VISUAL

目测

INSPECTION
检验

WORKSHOP
培训

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 Visual Inspection of Welding
焊接的目测检验
Rationale
理由
Inspection is traditionally considered a Post- Processing activity. A machine component may be
turned to a finished form and size --- then inspected for conformance to applicable drawings or
specifications. A garment is inspected after sewing and all the buttons and other features are in
place. In these similar instances, visual inspection is carried out after the production activities have
been completed.
检验一直被认为是一项加工后的工作。比如 ，机器零件首先加工成一定的成品形状和尺寸 ，然后
检查它是否符合相关的图纸或规范。再比如，我们在完成服装缝制后要检查服装的所有纽扣和其
它部分是否齐全到位。在这些类似的实例中，目测检验都是在完成生产活动之后进行的。

In the case of weldments, experience has shown that Post-Processing inspection, even when
supplemented with nondestructive examination (NDE), give no guarantee of suitability for intended
service. How ever consistent results over a considerable period of time have demonstrated the
effectiveness of a pre-planned sequence of visual inspections. If carried out at specific stages of
weldment production, such programs give a high degree of assurance of meeting quality
expectations---frequently without recourse due to NDE.
对于焊件而言，经验表明加工后的检验，即使增加了无损检验 (NDE)，也不能保证焊件能符合预
期的适用性要求。然而，我们在相当长的时期内从目测检验中都获得了一致的结果，这证明预先
计划的目测检验程序是有效的。如果在焊接生产的特定阶段进行检验，那么这类检验方案可以在
很大程度上确保焊接工作能够达到期望的质量要求， 而且由于进行了无损检测通常不会产生质量
追索问题。

With welding the factors influencing quality may manifest themselves at any stage of the
production operation. In most circumstances, suitability timed visual inspection would have
revealed the shortcoming at a stage when corrective action would be simple to implement and
inexpensive to carry out.
在焊接生产过程中的任何阶段都可能会出现一些影响质量的因素。在大多数情况下，适时的目测
检验一般在纠正措施易于落实且执行代价不高时就会揭示出所存在的缺陷。

Weld and weldment quality are determined by:

焊接和焊件质量由以下因素决定：

 Weldment and joint design

 焊件和接头设计
 Materials of construction
 制造材料
 Procedure of welding (WPS & PQR’s)
 焊接程序（WPS 和 PQR）
 Manner of weld application
 焊接操作方式

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  Inspection program
 检验方案

Visual welding inspection provides the basis for the effective control of these determinants.
目视焊接检验提供了有效控制这些决定因素的基础。

Quality of Weldments
焊件质量

The term quality is widely used and applied. However, many times the general concept of quality is
misunderstood.
质量 一词的使用范围非常广。但是在许多时候，质量的一般概念都被误解。

Quality is conformance to the applicable specifications.

质量是指符合适用的规范。

The required level of quality for a product or service is typically determined by the designer, based
on suitability for service over the intended life span. All product variables must be specified in a
manner that is capable of being measured. Dimensions are readily verified. Attributes such as
surface finish, if significant, must be specified in terms allowing for precise determination or
measurement.
产品或服务需要达到的质量水平通常是由设计人员根据产品或服务在产品使用期限的适用性来确
定的。所有的产品参数都必须以能够测量的方式加以规定。尺寸便于随时验证。重要的检验指标
（比如表面光洁度）必须以能够准确判断或测量的方式加以规定。

In carrying out an inspection, the inspector’s task is to compare the actual with the required or
specified product dimensions. Appearance alone is rarely the determinant of product quality.
在执行检验时，检验员的任务是将实际的 产品指标与要求的 或规定的产品指标进行比较。外观很
少单独作为产品质量的决定因素。

Visual Inspection
目测检验

Key points about the visual inspection of welding should be recognized. These include:
首先我们应当认识关于焊接的目测检验的一些重要观点。其包括：

 No inspection program will give an absolute guarantee as to weld and weldment suitability for
intended service over the life of a product. However, by structuring an appropriate Inspection
plan, commercially realistic degrees of confidence in a welded product can be achieved.
 没有任何检验方案可以绝对保证在整个产品使用寿命内，焊接和焊件都能符合预期的适用
性要求。然而，通过制定适当的检验计划，可以以工业上实际可行的方式对焊接产品提供
适当的可靠保证。

 While visual inspection is highly effective in the control and assessment of weld and weldment
quality, there is one obvious limiting factor. Visual inspections are confined to exposed surfaces
—so subsurface discontinuities may not be detected. This is offset by structuring welding
inspection programs to examine the minimum number of surfaces that will give the required
degree of assurance.
 虽然目测检验在焊接和焊件质量的控制和评估中非常有效，但也存在一个很明显的限制因
素。目测检验仅仅局限于暴露的表面，因此可能无法检测到表面下的不连续性缺陷。通过

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 制定焊接检验方案可以检验能够提供必要保证的最小数量的表面，这样可以弥补这方面的
不足。

 Nondestructive testing of welds and welding is an adjunct to the visual inspection program, not a
substitute for it. The four NDE methods used in connection with welding each have their own
areas of best application---along with limitations. Penetrant and magnetic testing are surface
techniques, with magnetic being limited to ferro-magnetic materials. Radiography is directional,
ultrasonic examinations require smooth surfaces for the transducer to make proper contact.
 对焊缝和焊接工作进行无损检测是目测检验方案的一个辅助手段，而不是替代手段。在焊
接所使用的四种无损检测方法中，每一种都有自己最适用的领域和局限性。渗透检测和磁
粉检测是表面检验技术，磁粉检测只适用于铁磁材料。射线照相检测具有方向性，超声波
检测需要光滑的表面以便传感器能够正确地接触表面。

Visual Inspection of Welding

焊接的目测检验

Weldment and Joint design

焊件和接头设计
Without question, the most significant factor in the quality of a welded product is the arrangement of
parts to be welded. The relationship of members and the manner in which the loads are handled
determines the local stresses. Likewise, the placement of joints has great significance. However, these last
two matters are the designers’ responsibility and are not the responsibility of the welding inspector.
毫无疑问，决定焊接产品质量的最重要因素是焊接部件的排布。部件之间的关系和处理载荷的方
式决定了局部应力。同样，接头的放置也很重要。但以上两个方面都由设计人员负责，而不是焊
接检验员的责任。

Joint design is another matter, one in which the welding inspector is vitally concerned. In one sense, joint
design, along with the procedure of welding, could be identified as the most significant factors in weld
and weldment quality.
接头设计则是另一种情况，焊接检验员对此极为关切。在某种意义上说，可以认为接头设计以及
焊接程序是焊接和焊件质量的最重要因素。

The most significant factors include but are not limited to:
最重要的因素包括但不仅限于以下几个方面：
 Welding and inspection access.
 焊接和检验之方便程度。
 Most cost-effective form.
 最经济有效的形式。
 Minimize residual stresses.
 最小的残留应力。

Ideally, joint design is proposed by the manufacturer and approved by the designer. Inappropriate joint
designs are frequently imposed on manufacturers. In such instances, the welding inspector has a vital role
to play in identifying potential problem areas. The initiation of the required corrective action through the
appropriate channels should automatically follow.
在理想情况下，接头设计由制造商提出方案，然后由设计员批准。制造商被强行接受不合理接头
的情况也经常发生。在这种情况下，焊接检验员在确定潜在的问题方面将发挥重要作用。随后的
工作应该是，通过适当的渠道启动必要的纠正措施。

Joint designs are specified in the applicable welding procedure specifications (WPS).
接头设计是在适用的焊接程序规范 (WPS) 中加以规定。

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Initial Review
初审
Inspectors initially consider the joint design in the initial revue of welding inspection, when the
applicability of the WPS is reviewed.
检验员在焊接检验的初始阶段审查焊接程序规范的适用性时，需要初步考虑接头设计。

At this stage, joint design and its form and configuration will have been decided. Conformance of joint
shape, form, and dimensions to applicable criteria are to be checked.
在此阶段，需要决定接头设计以及形式和构造。检查接头形状、形式和尺寸是否符合适用的标准。

Pre-weld Checks
焊接前检查
The actual dimensions of joint form and fit-up are to be verified again to establish confidence. Once
welding commences, only in exceptional circumstances can meaningful changes to joint type and
dimensions be made. Only certain elements of a joint configuration may be altered without engineer
approval.
需要再次检查接头形式和装配的实际尺寸，以便确保焊接的可靠性。当焊接开始以后，只有在某
些例外情况下，才能对接头类型和尺寸进行实质性的更改。未经工程师的批准，只能更改接头构
造的某些方面。

Materials of Construction
制造材料
While welding can be successfully used to make a wide range of welded joints in many materials, there
are certain limitations. These include:
虽然很多材料都可以用来进行焊接，并可以成功地形成各种焊接接头，但也存在一些限制条件。
其中包括：

 Not all metals are weldable. Of those that are, not all can be welded with the same degree
of ease or using similar methods and procedures.
 并非所有金属都可焊接。在可以焊接的金属中，并非所有焊接的难易程度都相同，
也并非都使用类似的方法和程序。
 Welding has the potential to cause significant physical and metallurgical changes that
may adversely affect the suitability for intended service of the welded product.
 焊接有可能引起重大的物理和金属性能的变化，可能对焊接产品是否能达到预期的
使用要求产生不利影响。

However, many fully weldable materials react differently to certain welding processes and procedures of
welding. As with design this leaves the welding inspector with two important determinations to make.
然而，许多可非常适合焊接的材料对于特定的焊接方法和焊接程序也有不同的反应。就像对待焊
缝的设计一样，焊接检验员也要做出两个重要判定。

