in 1974 by two groups of physicists: one led by Burton Richter at
SLAC12 and the other led by Samuel Ting at BNL13 . The group at SLAC
was studying e+ e− annihilation,

e+ e− → ψ → hadrons

the ψ decays typically into electron-positron pair as shown on Figure 3.13.

The group at BNL studied e+ e− pairs produced in proton-beryllium colli-
sions,

p + Be → ψ/J + anything

Both experiments aimed to investigate the Drell-Yan process14 (production of

e+ e− or µ+ µ− pairs in hadronic collisions) whose motivation lay in the quark-
parton model. They led to the discovery of the ψ(3096) as a fundamental
particle15 . It’s partner is the ψ 0 or ψ(3685) which decays as follows,

ψ(3685) → ψ(3096) π + π − with ψ → e+ e− .

12
Stanford Linear Accelerator
13
Brookhaven National Laboratory
14
S.D. Drell, T.M. Yan. Annals. Phys. 66 578 (1971)
15
Burton Richter, Samuel Chao Chung Ting Nobel Prize 1976 Physics for their inde-
pendent discovery of an important fundamental particle

71
Figure 3.13: The decay ψ 0 → ψπ + π − observed by the SLAC-LBL Mark 1
collaboration. See: G.S. Abrams et al. Decay of ψ(3684) into ψ(3095).
Phys. Rev. Lett. 34 1181 (1974)

Example 7: Calculate the phase and group velocities of the de Broglie waves
of an electron whose kinetic energy is 500 keV.

The total energy of the electron is given by,

E = E0 + Ek = 511keV + 500keV = 1011keV

so that from the following relation,

E0
E = p
1 − v 2 /c2

one gets,
r r
v E2 5112
= 1 − 02 = 1 − = 0.863
c E 10112
Therefore, v = 0.863c, the group velocity is,

vg = v = 0.863c

and the phase velocity is,

c2 c2
vp = = = 1.159c
v 0.863c

72
Example 8: A 0.083eV neutron beam scatters from an unknown sample
and a Bragg reflection peak is observed at an angle of 220 . Calculate the
Bragg plane spacing.

From the de Broglie relation, the wavelength of the neutron beam is,

h h 12.4 × 103 eVÅ

λ = = p = p = 0.993Å
p 2(m0 c2 )EK 2(940 × 106 eV)(0.083eV)

Assuming that the peak corresponds to first order difraction (n = 1), the
Bragg plane spacing is calculated using the Bragg condition as follows,

λ 0.993Å
d = = = 1.33Å
2 sin θ 2(sin 220 )

Assignment: Suppose the momentum of a particle can be measured to an

accuracy of 10%. Calculate the minimum uncertainty in the position of the
following particles,

(a) a 10g mass moving at a speed of 2m/s

(b) an electron moving at a speed of 0.7c.

Assignment: The uncertainty in the momentum of a particle is equal to

the particle’s momentum. Find an expression for the minimum uncertainty
in the particle’s location.

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

73
Chapter 4

Nuclear Physics and

Radioactive Decay

Lecture No. 10.

• Introduction to nuclear physics, nuclear phenomenology

• The binding energy of atomic nucleus - nuclear fusion, nuclear fission

• Radioactive decay

Lecture No. 11.

• Alpha-decay, beta-decay

• Solar neutrinos

• Q-value of a nuclear reaction

Lecture No. 12.

• The liquid drop model of the nucleus

• Induced fission

• Nuclear mass density

• Tutorial examples

74
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 10.
Outline
• Introduction to nuclear physics, nuclear phenomenology

• The binding energy of atomic nucleus - nuclear fusion, nuclear fission

• Radioactive decay
Introduction to nuclear physics: The discovery of natural radioactivity
by Becquerel1 in 1896 is considered to be the beginning of nuclear physics.
Some of the atomic nuclei are unstable and decay spontaneously. Later on
in 1911-13, Rutherford and his collaborators Geiger and Marsden, confirmed
that at the centre of atomic nuclei is a massive nucleus.

