Fundamentals of Welding Inspection

FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING INSPECTION

CONTENTS

DEFINITIONS .........................................................................................…......................iii
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................1-1
WELDING DEFECTS ...................................................................................................2-1

Misalignment.........................................................................................................................2-4

Cracks....................................................................................................................................2-5

Root Pass Cracks..................................................................................................................2-8

Bum-Through .....................................................................................................................2-10

Craters.............................................................................................................…................2-11

Incomplete Fusion ..............................................................................................................2-12

Unacceptable Root Contours.............................................................................................2-15

Inclusions ............................................................................................................................2-17

Porosity................................................................................................................................2-18

Undercut..............................................................................................................................2-20

Slag and Scale......................................................................................................................2-21

Overlap................................................................................................................................2-22

Excessive Reinforcement ...................................................................................................2-22

Distortion.............................................................................................................................2-25

Poor Appearance ................................................................................................................2-26

INSPECTION DEVICES...............................................................................................3-1

Surface Contact Thermometer ...........................................................................................3-3

Temperature Sensitive Crayons .........................................................................................3-3

Contact Pyrometer................................................................................................................3-3

Cambridge Gauge.................................................................................................................3-4
Weld Fillet Gauge ................................................................................................................3-7

Hi-Lo Gauge.................................................. ........................................................................3-9

Taper Gauge

Ferrite Gauge............................................ ........................................... ................................3-9

Tong Tester ..................................................................... ...................................................3-11

Oxygen Analyzer.................................................................. ..............................................3-13

Vacuum Seam Tester ............................................................................................……….3-14

Halogen Leak Detector..........................................................................................……….3-15

Bevel Protractor....................................................................................………..................3-16

INSPECTION SEQUENCE AND DOCUMENTATION ................……...........4-1

Review the Document Package............................................................................………....4-2

Verify Welder Qualification.....................................................................................………4-3

Check Base Material ..........................................................................................………......4-4

Examine Fit-Up....................................................................................................……….....4-6

Assure Filler Metal Control...............................................................………....................4-11

Verify Preheat Requirements ..................................................................……….............4-14

Verify Welding Procedure ...........................................................................……….........4-15

Check Purge Gas and Dam........................................................................………............4-15

Inspect the Root Pass .....................................................................................………........4-16

Request Nondestructive Examination ........................................................………..........4-16

Inspect Interpass Welds..................................................................................……….......4-19

Verify Welder Identification Placement ........................................................………......4-20

Inspect the Completed Weld ...................................................................………..............4-20

Request Final Nondestructive Examination ....................................…….........…...........4-23

Request Postweld Heat Treatment .................................................................……..........4-23

Complete Documentation.............................……...............................................…...........4-24
FUNDAMENTALS OF WELDING INSPECTION

DEFINITIONS

Ambient temperature

The temperature of the surrounding area at any given time.

ASME

American Society of Mechanical Engineers.

Base metal

The metal to be welded or cut.

Bead
Narrow layer of metal deposited as the electrode melts

Cap

The last, or outside, layer of weld bead in a groove weld.

Code

The collection of regulations published by governing committees, which is

reissued every three years and to which addenda are added
every year.

Crown

The highest point in the cap of a weld.

Discontinuity

An interruption of the typical structure of a weldment, such as

a lack of homogeneity in the mechanical, metallurgical, or
physical characteristics of the material or weldment. A
discontinuity is not necessarily a defect.

Electrode

A component of the welding circuit through which current is

conducted between the electrode holder and the arc.

Fillet weld
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角焊
A weld of approximately triangular cross section joining two
surfaces approximately at right angles to each other in a lap
joint, tee joint, or corner joint.

Heat-affected zone

That portion of the base metal which has not been melted, but
whose microstructure or mechanical properties have been
altered by the heat of welding or cutting.

Inclusion

Particles of impurities that are retained in the metal after the

metal solidifies.

Inconel

An alloy having about 80 percent nickel, 15 percent

chromium, and 5 percent iron.

Interpass temperature

In a multiple-pass weld, the temperature of the deposited weld

metal before the next pass is started.

Joint

The location where two or more members are to be joined.

Lamination

Discontinuity in plate, sheet, or strip caused by inclusions or

porosity in the original metal ingot; after rolling, they are
usually flat and parallel to the outside surface.

Longitudinal crack

A weld discontinuity whose major dimension is in a direction

parallel to the weld axis.

NDE

Nondestructive examination. A method of thoroughly examining

work without destroying the work.

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Pass

A single progression of a welding operation along a joint or weld deposit.

The result of a pass is a weld bead.

Purge

An inert atmosphere used inside of a pipe as well as around

the tungsten electrode during the gas tungsten-arc welding
process. The inert atmosphere can be produced by using
argon, helium, or nitrogen. The purge prevents oxidation of
the electrode, weld puddle, and the heat affected zone.

Welding Quality control

Those welding quality assurance actions related to the

physical characteristics of a material, component, or system.
These actions provide a means to control the weld quality of
the material, component, or system to predetermined
requirements.

Reinforcement of weld

Weld metal in excess of the specified weld size.

Rod caddy

A portable heating container for weld rods or electrodes.

Root of joint

That portion of a joint to be welded where the members

approach closest to each other.

Root opening

The separation between the--members to be joined, at the root

of the joint; also called root gap.

Tack weld

A weld made to hold parts of a weldment in proper alignment

prior to beginning the root pass.

Throat of fillet weld

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The shortest distance from the root of a fillet weld to the face.

Toe of weld

The junction between the face of a weld and the base metal.

Tolerance

Permissible deviation or variation from exact dimensions or

standards.

Transverse crack

A weld defect whose major dimension is in a direction

perpendicular to the weld axis.

Ultimate strength

A measure of the tensile stress required to cause a material to

break (usually expressed in pounds per square inch).

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 INTRODUCTION

We have described earlier the various compositions of materials that you will encounter performing
weld inspections. Primarily, you will be dealing with medium carbon steels and a few grades of
stainless steels. There may also be some welding of inconel, aluminum, and other metals.

We will confine our discussions to two areas of welding: pipe butt-welding and fillet welds.
(Socket welds in pipe are considered fillet welds by all codes.) Primarily, you will be dealing with
medium carbon steels.

Welding inspection is somewhat different on a refinery, chemical plant, or pipeline from the
same work on a conventional code stamped power plant or pressure vessel. We use the
term Code systems to describe the code stamped related work. On a BSF Code project we sometimes
use the words “Boiler proper” and “pressure vessel boundary” to refer to systems that are inspected
to the requirements of BSF Quality Control Manual for systems. Special
documentation, third party inspection and sign off by an authorized inspector on data
sheets and BSF documentation is required.

The designers of the piping systems supply their drawings, calculations, and other required
information to the manufacturers who have been awarded the contract to provide components, pipe,
and system parts to the project. The project also receives copies of the drawings and related
information.