The compatibility of the filler metals to be used and the welding process to be employed are verified.
These are the essential variables of the welding procedure and must be established by testy. Where
previously qualified procedures have been specified, only verification checks are necessary.
验证所使用焊料的相容性和要采用的焊接方法。这些是焊接程序的最基本的不确定因素，必须通
过试验来确定。如果指定了已确认符合要求的程序，则只需要进行验证检查。

It is necessary to verify that all materials to be welded satisfy the established base metal requirements.
Inadvertent changes of material can have far reaching consequences. Protection against this possibility by

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building in adequate checks is required by many codes of practice. In Section & of the ASME Boiler &
Pressure Vessel Code, positive and verifiable identification of all parts to be welded is a requirement.
必须验证要焊接的所有材料是否满足已制定的母材要求。如果无意中改变了材料，会产生深远的
影响。许多操作规范要求包括适当的检查来防止发生这种情况的发生。美国机械工程师学会 (AS
ME) 锅炉和压力容器规范的第 & 节，要求焊接的所有部件都要有正确的和可以验证的标识。

Procedures of Welding
焊接程序
Welding procedure specifications (WPS) are a breakdown of the welding variables to be used to make
one or more joints under certain circumstances. In a general sense, there can be a limitless number of such
combinations. In practice, by using care and attention, it is possible for a small number of WPS’s to cover
all the diverse situations that arise even when making complex weldments.
焊接程序规范 (WPS) 是细化的焊接参数，用于在特定情况下焊接一个或多个接头。在一般意义上
说，可以对此类参数进行无限的组合。但在实际中，即使加工复杂焊件，只要精心制定，就有可
能通过较少的 WPS 来指导所有情况。

Over time, manufacturers and constructors of welded products build up a library of qualified welding
procedures from which unique WPS’s can be generated. In the event that there is no suitable qualified (or,
if appropriate, pre-qualified) procedure available, it is necessary to carry out further qualification testing.
The significant point is that this possibility allows time for appropriate action, together with qualification
of welding personnel if necessary.
随着时间的推移，焊接产品的制造商和设计者逐渐建立了大量的合格焊接程序 ，根据这些程序可
以制定出独特的 WPS。如果没有适用的合格（或适当的预合格）程序，就必须对程序的合格性进
行进一步测试。重要的是在这种情况下需要一定的时间来采取适当措施，并且必要时还需要认证
焊接人员的资格。

The WPS fields set out the welding parameters known as essential variables. Changes outside a certain
code specified range requires the development and/or qualification of a new procedure.
WPS 规定了焊接参数，即基本参数。如果参数变化超过了所规定的范围，则需要制定新程序并/
或对新程序进行合格认定。

Manner of Weld Application

焊接操作方式
Welders are responsible for the application of welding. However, welders do not act in isolation. Welder
certification attests to the skill and ability of a welder to weld specified types of joints in certain materials
under a range of restricted conditions. These conditions typically include the welding process, type(s) and
form(s) of base metal, and joint position along with the technique and progression of welding.
焊工负责实施焊接作业。不过，焊工的工作并非与他人无关。焊工证书证明了焊工在一定的限制
条件范围内在特定材料上焊接特定的接头的技能和能力。这些限制条件通常包括焊接方法、母材
的类型和形式、接头位置，以及焊接的技术和方式。

Welding inspectors verify that the welders, welding operators or tackers are certified to weld with the
procedures to be used during production. This gives warning of any additional requirements as far as
welding personnel are concerned. It should be kept in mind that welder certification test may or may not
duplicate joints to be made in production. The test coupon, although it may be pipe, may well be used to
qualify welders to weld plate. Restricting barriers are sometime placed on weld test coupons to limit
access to the joint. This is to determine the welders’ capability to weld even on awkward joints.
焊接检验员审核焊工、焊接操作工或点焊工是否有资格根据生产中的程序进行焊接。此时可以发
现需要对焊接人员增加附加要求的征兆。应当记住，在进行焊工资格认证测试时可以采用生产中
要焊接的接头，也可以不用这种接头。在测试时可以使用测试样品，虽然可能是管道，但仍然可

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以以此来测试焊工焊接平板的能力。有时在焊接样品上放置限制障碍物来增加焊工焊接的难度。
这是为了考察焊工在焊接难度较大的接头方面的焊接能力。

The welding inspector checks the condition of the welding equipment and suitability of the base and filler
metals. The inspector checks joint fit-up and pre-heat conditions.
焊接检验员需要检查焊接设备的状况及母材和焊料的适用性。检验员检查接头装配和预热状况。

Welding inspectors are required to assure that welder skills are maintained throughout. Where there is
evidence of reduced skill, re-qualification or even retraining, may be necessary if substandard work
persist.
焊接检验员应确保焊工一直能保持其焊接技能。当有迹象表明焊工的技能下降时，例如持续出现
低于标准的产品，则必须重新进行资格认定，甚至要重新培训。

Inspection Program
检验方案
While the specific details of any given welding program will differ in detail, the basic requirements
remain the same. Three phases have been identified. There is a fourth phase, which follows the
completion of welding. The four phases in welding inspection are:
虽然任何特定焊接方案的具体细节都会有所不同，但基本要求是相同的。在焊接完成之前有三个
阶段的检验。在焊接完成后，还有第四个阶段。焊接检验的这四个阶段是：

 Phase 1 Initial Review

 第 1 阶段 初审
1. Review contract, all codes and drawings
1. 审查合同、所有规范和图纸
2. Develop all necessary inspection plans
2. 制定所有必要的检验计划
3. Check welding procedures; welder status
3. 检查焊接程序；焊工状态
4. Establish inspection documentation system
4. 建立检验文件制定系统

 Phase 2 Pre-welding checks

 第 2 阶段 焊接前检查
1. Check suitability, condition of welding equipment.
1. 检查焊接设备的适用性、状况。
2. Check conformance of base and filler materials.
2. 检查母材和焊料是否符合要求。
3. Check the positioning of members and of joints.
3. 检查部件和接头的布置。
4. Check joint preparation, fit-up, cleanliness.
4. 检查接头制备、装配、清洁情况。
5. Check adequacy of alignment.
5. 检查对准的程度。
6. Check preheat (or initial temperature.
6. 检查预热情况（或初始温度）。

 Phase 3 in-process inspections

 第 3 阶段 过程检验
1. Check compliance with WPS.

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 1. 检查是否符合焊接程序规范。
2. Check quality, placement of key passes.
2. 检查质量、关键焊道的定位。
3. Check weld bead sequencing and placement.
3. 检查焊道顺序和定位。
4. Check interpass temperature and cleaning.
4. 检查焊道间温度和清洁情况。
5. Check adequacy of back gouging.
5. 检查焊根清理是否充分。
6. Monitor any in-process NDE.
6. 监督全部过程中的无损检测。

 Phase 4 Post welding activities

 第 4 阶段 焊接后的检验工作
1. Check finished weld appearance, soundness, and cleanliness.
1. 检查完成后的焊缝外观、坚固程度和清洁度。
2. Check weld sizes and dimensions.
2. 检查焊缝大小和尺寸。
3. Check dimensional accuracy of weldment.
3. 检查焊件的尺寸精度。
4. Carry out or monitor / evaluate specified NDE
4. 执行或监督/评估指定的无损检测。
5. Monitor any Post weld heat treatment (PWHT) or other post weld work.
5. 监督所有焊接后的热处理 (PWHT) 或其它焊接后工作。
6. Finalize and collate inspection documentation.
6. 完成并装订检验文件。

Inspection Program
检验方案
Phase 1
第 1 阶段

The purpose of any inspection program is to establish conformance to specifications. It is self-evident that
the very first inspection task will be to find out what is required.
任何检验方案的目的都是建立与规范的一致性。不言而喻，最初的检验任务是明确要求。
The first activity is:
第一项工作是：

 Review Contract Documents and Specifications

 审查合同文件和规范

Depending on a large number of significant factors, the scope and detail given will vary over a
wide range. Structural work is different from process piping; pressure vessel work and tankage
are not the same. Each will have their own specifications. However there are certain common
factors and these should be ascertained at the earliest possible stage. If errors, omissions or
incomplete data are uncovered at this point, prompt corrective action should be initiated.
合同文件和规范取决于大量的重要因素，因此检查的范围和细节会有很大的不同。比如，
结构性产品与工艺管道系统不同；压力容器与储罐也不同。它们都有自己的规范。但是，
还有某些共同因素，对这些因素应尽早加以确认。如果在此时发现了错误、遗漏或不完整
的数据，应立即采取纠正措施。

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 The minimum data to be obtained include:
至少必须获得以下资料：

1. Code (S) of construction

1. 施工规范
2. Materials of construction
2. 制造材料
3. Applicable standards and specifications
3. 适用的标准和规范
4. Drawings showing weld locations and types
4. 显示焊缝位置和类型的图纸
5. Inspection frequency, techniques, criteria
5. 检验频率、技术、标准

 Develop an Inspection Plan

 制定检验计划

As the name implies, an inspection plan is a detailed list of all inspection activities to take before,
during and after welding. For phase one activities, a single inspection plan will suffice, as these
are one time, upfront requirements.
顾名思义，检验计划是指在焊接前、焊接中和焊接后所进行的所有检验工作的详细清单。
对于第 1 阶段的活动，制定一个检验计划就足够了，因为这些是需要最先满足的的一次性
要求。

Inspection plans typically are in the form of a checklist.