The study of atomic nuclei has greatly advanced over the years focussing on,
among others, nuclear properties such as shape, size, charge distribution etc.
This has resulted to the development of several models of the atomic nucleus,
including; the shell model, the Fermi gas model, the liquid drop model, and
the collective model. However, there is no single model that can explain all
nuclear observations.

The atomic nucleus contains protons and neutrons - collectively known as

nucleons and are held together by the strong force inside the nucleus. It was
later realised that nucleons contain more fundamental particles - quarks -
first suggested by Gell-Mann2 in the mid 1960’s (See Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1: The structure of matter to the fundamental level

1
Antoine Henri Becquerel, Nobel Prize 1903 for his discovery of spontaneous radioac-
tivity. The Nobel prize was shared with Pierre Curie and Marie Sklowdowska Curie for
their joint researches on the radiation phenomena discovered by Professor Henri Becquerel
2
Murray Gell-Mann, Nobel prize 1969 for his contribution and discoveries concerning
the classification of elementary particles and their interactions

75
No free quarks have been observed experimentally. However, their interac-
tions have been observed in experiments at particle colliders, for example, a
quark-antiquark pair is produced via the Z 0 boson3 exchange, resulting into
production of jets of hadrons as shown on Figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: The production of jets of hadrons in e+ e− collisions. This has

been observed in experiments, for example the ALEPH experiment at CERN.

Such experiments have confirmed the existence of three families of quarks:(u,d),

(c,s) and (t,b) and leptons (e,µ, τ ) forming the standard model of elementary
particles as illustrated on Figure 4.3.

Figure 4.3: The standard model of elementary particles and the four funda-
mental forces in nature.

3
Observed in 1983 at LEP experiments led by Carlo Rubbia and Simon van der Meer,
Nobel Prize 1983 for their decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the
discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction

76
The study of quarks and their interactions requires particle beams of very
high energies. The currently largest particle physics experiment - the LHC
at CERN, has already attained the design 14TeV cms energy. Among the
objectives of the experiment is the search for the Higgs boson4 - which is
responsible for the generation of mass of elementary particles. The experi-
mental observation of the Higgs boson at the LHC experiment was reported
in July 2012.

Nuclear Phenomenology: Atomic nuclei are specified by the following

quantities,

Z - atomic number (the number of protons)

N - neutron number (the number of neutrons)

A(= Z + N) - mass number (the number of nucleons also referred to as

nucleon number)

The charge on the nucleus is therefore +Ze where e=1.6×10−19 C. The nucleus
of a chemical element Y is denoted as follows,
A A
Y ZY

also known as nuclides. For example,

1 12 35
1H 6 C 17 Cl .
Note the following terms,

Isobars: nuclides with the same mass number

Isotopes: nuclides with the same atomic number

Isotones: nuclides with the same neutron number

The stable isotopes of carbon are 12 13 14

6 C and 6 C while 6 C is unstable isotope
which is useful in dating ancient objects, that is, carbon dating.

4
named after Peter W. Higgs, Nobel Prize 2013 together with Francois Englert for the
theoretical discovery of a mechanism that contributes to our understanding of the origin
of mass of subatomic particles, and which recently was confirmed through the discovery
of the predicted fundamental particle by the ATLAS and CMS experiments at CERN’s
Large Hadron Collider.

77
The nucleus as a sphere: If the density of matter in the nucleus is assumed
to be constant, the volume of a nucleus will be directly proportional to the
number of nucleons, A, in it. For spherical symmetry, the radius of of the
nucleus is given by,
R = r0 A1/3 (4.1)
where r0 depends on the nuclear property being measured, that is, r0 = 1.2fm
and r0 = 1.4fm for charge and mass distributions respectively. For example,
the radius of a 16 O nucleus is approximately,

R(16 O) = (1.4fm)(16)1/3 = 3.53 fm.

If the nucleus is treated as a uniform sphere, the density of a nucleus can be

approximated as follows,

mass A × (mass of nucleon)

density = = 4 3
' 1.5 × 1017 kg/m3
volume 3
πR

This is a very massive concentration of matter!