At the project the systems are subdivided into short sections that can be handled, and a
fabrication and erection package is issued to direct the fabrication and erection of that segment.

Figure 1. Isometric Drawing of a Portion of a System

A fabrication package contains the information needed to build a portion of a piping system.

An installation package contains all the information needed to install and complete a portion of a
piping system. These packages are commonly referred to as travelers.

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 Figure 2. Fabrication/Installation Package or Traveler

In this module we will discuss Welding Inspection under three major categories: Welding
Defects, Inspection Devices, and Inspection Sequence and Documentation.

WELDING DEFECTS

We are aware that pipe, fittings, valves, and other parts come in a variety of metals, alloys,
diameters, and wall thickness. Since the materials, components, processes, and procedures
that we use are so varied, we can see the need for taking special precautions to assure that all
material and work on our project meet specified requirements. Although we take many special
precautions, welding defects are still going to occur.

Various criteria are used to judge the acceptability of welds. For example, a set of procedures
for welding inspection of structural steel might allow a certain amount of porosity or
undercut. Inspection procedures for pressure piping might allow certain amounts of some
defects and no defects of other types. Procedures for welding inspection of Code
stamped systems are strict, and yet we have tolerances to work with. Some discontinuities may be
acceptable if they do not exceed allowable tolerances.

In this section, we will discuss welding defects, their causes, where to look for them, their
appearance, and how to recognize them.

Personnel performing visual inspections must be able to recognize such base metal and welding
defects as:

 Misalignment

 Cracks

 Root Pass Cracks

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 Burn-through

 Craters

 Incomplete fusion

 Unacceptable root contours

 Inclusions

 Porosity

 Undercut

 Slag and scale

 Overlap

 Excessive reinforcement

 Distortion

 Poor appearance

Any of these conditions can be unacceptable if they exceed the limits of the applicable code,
specification, or procedure. Since the inspection of welds will be your responsibility, you
should be thoroughly familiar with welding defects and know how to recognize them.

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 MISALIGNMENT
Misalignment sometimes-called offset or mismatch can be either internal or external at a pipe
joint. External misalignment is the variation measured at the outside of the pipe. Internal mismatch is
the variation measured on the inside faces of the pipe. We measure both internally and externally
because sometimes there are irregularities in roundness and boring of pipe and because of the
difficulty sometimes encountered in fitting pipe properly. It is most important to insure that internal
alignment is always within tolerance. Internal misalignment could restrict flow and contribute to
corrosion by providing pockets that would collect corrosive substances.
Slight amounts of misalignment are sometimes allowed, but within close tolerances. Project
specifications and procedures will govern.

Figure 3. Misalignment of Pipe Joints

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 CRACKS
Cracking results from localized stress which exceeds the ultimate strength of the metal. Cracks
can occur anywhere in metal, but they are especially prone to develop in areas
where the metal has been worked extensively or heated.

Cracks, however slight, are never acceptable! They often tend to grow until they cause failure
of the system in which they are found. In some cases stresses trapped in metal may not cause a crack
until after a system is in operation; for this reason, preheat requirements are included
when welding procedures are written.

The causes of cracking are many and varied. They included:

 Welding parts that are misaligned

 No provision for expansion and contraction in rigid joints

 Use of the wrong electrode or filler metal

 Impurities such as oil or grease on the base or filler metals

 Chemical content of the base material that varies beyond acceptable limits

 Too rapid a heating and/or cooling rate

Prevention of cracks is best accomplished by:

 Preheating the base metal to the specified temperature

 Using the specified filler material

 Assuring proper spacing or root opening

 Maintaining acceptable interpass temperature

 Applying postweld heat treatment

In pipe welding, the first place to look for cracks is in the outside wall before welding. You
should closely inspect the pipe ends where joint preparation has been performed. This area
should have been cleaned so that any possible defect will be easier to see. Of course, a base
metal crack in the weld area must be repaired before welding begins. Such repairs must be
accomplished in accordance with your project’s procedures.

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 Figure 4. Cracks in Base Material

The next point to check for cracks is the tack weld. Tacks are susceptible to cracking because
of their relatively small cross sectional area, which does not allow them to sustain high stress.
Stresses on tacks result from fast cooling rates and solidification shrinkage.

Figure 5. Crack in a Tack Weld

ROOT PASS CRACKS

Root passes are also susceptible to cracking. The root, like the tack, is small in cross-sectional area.
Therefore it cools rapidly, shrinks, and creates stresses in the root pass metal. Proper preheating of
the base metal lowers the rate of cooling and reduces the shrinkage stress.

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 Figure 6. Effect of Rapid Cooling on Root Pass

Figure 7. Crack in Root Pass

A crack in the root pass can eventually propagate or crack out at the surface. If that crack
begins in the root pass of a pipe weld, its growth will be hastened because it will be constantly
exposed to the fluid inside the pipe. Direct contact with the contents of the piping system can greatly
speed up the growth of the crack. In addition to root passes, thin fillet welds are also highly
susceptible to cracking.

Figure 8. Cracking Out of a Root Pass Crack

BURN-THROUGH
When the welding operation generates too much heat in one place, the metal can be penetrated,
leaving an opening all the way through the material. This is especially troublesome in the root area,
particularly if the end preparation is not performed correctly. Another cause of burnthrough is
excessive root gap spacing.

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 Figure 9. Burn-Through in a Root Pass

Burn-through may appear as one large hole, or it may appear as several small holes in an area. In any
case, it is unacceptable.

CRATERS
Craters are defined as depressions in the weld metal. A crater may be thought of as a void
because it represents an absence of weld metal. The primary cause of these depressions is
shrinkage of the molten weld puddle as it solidifies.

Figure 10. Formation of Craters

Some craters exhibit small cracks radiating outward from the center of the crater. This
condition can occur in any weld bead depression, but it is more likely to occur in the end of a
bead, especially a tack weld. These cracks are commonly called shrinkage cracks.

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 Figure 11. Crater Crack in End of a Tack Weld

When a weld bead is deposited, solidification of the molten metal takes place from the sides
and moves toward the center. Since metal shrinks as it solidifies, there may not be an adequate
volume of solidified metal to fill the space previously occupied by molten metal. The result is a
shrinkage crack.

Craters can be avoided by pausing before interrupting the arc to allow the addition of enough
extra molten metal to compensate for solidification shrinkage. Crater cracks must be
completely eliminated by grinding or gouging prior to welding over the affected area.

INCOMPLETE FUSION

Incomplete fusion is an important welding defect that you must watch for throughout the
welding process. It can occur in any part of the weld. For our purposes, we define fusion as the
process of becoming joined into one mass. In effect, the metals should melt and fuse together; that is
what welding is about. Incomplete fusion means that the welding has not completely been
accomplished.