检验计划通常采用检查清单的形式。

It is desirable that inspections take place as a part of the production process. Hold points, where
production is halted to await inspection clearance, should be kept to a minimum.
检验最好能作为生产过程中的一部分来进行。应当尽可能减少停止点，即因等待检验而出
现的中止生产的情况。

 Check Welding Procedures and Welder Status

 检查焊接程序和焊工状态

Most contractors, fabricators, and manufacturers have a number of welding procedures (WPS),
qualified either by test or with pre-qualified status. In any given situation, existing procedures
may or may not cover all the required welding to be carried out. In the event of deficiencies, it
tacks some time to have new procedures developed and qualified. Taking action on this matter at
the earliest possible stage is prudent. All necessary welding procedure specifications can be
developed once the supporting procedures are qualified (PQR).
大多数承包商、生产商和制造商都有大量经测试合格或准合格的焊接程序 (WPS)。在任何
特定条件下，现有程序中可能已包含了要求执行的所有焊接工作，但也可能未包含。如果
现有程序存在不足，则需要一些时间来制定新的程序并对其进行资格认定。这些工作最好
在最早的阶段完成。当辅助程序经过资格认定 (PQR) 之后，就可以制定所有必要的焊接程
序规范。

Similar remarks apply to welder status. The limitations on welder qualification include the form
of items to be welded (plate, pipe), the welding process or processes, electrode classifications, the
welding positions, member thickness, and pipe diameter. Prompt action to have suitably qualified

9
 welders on the roster is a self-evident requirement. In the event that new procedures have to be
qualified, existing welder certifications may or may not be sufficient.
对焊工状态也需要做出类似的说明。在焊工资格认定方面焊工需要遵循的一些限制条件包
括，要焊接的工件的形式（平板、管道）、焊接方法、焊条分类、焊接位置、构件厚度和
管道直径。很显然，需要及早采取措施储备合格的焊工。如果需要认证新的程序，那么现
有的焊工证书就不一定符合要求了。

There is a provision in some codes that permits welder to qualify during production. This
possibility should only be used as a bare necessity. Usually radiographic examination of a certain
length or number of joints is required. If film images conform to specification, the scope of the
qualification is typically much narrower than normal welder tests. If test do not conform, then the
removal of all subject welds, not just repair, is typically required.
某些规范允许焊工在生产中达到资格要求。只有在绝对必要的情况下才能采取这种做法。
通常需要对焊工完成的一定长度或数量的接头进行射线照相检测。如果胶片图像符合规范 ，
这种资格认证的范围通常会比一般焊工测试要窄许多。如果不符合，那么通常需要清除所
有受影响的焊缝，而不只是补焊。

Usually, welding procedures are not time constrained. Once qualified, procedures remain current
indefinitely. Welder qualifications, on the other hand, are often for a specified time. The duration
of currency may be 6 months or one year. Renewal by evidence of use of the process is frequently
automatic. In other cases, retesting after a specified period of time is required.
通常，焊接程序是不受时间限制的。一旦认定合格以后，程序可无限期使用。而在另一方
面，焊工资格认定经常有一定的时间限制。有效期可能是六个月或一年。如果证明焊工经
常在使用此焊接方法，则可自动延长有效期。否则，要求在规定的一段时间后重新测试。

 Establish Inspection Document System

 建立检验文件编制系统

Most organizations operating in the field of welded fabrication will have inspection
documentation such as inspection and non-conformance reports. With these and other required
documents however, it should be verified that the form of the documents satisfies the
requirements of the applicable codes or specifications.
焊接加工领域的大多数组织都有检验文件，比如检验报告和不符报告。然而，在使用这些
文件和需要的其它文件时，应检查文件的形式是否满足适用的法规或规范的要求。

Some companies require special documentation in addition to requirements specified by code.

Today, with the use of computers, producing specialized forms is a simple matter. The time to
identify and respond to special requirements is before the job commences.
一些公司在法规规定的要求之外，还要求特殊的文件。当今，随着计算机的使用，制定特
殊形式的文件变得非常简单。在作业开始之前就要明确特殊要求并采取相应的措施。

Pre-Weld Checks
焊接前检查
Phase 2
第 2 阶段

While industry is not unanimous on the need for formal procedures for phase 1 Initial Review,
there is no doubt that phase 2 Pre-weld Checks, phase 3 IN-Process Inspections, and phase 4
Post welding Activities should be governed by formal procedures. For example Figure 1.1,
where should the temperature-indicating crayon be applied in relation to the weld joint? Should it
be 25.4mm, 50.8mm, or just what distance from the weld joint?

10
 虽然行业内对于是否需要在第 1 阶段的初审中使用正式程序的说法不一，但在第 2 阶段的
焊接前检查、第 3 阶段的过程中检验和第 4 阶段的焊接后的检验工作 中，无疑应当按正式
程序来管理。如图 1.1 所示，应将温度指示炭棒放在焊接头的什么位置呢 ？应当距离焊接
头 25.4 毫米还是 50.8 毫米？或者与焊接头的距离到底应该是多少？

Figure1.1 Using a Temperature indicating Crayon

图 1.1 使用温度指示炭棒

 Check Suitability, Condition of Welding Equipment

 检查焊接设备的适用性、状况
The suitability of the welding equipment refers to its capability to produce sound welds using the
applicable procedures. It is unlikely that a 150 amp, AC welding machine would be capable of
successfully running 3.0mm E7018 electrodes; not withstanding maximum current requirements
of say 120 to 130 amps.
焊接设备的适用性是指焊接设备通过适用的程序形成坚固焊缝的能力。150 安培的交流电
焊接机器不可能成功地使用 3.0 毫米的 E7018 焊条；因为它不能承受最大 120 到 130 安培
的电流要求。

Additionally, secondary equipment must also be checked for suitability. For example, storage
ovens for low hydrogen SMAW electrodes, e.g., E7018 must be capable of maintaining a
temperature of at least 121 C. These electrodes are limited in terms of how long they are
permitted to be exposed to the atmosphere without adversely affecting their low moister content.
另外，还必须检查辅助设备的适用性。例如，SMAW 低氢焊条（比如 E7018）的储存炉必
须要能保持在 121C 以上。因为这些焊条在空气中暴露的时间必须限制在不影响其低湿含
量的范围内。

 Check Conformance of Base Filler Metals

 检查母材焊料的符合性
While it is an evident requirement that base and filler metals must conform to the WPS
requirements, it may take foresight to ensure that it is possible to make this verification. Material
Test Reports (MTRs), even Certified Material Test Reports (CMTRs) are fine; but how is the

11
 metal to be welded identified as being that referred to in the Test Reports? Material traceability is
a must for all material being welded.
由于明确要求母材和焊料必须符合 WPS 要求，因此应预先确保能够进行这项检验。例如，
虽然有很好的材料测试报告 (MTR)，甚至是经认证的材料测试报告 (CMTR)，但如何认定
要焊接的金属就是“测试报告”中所指的材料？对于所有要焊接的材料，必须能够进行追
踪确认。

 Check Positioning of Members and Joints

 检查构件和接头的布置
This is the appropriate time to verify that access for welding has been allowed. It is always
possible that access problems were not identified from the drawings.
这是检查是否留有焊接通路 的适当时机。有时可能无法根据图纸来确定焊接通路问题，这
种可能性总是存在的。

Presetting of members to be welded is a prudent and effective way in which to offset, or at

least reduce the effects of weld shrinkage. Some examples of presetting are shown in Figure
1.2.
预调整 要焊接的构件是一种非常稳妥而有效的方法，这样可补偿或至少减小焊缝收缩
的影响。预调整的一些示例如图 1.2 所示。

Figure 1.2 Presetting of Joint Members

图 1.2 接头构件的预调整

Where presetting is involved there are three important accompanying factors to be

considered, as follows:
在进行预调整时，要考虑三个重要的相关因素，如下所述：

a. Amount of presetting
a. 预调整量
b. The existence of non-uniform restraint
b. 存在不均匀约束力

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 c. The sequence of welding
c. 焊接的顺序

It is appropriate at this time to review the scope of qualifications of the welder (s) concerned
with making the joint (s) under consideration.
此时可以对要加工该接头的焊工的资格的适用范围进行审查。

Welders are qualified to weld in one or more joint positions, on a range of metals in terms of
composition, form (plate, pipe) and dimensions.
焊工应当具备能够在不同成分、形式（平板、管道）和尺寸的金属上对一个或多个接
头位置进行焊接的资格。

Additionally, certain codes impose positional restraints on the scope of welding procedures.
WPSs supported by procedures qualified on pipe butts usually have a wider scope of
positional capability than procedures qualified on plate. Welder qualification is generally
similar.
另外，某些规范在焊接程序的范围方面增加了位置限制。符合管道对焊程序要求的 W
PS 相对于符合平面焊接程序要求的 WPS 来说，其位置能力的适用范围更广。焊工的
资格认证通常相似。

 Check Joint Preparation, Fit-up, and Cleanliness

 检查接头制备、装配和清洁情况
The term Joint Preparation covers a wide range of combinations of plate edge treatment. On
working drawings, the dimensional requirements for joint preparations should be shown by the
use of the appropriate welding symbol(s). The purpose of edge preparation is to allow the
electrode access to the joint root area. The arc must be able to impinge on all surfaces to be
melted. This means there is no universal “edge prep” because there are many electrode sizes in
use. It also means the dimensions of weld preparation are important. Consider the Joints in Figure
1.3
接头制备 所涉及的范围很广，包含平板边缘处理的各种组合。在工作图纸上，接头制备的
尺寸要求通过适当的焊接符号来表示。坡口加工的目的是允许焊条进入接头根部区域。电
弧必须能够冲击到要熔化的所有表面。这意味着没有通用的“坡口加工”，因为可使用的
焊条规格很多。同时也表明焊接准备的外形尺寸非常重要。请研究图 1.3 中的接头