The binding energy in atomic nucleus: In terms of the masses of protons

mp and neutron mn the total mass of an atom M (Z, A) is given by,

M (Z, A) < Z(mp + me ) + N mn (4.2)

so that the mass-deficit, defined as,

∆M = mass of all nucleons - mass of nucleus

∆M (Z, A) = M (Z, A) − Z(mp + me ) − N mn (4.3)

is used to calculate the binding energy B of the nucleus given by −∆mc2 .
This represents the energy required to keep the nucleons in atomic nucleus
together.

The binding energy per nucleon is expressed as follows,

Zmp + (A − Z)mn − M (Z, A)

B = . (4.4)
A
Figure 4.4 shows the variation of binding energy per nucleon as a function of
mass number.

78
 Figure 4.4: The binding energy per nucleon as a function of mass number

The greater the binding energy per nucleon the more stable the nucleus
is. The graph has a maximum at A = 56 for iron (Fe) where B/A '
8.8MeV/nucleon representing the most stable nuclei and high abundance
in the earth system.

The existence of the binding energy means that even the more complex nuclei
(than simple proton of hydrogen atom) are stable. This accounts for the
chemical elements, the existence of the diverse forms of matter in our earth
system and indeed the evolution of the universe - the fusion of light nuclei
to form heavier ones.

79
 10
Example 1: The mass of the nucleus of 5 B is 10.0165u.

The mass of protons is 5 × mp = 5 × 1.00728u = 5.03641u

the mass of neutrons is 5 × mn = 5 × 1.00867u = 5.0433u

so that the total mass of nucleons is 5.03641 + 5.0433 = 10.0797u.

The mass deficit is therefore 10.0797u − 10.0165u = 0.0637u

and the binding energy per nucleon is,

B 0.0637u
= × 931Mev/u = 5.93 MeV/nucleon.
A 10

Example 2: The mass of the nucleus of 35

17 Cl is 34.980u. The nucleus has 17
protons and 18 neutrons.

The mass of protons is 17 × mp = 17 × 1.007825u = 17.133u

the mass of neutrons is 18 × mn = 18 × 1.008665u = 18.156u

so that the total mass of nucleons is 17.133 + 18.156 = 35.289u.

The mass deficit is therefore 35.289u − 34.980u = 0.309u

and the binding energy per nucleon is,

B 0.309u
= × 931Mev/u = 8.22 MeV/nucleon.
A 35

Nuclear Fusion: Light nuclei join to form a single nucleus of medium

size with a higher binding energy per nucleon, for example, the fusion of
deuterium nuclei into helium,
2
1H + 21 H → 42 He + 23MeV

Nuclear energy is the main source of energy in the stars, for example in the
Sun.

80
Nuclear Fission: is the splitting of heavy nuclei into smaller ones. Sponta-
neous fission is the process whereby a parent nucleus breaks into two daugh-
ter nuclei of approximately equal masses without external action. This is
energetically possible for nuclei with A > 100, for example,
235 236 144 89
n + 92 U → 92 U → 56 Ba + 36 Kr + neutrons, gamma − rays, ...

releasing energy which is carried off as kinetic energy of the fission prod-
ucts. The fission products decay further to attain nuclear stability. Fission
in heavy nuclei was discovered by Otto Hahn5 . The two processes are illus-
trated on Figure 4.5.

Figure 4.5: Illustrations for the processes of nuclear fission and nuclear fusion

5
Otto Hahn, Chemistry Nobel Prize 1944 for his discovery of the fission of heavy nuclei

81
Radioactive decay: As already noted, unstable nuclei decay to attain sta-
bility. According to the radioactive decay law, the rate of change of a ra-
dioactive substance, that is radioactive decay, is directly proportional to the
number of nuclei N present in the substance. This is expressed in a mathe-
matical form as follows,
dN
∝ N (4.5)
dt
and introducing a constant of proportionality λ, the decay constant,
dN
= − λ N. (4.6)
dt
Note that the negative sign denotes a decrease (or decay) in the substance.
An integration with respect to t on both sides of the Equation (4.6) gives,
Z Z
dN
= −λ dt
N

ln N = −λt + C (4.7)
so that with the initial condition, at t = 0, N = N0 , the constant of integra-
tion is C = ln N0 , and hence,
 