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 Figure 12. Examples of Incomplete Fusion

There are many causes of incomplete fusion. A welding surface that has not been properly
cleaned might resist fusing or melting into the weld metal. Too low a welding current might not melt
the base metal sufficiently to cause good fusion. Welding too fast might cause incomplete fusion
because the metal will not be sufficiently heated for proper fusion to occur.
Laminations or inclusions in the base metal can be the cause of improper fusion. Of course the
welder can cause incomplete fusion, too, by improperly manipulating the electrode.

Figure 13. Examples of Incomplete Fusion

The welding process is a series of fusing operations. The tack welds must be properly fused to the
base metal. The root pass must properly fuse to the base metal and the tack welds.. From this point
on, each new pass must fuse to the metal previously deposited and to the base
material.

Incomplete fusion between the weld metal and the base metal or between two weld beads can
sometimes be detected visually or with the aid of liquid penetrant or magnetic particle tests.
Lack of fusion between two weld layers can only be detected with radiography or ultrasonic
testing.

Incomplete fusion is not acceptable in your inspection. When you detect it, inform the welder or the
welder’s foreman of your findings, then notify your lead inspector if you need further
assistance. In some cases the defect can easily be removed by grinding. Regardless of where
you find it, incomplete fusion is an unacceptable condition.

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 UNACCEPTABLE ROOT CONTOURS

Unacceptable root contours can result from either too much or too little penetration. Excessive
penetration appears as a bead that is too high on the underside of the plate or on the inside of the
pipe. When this occurs, the welder is moving or manipulating the weld rod too slowly, or the current
is too high.

Figure 14. Excessive Penetration

When welding is performed on materials such as beveled pipe or plate, the first pass should
penetrate to the underside of the joint. A flat or slightly convex bead should appear on the
underside of plate or on the inside of pipe.

Figure 15. A Slightly Convex Bead

When the bead does not penetrate the full distance, the weld is considered incomplete. Due to
the closely controlled welding procedures that we have on BSF projects, the bevel and the
root gap should always be in accordance with the applicable welding procedure. In addition to
inadequate fit-up, there are other possible causes of insufficient penetration or excess
reinforcement. The welding technique can cause poor penetration if the welder moves too fast and
excess reinforcement if they moves too slowly. Using the wrong size electrode or filler metal and
amperages which are not correct can also cause unacceptable root contours. Too large an electrode
cannot penetrate into the root area as it should and the result can be poor penetration.

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 Figure 16. Excessive Penetration Causing Unacceptable Root Contour

INCLUSIONS

Inclusions result from impurities or foreign substances being forced in a molten puddle during the
welding process. Slag is an example of an inclusion. Inclusions below the surface cannot be detected
with the eye, but those on the surface in the weld bevel can be seen.

When the shielded metal arc welding process is in use, the inclusion can come from the slag or flux.
An inclusion in the surface of a weld must be removed before welding over it. A common
misconception is that the slag will be melted by the heat on the next weld pass and float to the top of
the weld, thus becoming part of the flux covering of the weld. This is not necessarily true; nor is it an
acceptable practice. The slag should be removed before the next weld pass is applied.

Figure 17. Inclusions in Weld Metal

Another kind of inclusion comes from foreign material becoming embedded in the weld metal while
it is hot. When the GTAW process is being used, the tungsten electrode can sometimes be the source
of the foreign material. An inclusion can be thought of as a void, because the weld metal has been
displaced by foreign material. The inclusion weakens the weld, and for this reason an inclusion is

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accepted or rejected according to the allowable limits of the code or standard in use.

STUDY QUESTIONS

POROSITY
Porosity is the result of gas in the metal. The pores or small voids result from gas pockets
forming in the metal. Sometimes impurities can become trapped in the metal; when heated,
they may burn out, giving off gases that form voids in the metal. Another cause of porosity is
moisture. A small amount of moisture absorbed into an electrode can cause porosity that can
ruin an otherwise acceptable weld.

Porosity can also be caused by improper arc length (too long) of the welding electrode or
welding current set too high. Manipulating the electrode too slow can also cause porosity.

Figure 18. Porosity Created by Gases Trapped in Metal

However, moisture is hard to detect in the weld rod. But when it becomes steam, it expands
about 1,700 times and becomes trapped in the metal. Then we can easily see its effect. We
know that weld metal solidifies at high temperatures. And we know that steam will condense
back into water at a lower temperature. This means that the steam will cause a void; then,
before it can cool down, the weld metal solidifies around it, leaving the impression of the void in the
metal.

Porosity can occur anywhere in the weld metal or the base metal. Depending on the class and
type of weld, some porosity may be allowed; your project specifications and procedures will
spell out allowable limits and govern their application.

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 Figure 19. Porosity Resulting from Use of a Moist Electrode
UNDERCUT
Undercut is the burning away of the sidewalls of the welding groove during the welding
process. The undercut appears at the edge of the bead and runs parallel to the bead in most
cases. Another cause of undercutting is moving the welding electrode too fast, also using the
wrong size welding electrode, or wrong electrode angle while welding. The welder can cause
undercut by holding an extra long arc while welding. Another cause can be a welding current
that is too high. Even an experienced welder will sometimes cause some undercutting. Since it is not
regarded as a crack, a slight amount of undercut may be allowed by your welding
inspection procedures.

Figure 20. Undercut in Groove and Fillet Welds

SLAG AND SCALE

Slag is the nonmetallic residue of flux-covered or flux-cored electrodes. It usually floats to the top of
the weld puddle and covers the weld bead as it solidifies. Scale is the oxide formed on metal by
chemical action of the surface metal with oxygen from the air. Slag and scale are not considered
actual weld defects, but they can become such if embedded in metal.

Both slag and scale can be found as elongated or globular inclusions in base or weld metal.
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These substances naturally weaken a weld because they replace sound metal in the bead.
Common causes of these inclusions are: improper cleaning between passes; depending on the
force of the arc to wash out oxides and improper cleaning of the finished weld. Insufficient
cleaning of base material may not remove all scale deposits prior to welding.

OVERLAP
Overlap is an extension of weld metal beyond the bond at the toe of the weld and is generally
caused by poor handling of the welding electrode. Welding defects are sometimes referred to
by different names, and this one is a good example. Sometimes overlap is referred to simply as lack
of fusion. There is, of course, a lack of fusion between the base metal and the weld
reinforcement. Regardless of which term is used on your project, there are no prescribed
tolerances for overlap, and it is an unacceptable defect.

Figure 21. Overlap in the Cap of the Weld

EXCESSIVE REINFORCEMENT
The top of the weld, or cap as it is sometimes called, is the area where excessive reinforcement may
occur. Excess reinforcement can be harmful to the piping because it causes any forces that tend to
flex the pipe to be concentrated at the edges of the weld. For this reason the reinforcement should
blend smoothly from the base metal to a slight crown.