While the example in Figure 1.3 may represent extreme cases, it is evident that the tolerances
applicable to weld edge preparations and to joint fit-up are significant and must be observed.
虽然图 1.3 中的范例可能表示极端情况，但很明显，适用于焊接坡口加工的公差和接头装
配的公差很重要，必须加以关注。

The examination of weld edge preparation and fit-up is considered to be the most important of the
Welding Inspection Program steps. Inaccuracies at this point predestine a weld to almost certain
non-conformance.
焊接坡口加工和装配的检测被认为是最重要的“焊接检验方案”步骤。如果此处不准确，
焊缝就注定会出现某些不符情况。

13
 Figure 1.3 Significance of Weld Preparation Elements
图 1.3 焊接准备因素的重要性

The assembly of T-joints deserve particular attention. Most T-joints are fillet welded, generally
from both sides. Separation between the members acts to reduce the effective weld size. With
double-welded joints, separation cannot normally be seen after welding. Generally, specified
weld sizes are required to be increased by the amount of separation to restore the specified weld
size.
应当特别注意 T 型接头的装配。大多数 T 型接头采用角焊，通常从两侧焊接。构件之间的
间隔用来减小有效的焊缝大小。对于双面焊接头，在焊接后通常看不见间隔。一般情况下 ，
需要将规定的焊缝大小增加一个间隔的尺寸，以便在焊接后恢复到规定的焊缝大小。

If from some prior event there is an excessive gap between members of butt joint there are several
possible remedies short of member replacement. For small additions, joint edge(s) can be built up
by welding. Alternatively, consider the use of a backing bar. After welding, the backing bar can
be removed if necessary. Another possibility is to use a “spacer” which is gouged out after
welding from the first side is completed. See Figure 1.4
如果预先发现在对接接头的构件之间存在过大的间隙，除了替换构件以外，还有几种弥补
方法。对于小的补充，可通过焊接熔敷而形成接头边缘。或者，可考虑使用垫板。焊接后 ，
必要时可移去垫板。另一种方法是使用“隔块”，在完成第一侧焊接之后将其挖出。参见
图 1.4。

14
 Figure 1.4 Regularizing Joint members Gaps
图 1.4 调整接头构件间隙

 Check Joint Preparation, Fit-up, and Cleanliness

 检查接头制备、装配和清洁情况
Cleanliness of the joint is a general requirement. Arc heat melts and vaporizes everything in its
vicinity. Cleanliness of the joint area is a general requirement and must be verified prior to
welding. Loose scale, rust, oil, grease, cutting fluid residues, paint, and other surface
contaminants should not be present for at least 50mm on either side of the weld center line.
保持接头清洁是一项常规要求。电弧热能够熔化和蒸发附近的所有物质。接头区域的清洁
是一个常规要求，必须在焊接之前确认。在焊缝中心线两侧至少 50 毫米的范围内不得出
现松散的锈皮、铁锈、油、脂、残留的切削液、油漆和其它表面污染物。

If the area to be welded is pitted with rust, it is highly desirable to grind the area to shiny metal.
For new material, vigorous brushing should suffice. For steel no longer showing tightly adhering
blue mill scale, grinding is preferred.
如果焊接区域发生了点状锈蚀，最好将此区域打磨光。对于新的材料，可以用力刷光。对
于不再有牢固附着的出厂时的蓝色氧化层的钢材，最好进行打磨。

Particular attention needs to be paid to pipe joints, especially if gas backing is to be used. Under
the heat of welding, many surface contaminants are vaporized generally into hydrogen-rich
substances which have potentially unsatisfactory effects on molten weld metal and base metals at
the elevated temperatures associated with welding.
对于管道接头，尤其是对将要使用保护气体的情况，需要特别注意。在焊接热的作用下，
许多表面污染物会被蒸发成为富含氢的物质，在焊接产生的高温环境下，可能对熔态焊接
金属和母材产生不利影响。

 Check Adequacy of Alignment Maintenance

 检查保持对准的程度
During welding, forces of considerable magnitude act on joint members. It is necessary to
establish that means of holding joint members is adequate to ensure that members are held in
proper alignment throughout welding. Where members are tacked, verify that the tack length and
the number of tacks are sufficient to maintain alignment.

15
 在焊接时，接头构件上会承受很大的力。必须确认固定接头构件的方法是否足以确保在整
个焊接过程中，能够将构件固定在适当的对准位置。当对构件进行点焊时，检查焊点长度
和焊点数是否足以保持对准。

 Check Preheat or Initial Job Temperature

 检查预热或初始作业温度
It is the responsibilities of the welding inspector to verify that the work piece has been heated to
the specified preheat temperature. The work piece may have been heated to the required
temperature, but in such a localized area that the work piece temperature has fallen by the time
welding commences. Temperature checks should be made 50mm away from the joint on both
sides of the weld.
焊接检验员负责检查工件是否已被加热到指定的预热温度。工件可能已加热到要求的温度 ，
但到焊接开始的时候，这个工件的局部区域的温度可能已降低。应当在焊缝两侧距离接头
50 毫米处检查温度。

In-process Inspections
过程中检验
The activities to be considered in this phase of the welding
在焊接检验方案的这个阶段所考虑的活动主要是
inspection program are aimed at ensuring that the physical operation of welding takes place in
accordance with the applicable WPS.
为了确保焊接的实际操作与适用的 WPS 保持一致。
It is important at this point to again stress the importance of ensuring that all welding inspection
is a “seamless” part of the production process. It is desirable that the welding inspector becomes
a part of the production process-----and Particularly not an interruption to it. Inspectors should
foster an amicable relationship with production personnel at all levels. Seeking cooperation rather
than demanding it as a right is the appropriate approach.
此时需要再次强调确保所有焊接检验都成为与生产过程 “完全融合”的一部分的重要性。
焊接检验员最好是生产过程的一员 —“尤其”不要成为生产过程的中断因素。检验员应与
各级生产人员形成一种友好的关系。尽量寻求合作，不要以一种权利的形式来发号施令。

 Check Compliance with WPS Provisions

 检查是否符合 WPS 的规定。
This phase of inspection is ongoing through out welding. The following need to be monitored
with sufficient frequency to assure compliance with applicable WPS provisions:
检验的这个阶段将贯穿整个焊接过程。并要经常监督以下项目，确保符合适用的 WPS 规
定：

1. Consumable type and diameter

1. 耗材类型和直径
2. Current or wire feed speed
2. 电流或焊丝给送速度
3. Voltage
3. 电压
4. Gas flow rates
4. 气流速度
5. Travel speed Tack and weld end treatment
5. 对焊行走速度和焊缝端处理
6. Amount of spatter
6. 飞溅量

16
 The issue and storage of welding consumables should be under constant surveillance. Electrode
storage ovens make convenient food warmers, for instance.
焊接耗材的存储和发放应当一直在监督之下进行。例如，焊条储存炉可能会被用作方便的
食品加热器。

Periodic in-process checking of current is typically accomplished by the use of a Tong Test
Ammeter. Be sure the testers are set to the same current as being tested (AC e.g. DC). It should
have current calibrating date. Welding machine meters are not usually calibrated and cannot be
depended on to be accurate.
通常使用夹钳式测试电流表来完成电流的定期过程中检查。确保为测试器设置的电流与被
测设备使用的电流（如直流、交流）相同。应当规定电流校准日期。焊接机器仪表并不经
常校准，因此不能将其作为所依赖的标准。

 Check Quality, Placement of Key Weld Passes

 检查质量、关键焊道的定位。
Without a doubt, the most critical stage of welding is the root pass. As with any operation, good
work is based on a sound foundation. The root pass is the foundation of every welded joint. The
function of the root pass is to provide a sound tie between members at the root joint. This applies
to both unbacked and backed joints.
毫无疑问，焊接的最关键阶段是根部焊道。和其它任何操作一样，好的产品总是建立在坚
实的基础之上。根部焊道是每个焊接头的基础。根部焊道的作用是在根部接头上的构件之
间提供一个坚固的纽带。这既适用于无垫板的接头，也适用于有垫板的接头。

A second consideration at this time is the shape of the root pass. This is desirably flat to slightly
convex. While in multiple pass joints, a concave profile may appear desirable; the shrinkage
stresses may give rise to cracking, as in figure 1.5.
此时第二个要考虑的因素是根部焊道的形状。平整或稍稍有点凸的形状最为合适。虽然在
多焊道接头中，凹的外形看上去很不错，但收缩应力可能导致出现裂缝，如图 1.5 所示。

At the other extreme, excessive bead convexity can lead to incomplete fusion. High beads prevent
access of the arc to all areas of the partially filled joint, as shown in figure 1.5.
在另一种极端情况下，不完全熔合焊道过凸会导致不完全熔合。焊道过高会阻止电弧进入
部分填充的接头的所有区域，如图 1.5 所示。

As the root pass is being made, it is prudent to check if the means of joint assembly, such as
tacking or clamping, is holding joint members in the correct relationship. Depending on the
welding process, there will be a tendency for the root to open or close. If corrective action ids
necessary, other joints that are similarly assembled should also reflect the changes.
随着根部焊道的形成，应当检查接头装配的方式（如点焊或装夹）是否能固定接头构件于
正确位置。根据所使用的焊接工艺，根部会有开裂或收缩的可能。如果有必要采取纠正措
施，则其它类似装配的接头也应反映这种改变。