N
ln = −λt
N0

N = N0 exp(−λt) (4.8)
which describes the number of the radioactive nuclei at any time t. The
activity A of a radioactive substance is given by,
dN
A = − = λN Bq (4.9)
dt
One Becquerel (Bq) denotes one decay per second. The unit of activity is
the curie (Ci) which was originally defined as the activity of 1g of radium
226
88 Ra,

1 Curie = 1 Ci = 3.7 × 1010 decays/s = 3.7 × 1010 Bq .

The expression (4.9) represents a simple exponential decay function describ-

ing the decrease of the amount of radioactive substance in time as illustrated
on the Figure 4.6.

82
 Figure 4.6: Illustration of the exponential decay of radioactive nuclei

Note the salient features of the graph:

• at t = 0, A = A0

• the exponential decrease in A with time, and,

• after a sufficiently long time, the amount of substance reduces rather

slowly to a very small value but not to absolute zero.
Further note that the Equation (4.7) represents a linear equation of the form,

y = mx + c

where the gradient m = −λ and the y-intercept c = ln N0 . This means

that the decay constant λ and the initial amount N0 can be evaluated from
measurements of the amount of substance N at different time intervals t and
plotting a graph of ln N against t. The graph will have a negative slope due
to the decrease in the amount of substance. Such data analysis skills will be
useful in laboratory experiments.

The half-life T1/2 of a radioactive substance is the time required for the
amount of radioactive substance to reduce to half the initial amount,
A0
= A0 exp(−λT1/2 )
2
ln 2 0.693
T1/2 = = (4.10)
λ λ

83
Example 3: Consider a radioactive substance with half-life T1/2 = 2.6yrs.
The time required for the substance to reduce to 70% of its initial activity is
calculated as follows,

0.7A0 = A0 exp(−λt)

1

 
ln 0.7 1 2.6yrs
t = = ln × = 1.338yrs
λ 0.7 0.693

Assignment 1: Calculate the activity of 1mg of radon, 222 Rn, whose atomic
mass is 222u. Calculate the activity of the radon sample at one week later.

Assignment 2: How long does it take for 60% of a sample of radon to decay?

The following are different types of radioactive decay;

• alpha-decay
A A−4
ZX → Z−2 Y + 42 He

e.g.
238 234
92 U → 90 Th + 42 He

• beta-decay
A
ZX → A
Z+1 Y + e− + ν̄e

e.g.
14
6 C → 14
7 N + e−

• positron emission
A A
ZX → Z−1 Y + e + + νe

e.g.
64 64
29 Cu → 28 Ni + e+ + νe

84
 • electron capture
A
ZX + e− → A
Z−1 Y

e.g.
64
29 Cu + e− → 64
28 Ni

• gamma-decay
A ∗ A
ZX → ZY + γ

e.g.
87 ∗ 87
38 Sr → 38 Sr + γ

Assignment 3: What do you think of neutrino-less beta decay?

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

85
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 11.
Outline
• Alpha-decay, beta-decay
• Solar neutrinos
• Q-value of a nuclear reaction
Alpha-decay: is the spontaneous decay of a heavy nucleus releasing an
alpha particle (42 He) and energy. The general form is given by,
A A−4
ZX → Z−2 Y + 42 He . (4.11)
238
For example, consider the spontaneous alpha decay of U,
238 234
92 U → 90 Th + 42 He (4.12)

with a half-life of 4.47×109 y. In such a decay, energy of 4.27 MeV is emitted,

appearing as kinetic energy of the α-particle (42 He) and the recoil residual nu-
cleus (234 Th). The energy released in this decay process is calculated using
the atomic masses as follows,

238
mass of U ' 238.050785u

234
mass of Th ' 234.043593u

mass of 4 He ' 4.002603u

234
the total mass of decay products Th and 4 He ' 238.046196u

the difference in mass between parent and decay products ∆m = 0.004589u

hence, Qα = ∆mc2 = (0.004589u)(931.5MeV/u) = 4.27MeV.