Figure 22. A Properly Reinforced Weld

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 Figure 23. Examples of Excessive Reinforcement

The allowable reinforcement for welds is established by the various Codes and will always take
precedence over the data in this book. However, for the sake of illustration, we will use the maximum
reinforcement information from the ASME Code, Section III, Article NB-4426. The nominal pipe
wall thickness is used as a guide to the amount of weld reinforcement allowed.

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 Figure 24. Maximum Pipe Weld Reinforcement

DISTORTION
When heated metal cools, it returns to its original shape. However, welded metal is restricted
by weld bead and is sometimes distorted. The acceptability must be based upon the criteria
from your procedures that. are derived from the applicable code and standards governing the
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work or from your project engineers. In some cases, the distortion may be in the form of
shrinkage that restricts the flow within the line. In other cases, it may come in the form of
warpage. Usually the main consideration is whether the warpage impairs the function of the
item.

Figure 25. Types of Distortion in Weld Metal

POOR APPEARANCE
A good weld should be generally uniform in height. Improper welding techniques can,
however, create an excessively uneven weld with high and low areas. These uneven areas may be
created by improper current, incorrect arc length, and incorrect weld speed. The high-low profile thus
created is undesirable for the following reasons:

 It is more difficult to detect other weld defects during a visual inspection

 It is more difficult to correctly interpret nondestructive examination results

WELD SPATTER

Weld spatter consists of particles of metal unintentionally ejected from the molten pool during
welding and deposited on the surface of base or weld metal. Spatter can be caused by arc blow, too
high a welding current, too long an arc, or faulty wet, broken electrodes (incorrect polarity for
welding electrode being used). Spatter is more an appearance defect than anything else, but weld
areas covered with spatter impair nondestructive examination efforts.

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 Figure 26. Weld Splatter

ARC STRICK

Arc Strike is any inadvertent change in the contour of the finished weld or adjacent base
material resulting from an arc of heat generated by the passage of electrical energy between the
surface of the finished weld or base material and a current source such as welding electrodes or
magnetic inspection prods.

INSPECTION DEVICES

There are numerous devices used in the welding inspector’s trade. This section will familiarize you
with some of the tools and gauges most frequently used in welding inspection. We will briefly
discuss the following devices:

Surface contact thermometer

Temperature sensitive crayon

Contact pyrometer

Cambridge gauge

Fillet weld gauge

Hi-Lo gage

Taper gauge

Ferrite gauge

Tong tester

Oxygen analyzer
Vacuum seam tester

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Halogen leak detector

Bevel protractor

In your career you will undoubtedly come in contact with various other devices, but you will be
primarily concerned with those mentioned above. Always be certain that devices requiring calibration
have a current calibration sticker before you use them.

SURFACE CONTACT THERMOMETER

The thermometer provides a direct readout of the surface temperature of pipe or components when
this information is required. The thermometer’s permanent magnet will attach it to carbon steel pipe,
but it must be taped to stainless steel. Temperature readings should be taken very close to the weld
area, preferably within one inch of the weld, on either side.

Figure 27. Surface Contact Thermometer

TEMPERATURE SENSITIVE CRAYON

The temperature sensitive crayon is frequently used to give an approximate temperature reading. A
crayon mark is made across the metal in the area to be checked; if you are using a 500-degree crayon,
the temperature of the piece is at least 500 degrees when the crayon mark melts. This check usually
should be made within one inch of the weld on either side. Crayon marks should never be made
directly on the weld.

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 Figure 28. Temperature Sensitive Crayon

CONTACT PYROMETER
The pyrometer, which offers direct readout of temperature, is often used when the temperature
measured might exceed the limits of approved thermometers or other gauges. The point of the probe
is placed on the work and the temperature is read from the scale. Some devices have a button that can
be depressed to hold the reading if desired. Some also incorporate a locking feature that operates
when the case is closed to lock the delicate meter movement and prevent damage during transit. The
pyrometer gives a more accurate reading than either the surface thermometer or the crayon discussed
previously.

Figure 29. Contact Pyrometer

CAMBRIDGE GAUGE
The Cambridge gauge is a precision tool which, for our purposes, has six basic functions.

1. Checking weld reinforcement height.

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 Figure 30. Checking Weld Reinforcement Height

2. Measuring material or wall thickness. The scales read up to 20 millimeters and threequarters of an
inch. When testing material thickness, be sure that the edge of the slot is in complete contact with the
underside of the plate or the inside of the pipe.

Figure 31. Measuring Wall Thickness

3. Checking bevel angle. The scale reads from 0 to 60 degrees in five-degree increments. When
performing this inspection, be sure the gauge edge is placed securely against the bevel as illustrated.
Degree of bevel is read from the scald as shown.

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 Figure 32. Checking Bevel Angle

4. Measuring fillet weld leg length. Place the pointer in the position shown in Figure 33. The reading
is then taken directly from the scale.

Figure 33. Measuring Fillet Weld Leg Length

5. Measuring fillet weld throat.

Figure 34. Measuring Fillet Weld Throat

6. Determining amount of undercut.

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 Figure 35. Determining Amount of Undercut

WELD FILLET GAGE

The fillet weld gauge offers quick and precise means for measuring the most popular fillet weld
sizes, one-eighth inch through one inch. It measures both convex and concave fillet welds.

To evaluate a convex fillet weld, select the proper blade with the full curve. As you see in the
illustration, place the lower edge of the blade on the base plate, with the tip of the blade moved to the
upright member. A weld of proper size will just touch the blade tip as the blade tip touches the
upright member.

Figure 36. Evaluating Convex Fillet Weld Contour

To evaluate a concave fillet weld, use the proper size blade with a double curve, as shown in Figure
37. After placing the lower edge of the blade on the base plate with the tip touching the upright
member, the projection formed by the double curve should just touch the center of the weld metal.

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 Figure 37. Measuring Concave Fillet Weld

HI-LO GAGE
This tool, also called a mismatch gauge, is used to measure the internal offset of two pieces of pipe at
a joint. After the gauge has been inserted and adjusted, the thumb screw is tightened and the tool
removed for measurement of mismatch. Be sure your measurement is taken between the black lines
on the shanks. A measurement at the ends of the shanks might be inaccurate because the ends are
subject to damage.

Figure 38. HI-LO Gage Checking Offset

TAPER GAUGE
The taper gauge is inserted into the opening between pipe to measure root opening or gap. The gap
reading is taken from the gauge at the point where the gauge becomes snug in the joint.

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 Figure 39. Measuring Root Opening with Taper Gauge

FERRITE GAUGE
Your project specifications will most likely limit the ferrite content of stainless steel weld metal. The
Severn ferrite gauge is one instrument used to measure this ferrite content. Shown is the ferrite
indicator kit with the tool and various inserts with known value.

Figure 40. Severn Ferrite Indicator Kit

This tool is used to approximate the ferrite content of metal by measuring the magnetic attraction of
ferrite. An insert with a known ferrite content is inserted into the tool. If the material you are testing
has a greater amount of ferrite than the insert, the magnet will be attracted to the metal, as shown in
Figure 41.