Figure 1.5 Significance of Weld Bead Size, Shape

17
 图 1.5 焊道大小、形状的重要性

The toes of root beads should be checked periodically to insure that sidewall undercutting is not
taking place. To make sound passes, a common practice is to increase the welding current and
offset the additional heat availability by increasing the travel speed of the arc along the seam
being welded. Undercut results when the amount of weld metal is insufficient to fill the area of
metal melted. With slag-shielded welding processes, sidewall undercut may be indicated by
difficult slag removal, but this will need to be confirmed by examination.
应当定期检查根部焊道的焊趾，确保不发生侧壁咬边。要得到坚固的焊道，常规做法是提
高焊接电流，为抵消增加的热，要提高电弧沿焊接接头的行走速度。当焊接金属量不足以
填充熔化的金属区域时会发生咬边。采用焊渣保护的焊接方法时，如果焊渣清除比较困难 ，
这说明可能存在侧壁咬边的情况，但这需要通过检测来确认。

Corrective action for sidewall undercut is to grind the joint edges back to eliminate the grooving
effect. If not done, it is unlikely that arc impingement during subsequent weld passes will reach
the bottom of undercut grooves. This is the primary source of “wagon tracks”, a linear slag
inclusion. In case of non-slag processes, sidewall undercut is usually identified on radiographs as
a slag inclusion. Notwithstanding the absence of slag, the image shape is the same as in the case
of slag-shielded processes.
侧壁咬边的纠正措施是打磨接头边缘来消除沟槽效应。如果不这么做，在后面的焊道中，
电弧冲击不可能进入咬边槽的底部。这是“车辙”（一种线状夹渣）的主要来源。在没有
焊渣的方法中，通常用射线照相方法将侧壁咬边识别为夹渣。虽然没有焊渣，但图像形状
与焊渣保护的工艺的图象是相同的。

Porosity in the root pass will tend, if left untreated, to persist in subsequent passes. A pore may
produce a vertical pipe in a multi-pass weld. The heat of welding expands air in existing pores,
the pressure of which causes the entrapped gases to rise through the molten metal as it is
deposited in subsequent overlaying beads. Complete removal of any pore from the first pass in
which it is detected is the only effective corrective action.
根部焊道中存在的孔隙如果不进行处理，将在后面的焊道中继续存在。孔隙会在多焊道焊
接中产生垂直管道。焊接热将使已有的孔隙中空气膨胀，其压力会导致其中包含的气体上
升，在熔融的金属沉积到后面的堆焊层时，穿透熔融的金属。从检测到孔隙的第一个焊道
完全清除所有的孔隙是唯一有效的纠正措施。

 Check Weld Bead Sequencing and Placement

 检查焊道顺序和位置
The sequence in which weld beads are deposited exercises a significant effect on the dimensions
and shape of a weldment. Where distortion caused by shrinkage is likely to be a problem, it is
prudent to require that a weld sequence program be developed and observed during welding.
焊道沉积的顺序对焊件的尺寸和形状有很大影响。如果收缩引起的扭曲可能成为一个问题 ，
则稳妥的做法是制定焊接顺序方案，并在焊接过程中加以遵守。

Even when a welding sequence is not specified, it is desirable that the usual rules to minimize
distortion are followed. These include, but are not limited to:
即使没有指定焊接顺序，也应遵循使扭曲最小化的一般规则。这些规则包括但不仅限于：

1. welding from areas of least restraint

1. 从约束力最少的区域焊接
2. Welding long weld joints from the center outward
2. 从中心向外焊接较长的焊接头

18
 3. Balancing welding on either side of joints, of welded assemblies and of weldments as a
whole
3. 整体上在接头、焊接的组件和焊件的两侧平衡焊接

Some common techniques for sequencing weld beads include (a) back stepping (b) skip welding,
and (c) an offset method for T-joints using double fillet welds, as shown in Figure 1.6.
安排焊道顺序的一些常用技术包括 (a) 分段退焊 (b) 跳焊，以及 (c) 对 T 型接头使用双角焊
进行补偿焊接，如图 1.6 所示。

In back step welding, while individual weld passes are made from the outside towards the center, the
general direction of welding is from the joint centerline outward. This technique is used for both thick and
thin base metal and for groove and fillet welds made on one side of T-joints. Skip welding is a variation
of back step welding, but primarily for groove welds in thinner base metals. The technique shown in
Figure 1.6 for fillet-welded joints is based on limiting longitudinal shrinkage and at the same time,
offsetting angular rotation.
在分段退焊中，各个焊道是从外部向中心形成的，焊接的一般方向是从接头中心线向外进行。这
种技术同样适用于厚的和薄的母材，也适用于 T 型接头一侧进行的角焊和坡口焊。跳焊是分段退
焊的一种变化形式，主要适用于较薄母材中的坡口焊。图 1.6 所示的适用于角焊接头的技术是建
立在限制纵向收缩以及补偿角度旋转的基础上的。

The placement of individual weld passes within a joint can exercise a significant effect on joint quality
and alignment. Consider the last complete weld pass on the left in Figure 1.7. In making the next pass
(dotted) the arc may be unable to melt the sidewall, resulting in incomplete fusion.
接头中各个焊道的定位对接头质量和对准有重要影响。请参照图 1.7 左边的最后完成的焊道。在
焊接下一个焊道（虚线表示）时，电弧可能无法熔化侧壁，不完全熔合导致不完全熔合。

19
 Figure 1.6 Welding Sequence Techniques
图 1.6 焊接顺序技术

Figure 1.7 Effect of Bead Placement on Weld Quality

图 1.7 焊道定位对焊接质量的影响

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 The order in which weld beads are placed on one side of a joint or the other is important. As
Figure 1.8 shows, the effect of making a second weld bead on the same side as the first was made
(2nd down) is dramatic. Instead of being “pulled” almost straight, the net effect is to make it
impossible for all the weld beads placed on the opposite side of the joint to pull the joint into
correct alignment.
将焊道定位于接头的一侧或另一侧的顺序非常重要。如图 1.8 所示，在第一个焊道的同一
侧增加第二个焊道（加在下方）所造成的影响是很明显的。其共同产生的影响不仅不能将
焊件“拉”直，而且使接头另一侧的所有焊道都不能将接头拉至正确的对准状态。

 Check Interpass Temperature and Cleaning

 检查道间温度和清洁情况
For joints where preheat and interpass temperature are specified, it is intended that the joint area
will be kept within the required temperature range throughout welding. For work extending over
a work break, the best practice is to determine whether the job can be allowed to cool or if the
minimum specified temperature must be preserved in the joint until welding has been completed.
Irrespective of the specifics, the welding inspector should take an active role to ensure proper
temperature control.
对于指定了预热和道间温度的接头，其目的是保持接头区域在整个焊接过程中都处于要求
的温度范围内。如果工作延长到了工间休息时间，最好的做法是确认是否允许将工件冷却 ，
或者是否必须将接头保持在最小指定温度之上，直到完成焊接为止。不论具体情况如何，
焊接检验员都应积极地确保实现正确的温度控制。

Figure 1.8 Effect of Order of Weld Bead Placement

图 1.8 焊道定位顺序的影响

Finally with respect to interpass temperature, where there is a maximum specified---- as may be the case
where toughness is critical----the weld area should be checked with sufficient frequency to be certain that

21
there is no excessive heat buildup. If this does occur, no attempt to accelerate cooling should be allowed.
A basic purpose of preheat and interpass temperature control is to retard the cooling rate ate the joint area.
Forced cooling or accelerated cooling will not correct the situation.
最后，对于道间温度，当指定了最高温度时（当韧性很重要时可能会指定），应当频繁地检查焊
接区域，确保没有聚积过多热量。如果发生了这种情况，不允许尝试加速冷却。预热和道间温度
控制的基本目的是减慢冷却速率以防止破坏接头区域。强制冷却或加速冷却不能纠正这种情况。

Interpass cleaning is needed to ensure that subsequent weld passes will be made on clean metal. It also
allows the welder to carry out a visual examination of the work just completed. Apart from the obvious, it
is useful to look for surface discontinuities such as shown in Figure 1.9
需要进行道间清洁以确保能够在清洁的金属上熔敷后续焊道。这样还能使焊工在完成工作后马上
进行目测检验。如图 1.9 所示，除了查看比较明显的方面以外，还要查看表面不连续的情况，这
样做非常有用。

Figure 1.9 Discontinuities in Intermediate Passes

图 1.9 中间焊道中的不连续性

 Check the Adequacy of Back gouging

 检查焊根清理是否充分
Back gouging----the removal of base or weld metal from the weld root side of a joint to sound
metal----is used to ensure complete fusion and joint penetration and to avoid gaseous and solid
inclusions. Typically carried out by grinding or by arc air gouging, back gouging is required by
many codes when unbacked complete joint penetration welds are specified. Figure 1.10 shows, in
the upper diagram, the principle involved.
焊根清理 — 从接头的焊根一侧清除母材或焊接金属直至暴露出坚固的金属 — 用来确保完
全熔合和接头焊透，并避免气体和固体杂质夹带。焊根清理通常是通过打磨或电弧气刨法