This is also known as the disintegration energy for this decay process. The
mechanism for this decay process involves the quantum mechanical process
of tunneling by the α particles through a potential barrier that is classically
rather unsurmountable as illustrated on Figure 4.7. The barrier is a combina-
tion of a potential well for the (attractive) strong nuclear force in the interior
of the nucleus and a Coulomb potential for the (repulsive) force between the
decay products.

86
Figure 4.7: An illustration of the potential energy function representing the
emission of α particles by 238 U. The dashed line represents the decay energy.
The shaded area represents the potential barrier that inhibits the decay pro-
cess.

238
Example 1: If the nuclide U were to emit a proton, the decay process
would be,
238 237
U → Pa + 1 H

Given the following masses,

237
mass of Pa ' 237.051143u

mass of 1 H ' 1.007825u

237
the total mass of decay products Pa and 1 H ' 238.058968u

the difference in mass between parent and decay products ∆m = −0.008183u

hence, Qp = ∆mc2 = (−0.008183u)(931.5MeV/u) = −7.622MeV.

The minus sign on the disintegration energy means that one must add energy
inorder to split 238 U into 237 Pa and a proton. Therefore 238 U is stable against
spontaneous proton emission.

87
Beta-decay: is the spontaneous decay of a nucleus by emission of an electron
(positive or negative). The general form is given by,
A
ZX → A
Z+1 Y + e− + ν̄e . (4.13)
14
For example, consider the decay of C,
14
6 C → 14
7 N + e− . (4.14)

Positron emission emission is represented by,

A A
ZX → Z−1 Y + e + + νe (4.15)
64
for example, consider the decay of Cu,
64 64
29 Cu → 28 Ni + e+ + νe (4.16)

Beta decay also includes electron capture, in which a nucleus decays by ab-
sorbing one of its orbital electrons. The general form of elctron capture is
given by,
A − A
Z X + e → Z−1 Y . (4.17)
64
For example, consider the electron capture by Cu,
64
29 Cu + e− → 64
28 Ni . (4.18)

The decay of neutrons into protons (and vice versa),

n → p + e− + ν¯e (β − decay) (4.19)

p → n + e+ + νe (β + decay) (4.20)
represent basic beta-decay processes. The symbols ν and ν̄ represent the
neutrino and its anti-particle antineutrino. They are neutral particles emit-
ted from the nucleus along with electron and positron during the beta-decay
process.

Unlike in the alpha-decay process - where the alpha particle takes away dis-
crete energy value in form of kinetic energy, the kinetic energy of electrons
emitted in beta-decay processes is not uniquely determined. The electrons
have a continuous energy spectrum from zero upto a maximum value Kmax.
as illustrated on Figure 4.8.

88
Figure 4.8: An illustration of the kinetic energy distribution of the positrons
emitted in the beta decay of 64 Cu. (Kmax. = 0.653 MeV).

Neutrinos are very weakly interacting particles and therefore very difficult
to detect. It took many years to detect neutrinos in experiments. For many
years before the identification of the neutrino, such curves of the energy
spectrum in beta decay processes suggested that some energy was missing in
decay process. The existence of an undetected particle as a solution to the
missing energy problem was proposed by Pauli6 in 1931. The particle was
later proposed to be the neutrino by Fermi7 in 1934 in his formulation of a
formal theory of beta-decay.

Solar neutrinos: Other sources of netrinos include the Sun, supernovae

explosions, nuclear reactors, etc. Neutrino physics has since developed and
made important contributions to science. The Sun is an example of a nuclear
fusion reactor in nature (see Figure 4.9) where hydrogen is burned into helium
thereby producing about 86% of solar neutrinos from the proton-proton cycle
as illustrated on Figure 4.10. The first search for solar neutrinos was made
by R. Davis8 based on the reaction,

νe + 37
Cl → 37
Ar + e− (4.21)
in a detector at a depth of 1400m in the Homestake mine, south Dakota.