Figure 41. Ferrite Gauge with 10 Percent Ferrite Insert

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If the insert has more ferrite than the material being tested, the magnet will be attracted to the insert,
as you see in Figure 42.

Figure 42. Ferrite Gauge with 20 Percent Ferrite Insert

We now know that this weld contains more than 10 percent ferrite but less than 20 percent.

TONG TESTER
The purpose of the Tong tester is to check amperage (current) flowing through the welding cable. It
insures that the amperage used is within the guidelines of the applicable welding procedure.

Illustrated below is the complete Tong testing kit, with four meters and a handle. The meters are
graduated from 0 to 100 amps, 0 to 150 amps, 0 to 200 amps, and 0 to 300 amps.

Figure 43. Tong-Test Kit

In order to get an accurate reading, you should select the meter that will give indications in the mid-
portion of the scale. For example, if you expect to read a current of 120 amps, you would normally
not choose the 150 amp meter. The 200 amp meter would be your best choice, since the 120 amp
reading would fall in the mid-portion of the 200 amp scale.

To use the Tong tester, first attach the handle to the desired meter. Squeeze the trigger handle to open
the spring-loaded jaws and place the welding lead inside the jaws. Release the trigger handle and
make sure the jaws are making contact. The amperage is then read directly from the meter, while the
welder is welding.
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 Figure 44. Checking Amperage with Tong Tester

OXYGEN ANALYZER
Welding procedures require that some root passes made with the GTAW process be welded in an
atmosphere having a very low percentage of oxygen. This is done to prevent rapid oxidation of the
inside surface of the root pass. When this is required, a purge gas, usually argon, is used to replace air
inside the pipe. The inspector is required to verify that the purge gas is maintaining oxygen content
below the maximum level, and he does this with the oxygen analyzer.

We will use the Beckman D-2 analyzer to illustrate proper usage of an oxygen analyzer. Inside the
clear plastic vial there are moisture-absorbing crystals which change color when they become moist.
The crystals are blue when dry and gradually turn pink as they become moist. If the crystals are light
pink, they should be dried before re-use. Otherwise, the crystals will not absorb the moisture in the
sample and the readout will be inaccurate.

Figure 45. Beckman D-2 Oxygen Analyzer

To test for oxygen, first squeeze the hand bulb several times while the intake tube is inserted into the
purge area. Then allow time for the indicator to settle. The indicator is a narrow band of light that

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will illuminate the scale. To read the oxygen content of the sample, press the red button on top of the
unit.

VACUUM SEAM TESTER

Vacuum boxes come in various sizes and shapes. They are used a great deal in testing welds on tanks
and pipes of various sizes.

The welding inspector should know how to properly use the vacuum seam tester. Using liquid soap
mixed with water, thoroughly soap the weld. Place the vacuum box directly over the weld. Turn the
valve handle to lock position, then turn the pump on. This creates a vacuum inside the box.

Look through the clear glass window on the box. Located inside at the end is a vacuum gauge which
will indicate the vacuum pressure inside the box. Any bubbles forming over the weld indicate a leak.
Normally, a vacuum of 10 pounds per square inch is adequate to indicate leaks. The test pressure for
your project will be established according to the project requirements. A flat vacuum box is
illustrated in Figure 46.

Figure 46. Vacuum Seam Tester

HALOGEN LEAK DETECTOR

A commonly used leak detector is the number 200 Leak-Tector. It is electronic, battery operated,
small and compact and very easily transported. The welding inspector should know the proper use of
the halogen leak detector. The pipe piece or line to be tested is blocked off at one end. Freon is
injected into the line or piece at the other end. Your project procedures will specify the proper test
pressure.

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 Figure 47. Halogen Leak Detector

Open the case and remove the probe. Move slide switch to the calibrate position. Let the unit warm
up for one minute. Turn the knob clockwise until a ticking signal is heard. Move the slide switch to
the “Operate” position, then put the probe directly over the weld. Hold the probe about 1/8 inch
above the weld. Without touching the weld, move the probe over the entire surface of the weld. Any
sudden speedup in the ticking signal indicates a leak.

BEVEL PROTRACTOR
The bevel protractor is a specialized instrument used for determining the angle of bevel of joint
preparations. The protractor must be placed on the pipe in the position shown below. To measure
accurately, the instrument must be perpendicular to the joint and not tilted to either side.

Figure 48. Bevel Protractor

The radius arm is adjustable to attain the required length for measurement. The angle is read on the
side of the scale facing the joint and on the side of the radius arm contacting the bevel.

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 INSPECTION SEQUENCE AND DOCUMENTATION
Since welding inspection is such an important function in the building of a chemical plant, refinery,
pipeline or power plant involving code welding, the inspection should follow a logical,
predetermined sequence. A specified method or sequence for inspection will aid in assuring that
neither inspection points nor mandatory code authorized inspection points - hold points - are passed.

Outlined below is a sequence of operations for welding inspection. Your project procedures may
require fewer steps than this sequence, but all these steps are included for your information.
Following the outline you will find more detailed information on each inspection step.

Before welding begins, you may be required to:

Review the document package

Verify welder qualification

Check base material

Examine fit-up

Assure filler metal control

Verify preheat requirements

Verify welding procedure

Check purge gas and dam

As welding proceeds, you should:

Inspect root pass

Request nondestructive examination (NDE), if required

Periodically inspect interpass welds

Verify welder identification (ID) placement

Inspect completed weld

Request NDE if required

After welding is completed, you may be required to:

Request postweld heat treatment

Complete documentation

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 REVIEW THE DOCUMENT PACKAGE
The document package should contain all information necessary to build and/or install a portion of
the piping system. Your project will specify which documents should be in the package. You should
assure yourself that all documents are in the package and that all information given is for the same
joint or section that you will be inspecting. You should also verify that the latest revisions are
incorporated into the package.

Some items you may want to check at this point are: spool numbers, piece numbers, heat numbers,
and the orientation and location of the installation from the drawing. You should also familiarize
yourself with any hold points, nondestructive examinations, and special instructions that apply to the
spool or system.

VERIFY WELDER QUALIFICATION

The document package will contain information on the appropriate welding procedure(s) to be used
when welding the joints covered by the package. Specific welding procedures for specific
applications will have been accepted as standard procedure for your project.

Welders on your project will be qualified for some or all of the project welding procedures.
It is your responsibility to assure that the welder or welders assigned to the job are currently qualified
on the welding procedure called for in the document package. A welder who is not qualified on the
procedure called for should not be allowed to weld the joints.

As part of the Welding Program incorporated into a power or pressure vessel project, many bits of
information are required in order to properly document the fabrication, installation, and inspection of
Code systems. On non-Code stamped systems, and on most pipeline projects, the documentation
requirements exist, but are not as demanding.