22
 来进行的，当指定了无垫板的完全接头深熔焊接时，许多规范要求清理焊根。图 1.10 在上
方图形中显示了所涉及的原理。

The depth of the back gouging must be such that there is sound metal exposed over the whole
joint length. The angle of the groove must allow full access for the electrode. In Figure 1.10 the
lower diagram shows a groove typical of arc air gouging when the electrode diameter is to small
for the depth of gouging required. The lower diagram at the right shows the usual groove
produces by grinding. In both cases, the groove angle must be increased to that specified in the
WPS for the first side welded. Welding inspectors must be satisfied that back gouging is
complete, including the use of NDE, if considered necessary.
焊根清理的深度必须达到沿着整个接头都暴露出坚固金属。槽的角度必须能使焊条完全进
入。在图 1.10 中，下方的图形显示了当焊条直径对于要求的焊根清理深度太小时，电弧气
刨法典型的坡口。下方右边的图形显示了打磨形成的一般坡口。在两种情况下，坡口的角
度都必须增加到 WPS 中规定的焊接第一侧的角度。焊接检验员必须确认焊根清理是彻底
的，必要时可使用无损检测。

Figure 1.10 Back gouging Method, Accessibility

图 1.10 焊根清理方法，操作无障碍

 Monitor Any Specified In-process NDE

 监督任何指定的过程中无损检测
Apart from the NDE noted above in connection with back gouging, there are circumstances
where in process NDE is specified. Magnetic particle inspection, even radiography of root passes
on heavy-walled pipe is not uncommon. In all such instances the role of the welding inspector
will vary, but basic to all situations is that these activities are carried out under proper control.
Further, that appropriate records are furnished and maintained.
除了上面提到的在清理焊根中使用无损检测之外，有时还会指定使用过程中无损检测。在
厚壁管道的根部焊道上进行磁粉检验甚至是射线照相检验并不少见。在这些情况中，焊接
检验员的角色虽然不同，但在任何条件下，这些活动都要在正确的控制之下进行。而且，
还要提供并保留适当的报告。

Post welding Activities

23
 焊接后的工作
Phase 4
第 4 阶段

The final phase of the welding inspection program embodies the post welding activities necessary
to ensure that the finished weldment meets the applicable requirements in all relevant respects.
This should not be confused, at least in principle, with the final job inspection. The object is to
establish weld and weldment quality conformance within the overall job context. This involves
the following activities:
焊接检验方案的最后一个阶段包括了用来确保成品焊件在所有方面满足适当要求的焊接后
的工作。不要将这个阶段与最终作业检验相混淆（至少在理论上）。此阶段的目标是在整
个作业环境中确定焊接和焊件质量是否符合相关要求。其中涉及到以下工作：

 Check Finished Weld Appearance and soundness

 检查成品的焊缝外观和坚固程度
Weld faces should display uniform ripples with no significant variations in shape or form. Bumps
and depressions indicating starts and stops should be minimal. Groove weld reinforcement should
be evident, without under fill or excess. See Figure 1.11 for examples of each of the foregoing.
焊缝面应显示均匀的波纹，在形状或形式上没有重大差异。应尽量减少表明起始和停止位
置的凸起点和凹陷点。坡口焊缝加强高度应明显，填充量不能太少也不能太多。参见图 1.
11 中上述每一种情况的示例。

Figure 1.11 Groove reinforcement

图 1.11 坡口加强

This similarly applies to fillet welds, where minimum ratio of width to depth should be 1.25 to
one. Excessive convexity or concavity is equally undesirable. Possibilities include those shown in
Figure 1.12.
类似的情况也适用于角焊，其中最小的宽深比应当为 1.25 比 1。过凸与过凹同样不可取。
图 1.12 中显示了这两种情况。

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 Figure 1.12 Excessive Fillet Convexity and Concavity
图 1.12 圆角面过凸和过凹

Wetting at the toes of both groove and fillet welds without undercut is desirable with all welds.
Welds with excessive convexity or reinforcement increase stress concentrations, sometimes to
unacceptable values.
对于所有焊接，坡口焊缝和角焊缝的焊趾应润湿，但没有咬边。过凸或加强高过大的焊缝
会促使应力集中，有时会达到不能接受的程度。

Following the check of the general appearance of all welds, a detailed examination should be
carried out to establish freedom from non-conforming surface discontinuities. In the absence of
other indications, this will represent the final visual inspection. Accordingly, it needs to be
detailed and thorough. A flashlight is a most important aid in carrying out this examination.
Surface discontinuities not considered above include, but are not limited to:
在所有焊缝的常规外观检查之后，应执行详细检查，确认是否具有超出范围的表面不连续
情况。如果没有其它指标，那么这就代表了最终的目测检验。因此，该检查应做到详尽而
彻底。在检查中，手电筒是一个最重要的辅助工具。上面没有考虑的表面不连续性包括但
不仅限于以下现象：

1. Cracks
1. 裂纹
2. Incomplete fusion, on the sidewall, between weld passes or as overlap
2. 侧壁上、重叠不完全熔合在焊道间或重搭处的不完全熔合
3. Incomplete joint penetration of one sided butt welds
3. 单面对焊接头未焊透
4. Slag inclusions
4. 夹渣
5. Porosity, and other gaseous inclusions
5. 气孔及其它气体夹带
6. Undercut
6. 咬边
7. Arc strikes
7. 电弧放电

Common surface cracks are shown in figure 1.13. Sometime overlapping terminology is used for
cracks. It may be based on time of occurrence, site, direction or other determinants. The throat
crack, as shown in figure 1.13, may also be known as a hot crack, a centerline crack or a
longitudinal crack.

25
普通的表面 裂纹 如图 1.13 所示。描述裂纹的术语很多。这取决于裂纹出现的时间、位置、
方向或其它决定因素。图 1.13 所示的喉部裂纹也可能称为热裂纹、中线裂纹或纵向裂纹。

Figure 1.13 Weld-Associated Surface Cracks

图 1.13 与焊缝相关的表面裂纹

Incomplete fusion may appear as cavities between weld passes or between the weld sidewall and
the adjacent weld bead. A third form of this discontinuity is overlap, where molten filler metal
has rolled over unmelted base metal. A characteristic is a distinct re-entrant angle at the weld toe.
Examples of overlap are shown in Figure 1.14.
不完全不完全熔合 可能表现为焊道之间或焊缝侧壁与相邻焊道之间存在空穴。重叠不连续
性的第三种形式是重叠，是由熔态填充金属滚落到未熔化的母材上而形成的。其特征为焊
趾处有明显的再入角。重叠重叠的范例如图 1.14 所示。

26
 Figure 1.14 Overlap and Undercut
图 1.14 重叠和咬边

Undercut may be considered as opposite of overlap. In the case of undercut, the cause is the
melting of a greater amount of base metal than there is available molten weld metal to fill. This
results in the characteristic groove at the toe of the weld toes. While the severity of undercut is
really the sharpness of the angle made by the sides of the undercut groove, in practice,
acceptability is based on depth.
咬边 重叠可看作与重叠正好相反。咬边的出现是因母材的熔化量大于填充的熔态焊接金属。
这样就在焊趾位置出现了特征槽。咬边的严重性在于咬边槽的侧壁形成了一个尖角，在实
际中，是否可接受将取决于咬边的深度。

With welded joints welded from one side only, with access to the back joint, incomplete joint
penetration may be generally detected. An exception is when weld shrinkage has pulled the
members together so there is no evident separation. However, the absence of a penetration bead
should indicate the need for further examination. Readily apparent incomplete penetration is seen
in Figure 1.15.
当仅从一侧对焊接头进行焊接时，如果从接缝后面进入，通常会检测到接头未焊透 的情况。
当焊缝收缩使构件并在一起而没有表现出明显间隔时，则检测不到这种情况。但是，如果
不存在熔透焊道，则表明需要进一步检查。图 1.15 显示了一个非常明显的未焊透情况。

27
 Figure 1.15 Incomplete Joint Penetration
图 1.15 接头未焊透

Surface slag discontinuities will typically appear as elongated cavities, in which slag may or may
not remain. Surface slag cavities should be investigated for depth. If the weld cross section is not
reduced beyond the applicable tolerance, corrective action is usually to grind the area to a slight
concavity to remove any tendency to stress concentration.
表面焊渣不连续 通常表现为细长的空穴，其中可能有焊渣，也可能没有。应当检查表面焊
渣空穴的深度。如果焊缝横截面的减小还没有超出适用的公差，则通常的纠正措施是：打
磨该区域使其稍微有些凹陷，排除任何应力集中的可能。

Porosity is the term covering discontinuities caused by trapped gases. During welding,
atmospheric and other gases are drawn into the weld pool because they are soluble in molten
metal. Normally, this gas escapes as the weld puddle cools. However, there are circumstances
when the gas remains in the solidified puddle, mainly as a result of incorrect electrode
manipulation. Gases may be wholly entrapped in the weld or have sufficient pressure to break the
weld surface to appear as surface porosity.
气孔 是描述由包裹的气体引起的不连续性的术语。在焊接中，空气和其它气体会被带入焊
接池中，因为它们可以溶解到熔融的金属中。通常，这些气体会随着焊接熔池的冷却而逸
出。然而，有时气体也会滞留在固化后的熔池内，这主要是由于不正确的焊条操作引起的。
气体可能完全包围在焊缝中，也可能有足够的压力冲破焊缝表面形成表面气孔。

Porosity tends to be round or nearly so; with little ability to concentrate stress. Most codes allow
some pores, up to a specified diameter, in a unit length of weld. Individual pore diameters are
measured to determine conformance or otherwise, based on the applicable criteria.
密集气孔一般为圆形或接近圆形；很少引起应力集中。大多数规范允许在单位长度的焊缝
上，存在一些一定直径范围内的孔隙。需要测量个别孔隙的直径以确定是否符合适用的标
准。