6
Wolfgang Pauli, Nobel Prize 1945 for the discovery of the Exclusion Principle (Pauli
Principle)
7
Enrico Fermi, Nobel Prize 1938 for his demonstration of the existence of new radioac-
tive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear
reactions brought about by slow neutrons
8
Raymond Davies Jr., Nobel Prize 2002 with Masatoshi Koshiba - for pioneering con-
tributions to astrophysics, in particular for the detection of cosmic neutrinos. The Nobel
Prize was shared with Riccardo Giaconni - for pioneering contributions to astrophysics,
which have led to discovery of cosmic X-ray sources.

89
 Figure 4.9: An image of the Sun

Figure 4.10: The proton-proton cycle in the Sun.

The Kamiokande9 and Super-Kamiokande experiments at 1000m underground

mines at Kamioka in Japan measure solar neutrinos via the reaction,
νe + e − → νe + e − (4.22)
using water Cherenkov counter. The measured flux of solar neutrinos repre-
sented only 40% of the theoretically expected value. This anomaly was later
explained by the transformation of solar neutrinos or matter oscillations. The
flavours of neutrinos oscillate as the neutrinos propagate from the source to
the observation level.
9
Kamioka Nucleon Decay Experiments

90
The Q-value of a nuclear reaction: Consider the general form of a nuclear
reaction,
A + B → C + D. (4.23)
The Q-value of the nuclear reaction is defined as the difference between the
rest energies of A and B and the rest energie of C and D,
Q = (mA + mB − mC − mD )c2 (4.24)
If Q is a positive quantity, energy is given off by the reaction. If Q is a
negative quantity, enough kinetic energy in the center-of-mass system KEcm
must be provided by the reacting particles so that KEcm + Q ≥ 0. The
kinetic energy in the center-of-mass system is given by,
 
mB
KEcm = KElab (4.25)
mA + mB
where KElab is the kinetic energy in the laboratory system.

Example 2: Consider the nuclear reaction 14 N (α, p)17 O. The minimum ki-
netic energy in the laboratory system needed by an alpha particle to cause
the reaction is calculated by the Q-value using the individual masses as fol-
lows,

14
mass of N ' 14.00307u, mass of 4 He ' 4.00260u

mass of 1 H ' 1.00783u, mass of 17

O ' 16.99913u

Q = (14.00307u + 4.00260u -1.00783u - 16.99913u)(931.5 MeV/u)

= -1.20 MeV

The minimum kinetic energy KEcm in the center-of-mass system must there-
fore be 1.20 MeV in order for the reaction to occur. In the laboratory system,
 
14.00307 + 4.00260
KElab = (1.20 MeV) = 1.54 MeV
14.00307

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

91
 SPH202 Modern Physics
Lecture No. 12.
Outline
• The liquid drop model of the nucleus

• Induced fission

• Nuclear mass density

• Tutorial examples
The liquid drop model of the nucleus: This model assumes that all
nuclei have similar mass denisities with binding energies approximately pro-
portional to their masses just as in a classical charged liquid drop. The
following terms contribute to the binding energy;

volume energy Ev = a1 A (4.26)

surface energy Es = −a2 A2/3 (4.27)

Z(Z − 1)
Coulomb energy EC = −a3 (4.28)
A1/3
(A − 2Z)2
assymetry energy Ea = −a4 (4.29)
A
a5
pairing energy Ep = (±, 0) 3/4 (4.30)
A
In this model the nucleus should exhibit the same surface-tension effects as
a liquid drop, contributing to the surface energy term. The surface energy is
most significant for lighter nuclei since a greater fraction of the nucleons are
on the surface. The Coulomb energy term accounts for the electric repulsion
between each pair of protons in a nucleus - thus contributing toward decreas-
ing the binding energy. The Coulomb energy therefore represents the work
that must be done to bring together Z protons from infinity into a spherical
nucleus. The assymetry energy is due to the difference between N and Z. The
paring energy is positive for even-even nuclei, 0 for even-odd and odd-even
nuclei, and negative for odd-odd nuclei. The following set of constants give
a reasonably good fit of nuclear data,

a1 = 14.1MeV a2 = 13.0MeV a3 = 0.595MeV

a4 = 19.0MeV a5 = 33.5MeV .