It is essential that you perform inspections at designated points and complete all forms and
documents. Cooperate with the code authorized inspector and notify him or your lead field welding
engineer when the work has progressed to a hold point. The code authorized inspector must verify
many data reports that are required from your project; thus, he has a right, and an obligation, to
visually verify selected characteristics of those systems.

CHECK BASE MATERIAL

Before fit-up of the pieces is accomplished, you may be required to verify the piece numbers of the
pieces to be welded. These piece numbers should agree with the numbers found on the drawing or
bill of materials in your documentation package.

Before fit-up, you may need to check the joint area for the following: the bevel angle of the pipe end
preparation, freedom from nicks and gouges, and cleanliness. To check bevel angle, you can use the
Cambridge gauge or the bevel protractor. If the bevel angle is specified to be 37½ degrees +2½
degrees for example, then the angle should measure between 35 degrees and 40 degrees. If you use
the bevel protractor, always take the reading at the edge of the radius arm which is contacting the
bevel and on the side of the scale toward the joint.

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 Figure 49. Checking Bevel Angle Using the Bevel Protractor

If you use the Cambridge gauge to measure bevel, place the gauge body on the pipe and rotate the
blade until it rests against the bevel. You can read the degree of bevel from the scale, as shown in the
illustration.

Figure 50. Checking Bevel Angle with the Cambridge Gauge

The weld area should be free of damage such as nicks and gouges. You should closely inspect for any
damage that might adversely affect the quality of the completed joint. Project procedures will
elaborate on specific damage to look for and any tolerances allowed.

Cleanliness of base metal is very important, especially in the area of the heat-affected zone. The joint
area should be free of all foreign material, such as chemicals, paint, grease, dirt, and scale, that could
combine with weld metal and unfavorably affect the weld. In some cases, your procedures may call
for solvent cleaning of the joint before welding.

EXAMINE FIT-UP
The weld area should be free of damage such as nicks and gouges. You should closely inspect for any
damage that might adversely affect the quality of the completed joint. Project procedures will
elaborate on specific damage to look for and any tolerances allowed.

In checking the alignment you will probably be required to measure the internal mismatch. The
alignment around the joint should be determined at several points. There are two things you should
look for:

Mismatch at any one point

Mismatch all around the fit-up

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All-around mismatch occurs when the pieces to be welded are actually misaligned. Localized
mismatch occurs when the pipe is out-of-round.

You may use the HI-LO gage to measure the internal alignment of a fit-up. The gage is inserted into
the joint with the thumb screw loose. The sliding pieces are then placed against the inside wall faces
of the joint. The gage must be held at a 90-degree angle to the pipe.

Tighten the thumb screw to lock the halves together, then remove the gage from the fit-up and
measure the distance between the black lines on the pieces. Why shouldn’t you read between the
ends of the sliding pieces? The ends can be damaged or ground down; the black lines cannot be
moved. The lines are much more reliable and the distance from the measurement contact face to the
black lines is a calibrated distance.

Figure 51. Measuring Internal Mismatch with HI-ID Gage

Also check external mismatch at the time of fit-up inspection. Your lead field welding engineer and
your welding inspection procedures will tell you the allowable limits of external mismatch. To
measure the external mismatch of the pipe pieces, you can use either a Cambridge gauge or a pair of
steel rules, as shown in the next two figures. Accuracy of the steel rule method may not be acceptable
at your project. Be sure that you perform the inspection using the recommended instruments and
practices for your project.

Figure 52. Measuring Mismatch with Cambridge Gauge

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 Figure 53. Measuring Mismatch with a Pair of Steel Rules

Another very important part of fit-up inspection is checking the root gap. The welding procedure
specifies the amount of gap that should exist between the pipe ends. The gap may be specified in
three ways:

It may be shown as 0mm max root opening. This means that the pieces should touch.

It may read 1.5mm root opening. This is a maximum allowable opening. The opening can be less
than but no more than 1.5mm.

It may be shown as root opening 1.5mm, 2.4mm max. These are the minimum and the maximum
allowable openings. (The figures in these examples are used for illustration purposes only.)

Where the root opening is incorrect, it is difficult to make a good quality weld. The gap or opening is
specified so that the whole welding process can achieve its purpose: a high quality weld. Do not
accept a fit-up that is out of tolerance. It is less costly to correct the condition now than to invest
more time in the weld and then find it is unacceptable.

The recommended instrument for measuring the root opening or root gap is the taper gauge. The
blade of this instrument is tapered and the thickness is stamped into the blade at various points.

To measure the root opening, insert the blade into the gap until it rests snugly in the gap. Then read
the instrument directly from the blade. You will need to insert the taper gauge around the pipe at
various points to check the opening. Usually four checks 90 degrees apart will give a good indication
of the opening in the fit-up.

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 Figure 54. Checking Root Opening at Various Points around the Joint

If you are inspecting a socket weld joint, your project documents may specify that the pipe should be
withdrawn a certain distance from the bottom of the joint to allow for expansion during welding and
system operation. To measure withdrawal the craftsman should mark the pipe at the edge of the joint
when the pipe is bottomed out, or inserted all the way into the joint. When the pipe is withdrawn,
measure from the top of the socket to the scribe line with a steel rule to determine the amount of
withdrawal.

Figure 55. Determining Withdrawal in a Socket Weld Joint

Tack welds should be considered an integral part of a weld unless they are to be removed after
serving their purpose. (The NanHai Project does not allow 6tack welds to be left after use) You will
find that the tack is commonly left in the root of the weld and incorporated into it. When the tack is to
become a permanent part of the weld, some rules must be followed:

The welder must be qualified in the procedures being used.

The filler material (inserts, backing rings, and rods) must be controlled. That is to say, they must
have certified mill test reports available to show the chemical composition. In addition, they must
meet the storage and handling requirement of the project’s Quality Assurance Program.

The welder must follow the welding procedure using the proper electrodes or filler rod, the proper
welding process, and correct insert or backing ring where required.

The filler material must be compatible with the base material being used.

The tack welds are to be inspected closely for any welding defects. They can exhibit defects such as
cracks, crater cracks, inclusions, and especially poor fusion, undercut, inadequate penetration, and
burn-through. The starting and stopping ends of the tack weld should be ground, or dressed by other
suitable means, so that they can be incorporated into the root pass. It is the tack weld stopping end
that usually develops craters and crater cracks. The weld crater results from the weld puddle or pool,
and, as you know, the cracks result because of stresses that develop during cooling.

If your inspection determines that the fit-up is acceptable, document this on the appropriate weld
control document. You should indicate that the joint is released for welding if preheating is not
required. All welding procedures will require a minimum preheat temperature of at least 10 C (AWS)
or 15C (ASME). However, if preheating is required, measure the preheat temperature and be sure

iii- 44
that it is documented. If fit-up is not acceptable, you should notify the appropriate foreman to initiate
corrective action. Depending on your welding procedures, documentation of the fit-up may not be
required until it is acceptable. The code authorized inspector may require that he also see the fit-up.