Arc strike shows a scar on the base metal surface and must
电弧触击 将在母材表面留下一个疤痕，必须对其进行进一步
be investigated. Corrective action includes grinding the effected area to a shallow dish, insuring
that the thickness tolerance is not exceeded. Testing with Magnetic Particle testing (MT or dye
penetrant testing (PT) or both, as applicable, is usually mandatory.
检查。纠正措施为：首先打磨受影响的区域，使其变成浅盘形，但要保证不超出厚度公差。
然后，用磁粉检测 (MT) 方法或着色渗透检验法 (PT)，或者根据需要同时使用这两种方法
进行检测。磁粉检测或着色渗透检验通常是必须进行的检测。

 Check Weld Sizes and Dimensions

28
 检查焊缝大小和尺寸
The size of fillet welds should be verified as meeting the specified requirements with due
consideration of any weld size under-run provisions. Some codes allow all or portions of a weld
to under-run the weld size specified. Although not a cause for rejection, consistently oversized
welds should be drawn to the attention of the welding supervisor. Increasing the size of a 6.4mm
fillet weld to 8.0mm involves an increase of more than 50% in weld metal, heat input and
distortion potential. This is significant in terms of job cost.
应当检查角焊缝的大小是否满足指定要求，同时考虑任何关于焊缝大小的负偏差的规定。
某些规范允许焊缝的全部或部分小于指定的焊缝大小。对于全部偏大的焊缝，尽管这不是
一个拒绝的理由，但应当引起焊接检验员的注意。如果角焊缝的大小从 6.4 毫米增加到 8.0
毫米，则焊接金属、热量输入和变形可能都会增加 50% 以上。从作业成本的角度来看，
这是很重要的。

Weld lengths where specified, must be verified. Again, this provision largely applies to fillet
welds and in situations where the required length is less than the length of the joint. The
increments and pitch (center to center distances) of intermittent fillet welds are required to be
checked.
如果指定了焊缝长度，则必须进行验证。同样，此规定主要适用于角焊缝，也适用于要求
的长度小于接缝长度的情况。检验员需要检查间断性角焊缝的增量和间隔（中心到中心的
距离）。

 Check Dimensional Accuracy of the Weldment

 检查焊件的尺寸精度
The term weldment is used to denote a welded product, be it simple assembly of two pieces
joined by welding, as a test coupon, or a complex finished product made up of subassemblies and
other components. Depending on the nature of the work, the scope and extent of dimensional
checking will vary from simple measurements of flatness, straightness and overall dimensions to
complex survey involving instruments outside the range normally associated with welding
inspection.
术语焊件 用来表示焊接成的产品，它既可以像测试样品一样是用两个工件焊接起来的简单
装配，也可以是由子组件和其它部件组成的复杂的成品。根据工作性质的不同，尺寸检查
的范围和广度会有很大的不同，有可能只检查平面度、直线度和整体尺寸等简单指标，也
可能需要使用常规焊接检验中用不到的仪器进行的复杂测量。

 Carry Out or Monitor and evaluate Specified NDE

 执行或监督和评估指定的无损检测
Suitably qualified welding inspectors may carry out specified post welding NDE. Alternatively,
specialists perform such work. In the latter case, the welding inspectors role is evaluating the
reports produced thereby. These reports will become part of the job records and are to be retained.
可以由合格的焊接检验员执行指定的焊接后无损检测。或者，也可以请专家来完成该检测
工作。在后一种情况下，焊接检验员的任务是对据此而编制的检测报告进行评估。这些报
告将成为作业记录的一部分，并且将被妥善保留。

For NDE and Post weld Heat Treatment, specialist may be involved so the welding inspector’s
role changes to one of monitoring rather than active inspection. In broad terms, monitoring
involves verifying conformance of service to both the overall job requirements and the specifics
of the type of service being supplied. Qualification and calibrations are important factors as is
reporting accuracy. It is important that suitable evidence of certification of NDE operators who
sign conformance reports be produced.
对于无损检测和焊接后热处理，也可以让专家参与，此时焊接检验员的任务就从检验变成
了监督。从广义上讲，监督既包括验证服务是否符合整体作业要求，也包括是否符合所提

29
 供的服务类型的具体要求。就像报告的准确性一样，资格认定和校准也是很重要的因素。
签发符合性报告的无损检测操作员应当提供适当的资格证明材料，这是很重要的。

The types of consumables used in various examinations may be specified or left to the discretion
of the service agency. It is usual to require some level of certification. For PT, chloride-free
penetrant may be required. For RT, the film speed may be specified. Slower speed films are finer
grained, giving finer definition but increase exposure time. For UT, type of couplant to be used
may be specified.
各种检测中使用的消耗品的类型可以在相关要求中明确指定，也可以由服务机构自行决定。
通常需要某一等级的证明。对于 PT，要求使用无氯化物的渗透剂。对于 RT，应指定胶片
曝光速度。胶片曝光速度越慢粒度就越细，清晰度越好，但曝光时间更长。对于 UT，应
指定使用的耦合剂类型。

In terms of NDE procedures, variables include:

在无损检测程序中，参数包括：

1. For MT---magnetizing medium, particle type

1. 对于 MT — 磁化介质、粒子类型
2. For PT----penetrant type and removal system
2. 对于 PT — 渗透剂类型和清除系统
3. For RT----radiation source, film type
3. 对于 RT — 放射源、胶片类型
4. For UT----transducer types, scanning patterns
4. 对于 UT — 传感器类型、扫描模式

 Monitor PWHT (Post Weld Heat Treatment) or Other Post weld Activities
 监督 PWHT（焊接后热处理）或其它焊接后的工作

When post weld heat treatment (PWHT) is required, the welding inspector’s role is to monitor the
overall activities to insure a suitable outcome. This activity falls into four sections-----initial
review, before PWHT commences, during the PWHT cycle, and post PWHT.
当需要进行焊接后热处理 (PWHT) 时，焊接检验员的任务是监督整个活动以确保得到适当
的结果。该任务包括四个部分 — 初审、在 PWHT 之前，在 PWHT 过程中，以及在 PWHT
之后。

An initial review must be made to see that the weldment will remain dimensionally stable during
heat treatment. Any enclosed space must be vented—fully welded double plate and double –
welded flanges must have one or more vent holes drilled to avoid pressure build up. Horizontal
surfaces must be supported either by the structure itself or by temporary braces. Irrespective of
the type of heat treatment involved, the yield strength of the metal will be reduced.
检验员必须进行初审，检查焊件在热处理过程中是否能保持尺寸稳定。任何封闭的空间都
必须通风 — 对于完全焊接的双层板和双面焊接的法兰，必须打钻一个或多个通风孔以避
免压力集聚。水平表面必须要由自身结构或临时支架支撑。不论热处理的类型如何，都会
降低金属的屈服强度。

Before heat treatment, the number and positioning of thermocouple (TC) leads must be adjusted
to give an accurate reflection of the current temperatures. Thermocouples should be located
within 12mm of the weldment.

30
 在热处理之前，必须调整热电偶 (TC) 引线和数量以准确反映当前温度。热电偶应安放在
距离焊件 12 毫米以内的位置。

Heat treatment is typically carried out using a programmable controller. The programmed cycle
of heating (at a specified rate), holding for a required time at temperature, and controlled cooling
(again at a specified rate) to a certain temperature, is monitored by a recorder, which plots time
against temperature. Each thermocouple is connected to recorder so temperature at any time can
be determined. If the heat treatment is being physically monitored it is customary for welding
inspectors to sign the chart at the time of there visit to the work area.
通常需要使用程控器来执行热处理。记录仪将监控热处理的整个过程，包括：程控加热时
间（按指定速率进行）、在要求的温度下保持一定时间、在程控下冷却到特定温度（按指
定速率进行），并且打印出温度/时间曲线。每个热电偶都连接到记录仪，因此可以确定
任何时间的温度。如果焊接检验员亲自监督热处理，那么按常规他们在视察工作区时应在
图表上签字。

Upon completion of the heat treatment the removal of the thermocouple leads and temporary
supports. A visual inspection should be made to insure that no problems have arisen during
treatment.
当完成了热处理并且拆除热电偶和临时支撑之后，应当进行目测检验，确保在热处理期间
未出现任何问题。

In particular the maintenance of dimensions should be established.

特别是应当把尺寸维护作为检验工作的一部分。

With certain types of metals, particularly micro-alloyed and “Chrome-moly” steels \, there is a
risk of liquation cracking, or reheat cracking. The presence of low-melting temperature phases
within a metal can lead to this problem. For such cases, an NDE exam is frequently required. For
ferromagnetic materials this is typically MT.
处理某些类型金属（特别是微合金化钢和铬钼合金钢）时，有可能发生熔析开裂或再加热
开裂的现象。金属内部出现低熔化温度相时会产生这个问题。这类情况经常需要执行无损
检测。对于铁磁材料，通常需要执行 MT 检验。

As a principle, welding should not take place on work that has undergone post weld heat
treatment. Welding will induce further residual stress in the product, which was the reason
PWHT was specified in the first instance. If welding is used to carry out a repair, specific
approval should be obtained from the engineer of record beforehand.
原则上，对于经过焊接后热处理的工件，不应再行焊接。焊接会导致产品中进一步产生残
余应力，这就是第一个示例中规定进行 PWHT 的原因。如果在需要补焊，则必须事先得
到工程师的特定的书面批准。

 Finalize and Collate Inspection Documentation

 完成并整理检验文件。
It is the inspector’s responsibility to keep originals (or copies, as appropriate) of all inspection-
related documents. With this aspect in mind prudent welding inspectors make timely preparation.
One method is to draw up a list of all the expected activities and open a file with some or all the
following list of headings.
检验员负责保留所有与检验相关的文件的原件（或必要时保留复印件）。焊接检验员应考
虑到这方面的要求，及时做好准备。他们可采用这样一种方法：草拟一个包含所有预期活
动的列表，打开一个文件，写入下列部分或全部标题。
1. Unpriced copy of contract with a list of all referenced documents including codes,
standards, and specifications (by title) and drawings (by drawing number).