92
The semi-empirical binding energy formula is therefore,

Eb = Ev + Es + EC + Ea + Ep (4.31)

and provides a good agreement with observed binding energies.

Example 1: Consider the zinc isotope 64

30 Zn with atomic mass 63.929u. The
binding energy is given by,
 
B = (30)(1.007825u) + (34)(1.0088665u) − 63.929u (931.49MeV/u)
= 559.1MeV

Using the semi-empirical binding energy formula,

(0.595MeV)(30)(29)
Eb = (14.1MeV)(64) − (13.0MeV)(64)2/3 −
(64)1/3
(19.0MeV)(16) 33.5MeV
− + = 561.7MeV
64 (64)3/4
Note the positive sign for the last term is because the isotope 64
30 Zn is an
even-even nucleus. The value of binding energy calculated using the semi-
empirical formula is in good agreement with the value observed.

Induced fission: In order to induce fission in nuclei, some energy called

activation energy must be provided to excite the parent nucleus above the
fission barrier and split up into smaller nuclei. Figure 4.11 illustrates the pro-
cess of induced fission using the liquid drop model. Neutrons are commonly
used to induce fission.

Figure 4.11: An illustration of the potential energy of the parent nucleus at

different stages of nuclear fission process. The activation energy is approxi-
mately 6 MeV for heavy nuclei.

93
Nuclear mass density: Generally, electron scattering experiments provide
information on the charge distribution in nuclei, while neutron scattering
provide information on the distribution of matter in the nucleus. The volume
of a nucleus is directly proportional to the number of nucleons it contains,
that is, V ∝ A. Since for a sphere V = 4/3πR3 , then nuclear radii can be
expressed as,
R = R0 A1/3 (4.32)
with R0 = 1.2 × 10−15 m = 1.2fm.

Example 2: Consider the isotope 12

6 C. The radius of the nucleus is estimated
as follows,
R ' 1.2(12)1/3 fm = 2.75fm

and hence the nuclear density can be calculated as follows,

m (12u)(1.66 × 10−27 kg/u)

ρ = = = 2.4 × 1017 kg/m3 .
v (4/3)π(2.7 × 10−15 m)3

Example 3: Calculate the activity of 1mg of radon, 222 Rn, whose atomic
mass is 222u. Calculate the activity of the radon sample at one week later.

Radon gas has a half-life of 3.8 days, hence the decay constant is,
0.693 0.693
λ = = = 2.11 × 10−6 s
T1/2 (3.8d)(86400s/d)
222
The number of atoms in 1mg of Rn is,

1.00 × 10−6 kg
N = = 2.71 × 1018 atoms
(222u)(1.66 × 10−27 kg/u)

Hence the activity of the sample is,

A = λN = (2.11 × 10−6 s)(2.71 × 1018 nuclei) = 5.72 × 1012 decays/s

= 155Ci

94
Example 4: How long does it take for 60% of a sample of radon to decay?

Using the radioactive decay equation,

 
1 N0
N = N0 exp(−λt) then t = ln .
λ N

Hence, using N = (1 − 0.6)N0 = 0.4N0 ,

 
3.82d 1
t = ln = 5.05d .
0.693 0.4

Example 5: Consider a radioactive source that has a half-life of 1min. At

the time t = 0 is is placed near a detector and the counting rate is observed
to be 2000 counts/s. The decay constant is calculated as follows,
0.693
λ = = 1.16 × 10−2 s−1
60s
Since the half-life is 1min, the activity reduces by 50% after every minute,
that is, after one minute the activity is 1000 counts/s, after 2minutes the
activity is 500 counts/s and so on. At t = n min the activity will be,
 n
1
A = A0
2

where n is in minutes. This relation forms the basis of radioactive or carbon

dating.

NB: These notes are an outline of what is discussed during the Lecture.
Students are encouraged to actively attend lectures and most importantly,
solve as many examples as possible on their own.

Dr. N.O. Hashim

95