ASSURE FILLER METAL CONTROL

Since filler metal becomes the major element of the joint, its control is just as important as base metal
control. Filler metal control assures, first, that the composition of filler metal is compatible with the
base material and usable in the particular process. It also assures that the filler metal is not
contaminated with foreign material.

The welding inspector should verify from the rod issue slip that filler metal drawn from the rod
control room is the correct material for the welding procedure and base material being used.

You can document this step by recording the rod issue slip number and type of material drawn on the
weld control record for the specific joint. Filler metal is closely controlled for the following reasons:

To assure that the electrodes are properly stored, handled, and issued so that no welds are made
with defective electrodes.

To assure that the proper electrodes, compatible with the base material being welded, are used.

To provide for traceability. This is necessary for quality assurance audits conducted by the or code
authorized inspectors and other parties such as the owner’s or contractor’s quality assurance groups.
This traceability must reveal the chemical composition of the filler material in the weld joint. The rod
room attendant provides for traceability by transferring the verified heat numbers onto the electrode
issue slip. After the welding inspector transfers this information onto the controlled weld joint record,
traceability is completely provided for.

Electrode control is important on projects such as this. Both in the rod control rooms and in the field,
electrodes are kept in ovens so that they stay dry. The oven temperature is adequate to prevent the
electrodes from absorbing moisture from the air. Some electrodes are exempt from this practice, so
check your project requirements for detailed clarification. Welders are required to store their
electrodes in rod caddies which continue to protect electrodes until they are to be used.

Figure 56. Drying Oven and Rod Caddy

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In the event that the electrodes are inside a rod caddy that is unplugged, the welding specialist can
take one of three approaches, depending on the project procedures:

The temperature inside the caddy can be measured, and, if it is within acceptable limits, the
electrodes can be used.

The electrodes can be returned to a drying oven.

The electrodes can be destroyed.

As a general rule, rods that have been removed from the caddy for an excessive length of time can be
returned to the rod control room and re-baked in the ovens. Since it is not the practice to return
electrodes in some cases, check your project procedures for clarification. Electrodes left loose on the
floor, inside pipe, and in out-of-the-way places should be destroyed unless your project specifications
provide some alternative. Usually, if the electrodes have been left behind, there is no way of assuring
their trace-ability. Where your welding Program forbids use of these electrodes, you will be required
to see that such accumulations of electrodes are not present. In this case, bend the rods double and
see that they are disposed of.

Figure 57. Loose Electrodes Bent Double to Prevent Usage

Besides keeping down the possibility of serious porosity, electrode control takes on a new purpose
with the welding of low-alloy, high-strength steels. In these steels, a weld made with moist electrodes
can develop serious cracks.

VERIFY PREHEAT REQUIREMENTS

If preheating a joint is required before welding begins, instructions should appear on the weld control
record to indicate the minimum preheat temperature. Since preheating is primarily intended to
prevent cracking in the heat-affected zone, this is an important check. Since welding in low
temperatures can cause cracking, preheating to a safe-to-weld temperature is the easiest and most
effective preventive method.

You may check the preheat temperature with a temperature sensitive crayon, surface thermometer, or
pyrometer. If preheat temperature is acceptable, you should record it on the weld control record and
then you may release the joint for welding. Correctly recording or documenting all these steps is very

iii- 46
important, so be sure you are completely familiar with your project’s welding documents and how
they should be used.

VERIFY WELDING PROCEDURE

Now that you’ve released the joint for welding, it would be wise to check the welding procedure to
be used. This is not usually a documented step, but it is just a good point to check. Here you could
review the procedure and determine that the welder is setting up by procedure and is using the proper
equipment and process.

CHECK PURGE GAS AND DAM

If the root pass of a weld is to be made with the GTAW process, the welding procedures may require
the use of a purge gas, usually argon, to replace air inside the joint. By displacing the air, and thus
oxygen, the purge gas prevents oxidation of the inside surface of the root pass.

There are several things you should check when a purge is to be used. You should verify that a purge
dam is installed to prevent excessive and fast loss of purge gas. If the dam is a soluble type that will
be left in the pipe, you may be required to document this on your weld control records. Also check
the flow rate of the purge gas. Since a flow meter is usually mounted at the gas bottle, you can read
flow rate from this meter and check it against flow rate tolerances detailed in your procedures.

This is the time also to check oxygen content in the purge area to determine if the purge gas is doing
its job. Your specifications will provide you with a percentage range within which oxygen content
must fall before welding may proceed. For this check, you can use the Beckman D-2 Oxygen
Analyzer or some other project-approved calibrated instrument. Be certain to accurately document
the flow rate of the purge gas as well as the oxygen content, if required.

INSPECT THE ROOT PASS

It is particularly important that you inspect the root pass when it is completed; at this phase of the
welding there is a relatively large amount of base metal with respect to weld metal. Because of this,
weld metal in the root pass tends to freeze quickly and this makes the root pass susceptible to
cracking, and root pass cracks will often crack out or propagate through the entire finished weld.

When possible, your root pass inspection of pipe welds should include a thorough examination both
inside and outside the pipe. Root passes of fillet welds or socket welds can only be inspected on the
face or outside of the weld. Any root pass should be carefully inspected for the following:

Cracks - Look for longitudinal or transverse cracks all along the weld bead. Also, inspect craters
and the heat-affected base metal on either side of the weld for cracks.

Inclusions - Slag inclusions or tungsten electrode inclusions can occur anywhere in the weld bead.

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Lack of fusion - Closely inspect the seams where weld metal joins base metal and the
starting/stopping points of the weld bead.

Improper penetration - Look for an excessively convex or concave surface on the inside of the
bead.

Burn-through - Examine the entire surface of the root pass for holes or voids indicating burn-
through.

Undercut - Look for this groove in the base metal along both sides of the bead.

Porosity - Inspect the bead closely for one or more tiny pinholes that indicate areas where gases
were trapped.

Cleanliness - Insure complete removal of all slag, scale, spatter, or any other substance that would
inhibit the fusing of subsequent beads to the root bead.

Figure 58. Root Pass

If you find any unacceptable conditions, reject the root pass and notify the appropriate personnel of
your inspection results. It’s much easier to repair root pass defects at this stage of welding than it is if
they are not discovered until the final weld is radiographed (X-rayed). So, remember to perform a
thorough root pass examination. After repairs are made, re-inspect the root pass and, if it is
acceptable, release it for nondestructive examination or completion of welding. If the GTAW process
was used to weld the root pass, you may be required to verify removal of the purge dam, unless it is a
water soluble type.

REQUEST NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

The weld control record of your document package may indicate that the root pass should undergo
nondestructive examination after it has been visually accepted. This step is sometimes specified on
critical welds and must not be bypassed. If you are not qualified for NDE testing, then you may be
required to verify that the inspection is completed, with acceptable results, before welding may
proceed.

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If nondestructive examination is required on the root pass, the procedure may call for liquid penetrant
testing (LP), magnetic particle testing (MT), X-ray or radiographic testing (RT). This requirement
may be indicated on your documentation as Root LP, Root NT, or Root RT, or in some other form
used on your project. The control record may also inform you that the code authorized inspector
(CAT) must witness the test or review the results of this step; this may be indicated by the code
authorized inspector having stamped CAT Hold or a similar notation on the line beside the root pass
step.

Any deficiency indicated by the nondestructive examination must be corrected through proper repair
procedures. Then the root pass must pass a second nondestructive examination. When the
examination indicates an acceptable root pass, the joint can be released for the next welding phase.

INSPECT INTERPASS WELDS

When the root weld passes inspection, the joint is released for completion of welding and there are
usually few documentation entries required until welding is completed. However, it is wise for you to
inspect the interpass welds for good workmanship and to assure that rod issue slips are recorded for
rods used in the joint.

Any bead laid between the root pass and the cap is considered an interpass weld. Periodic inspection
of interpass welding insures that good welding technique is being used, that the procedure is being
followed, and that welds are being cleaned properly. Also, during interpass inspection look closely
for weld defects that should be removed or repaired before welding goes any further.

Figure 59. Interpass Weld

If your procedures state that an interpass temperature range must be maintained until completion of
welding, you should check the temperature of metal immediately adjacent to the joint, usually within
one inch of the weld, on either side, to insure that the specified range is maintained.

VERIFY WELDER IDENTIFICATION PLACEMENT

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Anytime that code welding is performed on a joint, the welder’s identification symbol must be
recorded near the joint. The welder’s identification is placed on the base metal adjacent to the joint.
In no case should the identification be placed directly on the weld.

Even if a welder makes only the tack welds, his identification must be recorded near the joint. If one
man welds the tacks, and another man completes the weld, then the ID of both welders must be
recorded near the joint. It is important that you insure that these ID’s are recorded at the weld. Should
any question arise concerning the welder’s qualification, his record can be reviewed to answer the
question.

Figure 60. Identification beside Weld

INSPECT THE COMPLETED WELD

The completed weld joint is to be visually inspected to insure that:

Weld metal is sound, containing no cracks or inclusions.

The weld bead is free of slag and scale that could mask other defects.

The amount of porosity, if any, is within specified limits.

The tie-in of weld metal to base metal is smooth.

Undercut, if any, is within specified tolerance and does not violate minimum wall thickness of base
material.

Weld spatter and/or arc strikes are not present.

Warpage or shrinkage at the joint will not adversely affect the joint or the operation of the system.

The heat-affected zone is free of defects.

All beads have complete penetration and fusion for the full length of the weld.

No part of an ID is on the weld. Welder identification must be permanently placed adjacent to the
weld. Each welder’s identification must be shown.

Weld metal is ground acceptably smooth if the weld is to be ultrasonically tested (UT).
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No craters are present in the weld. All craters must be filled to the full cross section of the weld.

Crown profile meets project specifications.

Figure 61. Acceptable Fillet Weld Contours

Figure 62. Acceptable and Unacceptable Caps

Should you discover defects in the finished weld, notify the appropriate personnel to initiate repair of
the weld Elimination of some defects, such as spatter, arc strikes, porosity, and inclusions, may
involve only a small amount of grinding. Repair of more serious defects, such as cracks, may be
much more involved, some to the point of cutting the weld out and completely reworking the weld.
Whatever repairs are made to a weld must be done by accepted project procedures. You may be
required to inspect the repairs or rework for conformation to project standards. Your project welding
specifications will outline your responsibilities and govern your actions concerning the inspection of
complete welds and repair work.

REQUEST FINAL NONDESTRUCTIVE EXAMINATION

Since many systems, components, and structures are critical to the safe operation of the plant, we
must make every effort to assure that all welds meet code and project specifications. Nondestructive
examination is a reliable way of assuring the quality and integrity of these welds, as well as other
welds which project documents indicate should be tested.

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When you have satisfied yourself that a completed weld is clean and free from visible defects, you
should make sure the request is completed and submitted to test personnel. The operation sequence
sheet and/or the weld control record of your document package may call for LP (liquid penetrant),
MT (magnetic particle), RT (radiographic test), or UT (ultrasonic test) of the completed weld. The
NDE method or choice of methods to be used will always be specified; when a choice of NDE
methods is allowed, the choice will be made by

persons other than yourself. If the code inspector has indicated that he wants to witness final NDE or
examine the results, don’t let work proceed until he has accepted this step. It is the responsibility of
everyone working with a weld to make sure no hold points are passed up.

REQUEST POSTWELD HEAT TREATMENT

Postheating of welds is intended primarily as a stress-relief treatment. The postheating process
involves raising the temperature of the weld area to a predetermined level, soaking the joint for a
specified period of time, and then bringing the joint temperature back down to ambient temperature
using closely controlled steps.

When the required visual inspection has been completed, you may be responsible for assuring that
postweld heat treatment of the joint is requested, if it is required. Not all welded joints must be
postheated. Your specifications and procedures will outline the types of welds on your project that
should be postheated, and your document packages, or travelers, will identify the specific weld joints
that require postheating.

Concerning the postheating process, you may be required to observe the set-up of heating and
monitoring equipment, monitor the heating process, and complete some of the postheat records. The
project welding specifications will outline your specific responsibilities concerning postweld heat
treatment.

COMPLETE DOCUMENTATION
An abundance of paperwork is generated on piping systems and associated hardware during the
welding and inspection processes. Without proof of the quality aspects of their construction, piping
systems cannot go into operation! Therefore, the documentation package, or traveler, is essential
because it provides a complete and permanent record of all actions affecting the quality and functions
of systems and their components.

As the field welding specialist, you must be sure that all documents required of you are in the
traveler, and that they are as complete as possible before being submitted for review and acceptance.
A missed inspection or incomplete document could cause a portion of a system to be taken out and
completely reworked. Therefore, you must be at your inspection point when you are needed and you
must get your work right the first time.
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All your entries on essential documents should be entered legibly with permanent ink. Work
packages remain in the field much of the time and may be exposed to moisture, soil, grease, solvent,
or other substances that could destroy nonpermanent entries. As you work with the packages, pay
close attention to its physical condition. Torn or loose sheets could be lost, thus increasing the
possibility of having to take out and rework part of a system. Rework is very expensive; for example,
the replacement of a single weld in an 20cm, Schedule 160 pipe may cost thousands of dollars.
Missing or incomplete documentation should never be the cause of such expense! If you make a
mistake on your inspection document, draw one single line through it, initial and date the information
block, and make the correct entry. It is important that the original entry can still be read by auditors,
even though it was incorrect.

Figure 63. Corrections of Documentation Mistakes

Documentation of the work is just as important as the actual work performed, so be sure you give it
the attention it demands.

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