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 1. 未标价的合同副本，附带包含有所有参考文件的清单，包括法规、标准和规范（按
标题编排）以及图纸（按图纸编号编排）
2. Copies of change orders and instructions, including lists of drawing revisions, noting date
of receipt.
2. 变更单和说明的副本，包括注明接收日期的图纸修订清单。
3. Copies of material certificates for base metals, filler metals, and other consumables.
3. 母材、焊料和其它消耗品的材料证书副本。
4. Welding procedure specifications (WPS) to be used on the job, including repair
procedures. And supporting procedure qualification records (PQR) with applicable
laboratory reports.
4. 作业中使用的焊接程序规范 (WPS)，包括修补程序。辅助程序资格认定记录 (PQR)，
附带相应的实验室报告。
5. Welder/welding operators/tackers performance certificates and supporting reports.
Welder maintenance records.
5. 焊机性能/焊接操作员/点焊工操作技能证书和证明报告。焊机维护记录。
6. Inspection reports, which may be signed-off sheets for confirming work and copies of
formal reports for nonconformance.
6. 检验报告，可以是经签署的作业确认书和正式的不符报告副本。
7. NDE reports and copies for externally supplied NDE services.
7. 无损检测报告和为外部机构提供的无损检测服务提供的副本。
8. Repair activity reports including concession documentation and release reports.
8. 补焊工作报告，包括特许文件和发放报告。
9. Heat treatment orders, instructions to heat treater, and heat treatment charts.
9. 热处理订单、适用于热处理工的指导说明和热处理图。
10. Final release certification.
10. 最后发放的证书。

By preparing sub files for each of the above (or other anticipated activities), as soon as documents
are in hand they can be filed. Likewise, if a document is not delivered or produced at the
appropriate time. Follow-up action can be initiated while the matter is still current. Lost and
missing documents are a significant cause of dissatisfaction between constructor and client at the
end of a project.
通过为上述每项活动（或其它预期活动）准备相关文件，检验员可随时对现有文件进行归
档。同样，如果在适当的时候未得到别人提交或出示的文件，在进行该工作的同时仍可启
动后续工作。在项目结束时设计者和客户之间产生不满的最主要原因就是文件丢失或无法
找到。

Weld Discontinuities
焊缝不连续

 Weld discontinuities (a discontinuity is any change or interruption to the uniformity of an object)

are an ever-present possibility with welding. While most discontinuities detract in some way from
member cross-section, this loss is usually not the main concern. Rather, the stress concentration
associated with the presence of a discontinuity is customarily the dominant factor. It is from this
perspective that discontinuity influence is considered.
 焊缝不连续（不连续性 是指焊接对象在均匀性方面所发生的任何改变或中断）是焊接中
长期存在的一个问题。虽然大多数不连续性以某种形式在构件横截面上会造成质量损失，
但这种损失通常并不是主要的考虑因素。相反，与不连续性相关的应力集中才是通常考虑
的主要因素。不连续性的影响就是从这个角度来考虑的。

32
 A common mis-impression of persons outside the industry (and some within) is that welding is
unreliable. Further, that welders are prone to producing defective work. Nothing could be further
from the truth. This idea completely overlooks the millions of pounds of weld metal deposited
properly each year. Thousands of welds made every day, with a very small percentage of
defective product.
行业外的人士（甚至有些行业内人士）通常会有一种误解，认为焊接不牢靠。而且，焊工
很容易生产出有缺陷的产品。其实这完全是一种错误的看法。这种看法忽视了每年有数百
万磅的焊接金属得到合理熔敷的事实。每天生产的无数焊件中，有缺陷的产品只占极小的
比例。

The factors determining welded joint integrity are:

决定焊接头是否牢固的因素包括以下几个方面：

1. Weldment and joint design

1. 焊件和接缝设计
2. Base metal and filler metal selection
2. 母材和焊料的选择
3. Joint preparation, positioning, set up
3. 接头制备、布置、装配
4. Weld procedure adequacy and observance
4. 焊接程序是否适当以及是否得到遵守
5. Welder skill
5. 焊工技能

The determinants of discontinuity significance can be shown to depend on 5the following factors:
不连续程度的决定因素取决于以下几个方面：

1. Linearity (ratio of largest and least dimensions)

1. 线性度（最大尺寸和最小尺寸之比）
2. End condition (or sharpness)
2. 端头状态（或锐度）

A linear discontinuity is a discontinuity of length > 3 time its width. Gas pores tend to be round
and thus non-linear. This contrasts with cracks, Typically of greater length than any other
dimension and with a sharp end condition. Gas pores are rounded and so present a large angle (to
any propagating force). A crack, on the other hand, has a very small angle at its tip. These factors,
taken together lead to the following general order of potential discontinuity severity:
线性不连续性 是指长度宽度比大于 3 的不连续性。气孔一般是圆形的，因此属于非线性不
连续。它与裂纹不同，通常后者的长度比其它任何尺寸都大，并且有尖锐的端头。气孔是
圆形的，因此有很大的角度（来承受任何传递的力）。与此相反，裂纹在尖端的角度很小。
将这些因素综合考虑，可得出不连续性严重程度的一般顺序，如下所述：
 Most severe Cracks see 1.17
 严重程度最高的情况 裂纹 参见 1.17
Incomplete fusion see 1.18
不完全熔合 参见 1.18
Inadequate penetration see 1.19
未焊透 参见 1.19
Solid inclusions see 1.20
夹带固体杂质 参见 1.20

 Least sever Gaseous inclusions see 1.21

33
 严重程度最低的情况 夹带气体杂质 参见 1.21

 Varying severity Shape discontinuities see 1.22

 严重程度以上两者之间的情况 形状不连续性 参见 1.22
Miscellaneous discontinuities see 1.23
其它不连续性 参见 1.23

Figure 1.16 Weld and Weld-related Discontinuities

图 1.16 焊缝不连续性和与焊缝相关的不连续性
Cracks and Cracking
裂纹和开裂

 Cracks develop when applied load in a given area exceeds the local strength of the metal. The
extent and consequences of cracking is largely dependant on two factors, namely:
 当特定区域的载荷超过了金属的局部强度时，裂纹就会产生。开裂的程度和结果主要取决
于以下两个因素：

1. The load, its magnitude (and application mode)

1. 载荷、载荷大小（和施加方式）
2. The mechanical properties of the material (grain types and sizes) in the area of load
application.
2. 载荷区域的材料机械性能（颗粒类型和大小）。

With welding, the heating and cooling of the weld area alone are sufficient, in many cases, to
supply a load. This can be exacerbated by local stress concentration, which, in turn, may develop

34
as a result of joint design or even the shape of the joint. Irrespective of any other factors, with
welding there is always some form of load available.
在焊接时，在许多情况下，仅是焊接区的加热和冷却就足以产生 载荷。这种载荷会在局部
应力集中的作用下增强，而应力集中又因接缝设计或接头的形状而加强。无论其它因素如
何，在焊接中总是会出现某些形式的载荷。

The mechanical properties of metal are affected by welding. A prime concern is the cooling rate
in the weld area. As the cooling rate increases, carbon steel tends to lose its toughness and
ductility. Consequently, its ability to bear load without failure may be reduced. Stated another
way, metal that has been welded becomes potentially susceptible to failure under adverse
circumstances.
焊接会影响金属的机械性能。主要因素是焊接区的冷却速度。当冷却速度加快时，碳钢会
降低其韧性和延展性。因此，其接受负载而又不破坏的能力将会下降。换句话说，焊接后
的金属在不利的情况下可能更容易损坏。

For carbon steels, especially those exhibiting high strength, an additional factor, that of hydrogen,
must also be considered. Molten metals have great affinity for gases. In the welding process, a
considerable amount of all the gases in the arc area may be absorbed into the weld pool. This is
shown in Figure 1.17.
对碳钢，尤其是表现出高强度的碳钢而言，必须考虑氢这一附加因素。熔融的金属对气体
有很大的亲和力。在焊接过程中，电弧区域的大量气体会被吸附到焊接池中。请参见图 1.
17。

Figure 1.17 Weld Area at Time of Weld Formation

图 1.17 焊缝形成时的焊接区

35
In the normal course of events, the gases drawn into the molten weld pool are expelled as
solidification proceeds. Expulsion takes place in all directions.
在正常情况下，吸入熔态焊接池中的气体在焊缝凝固过程中被排出。在所有方向上都会进
行排气。

Hydrogen, because it has a very small atom, may migrate to the heated, but now solid, edges of
the weld area. Being still mobile, the entrapped hydrogen moves in all directions;
由于氢原子很小，它可以移动到加热的、但现在已凝固的焊接区边缘。金属中夹带的氢仍
可活动，它会向所有方向移动；
Including into the metal affected (but not melted) by the welding heat, known as the heat-
affected zone (HAZ).
受焊接热影响（但未熔化）的金属区域称为热影响区 (HAZ)。

For carbon steels, the simultaneous presence of three factors listed below can result in a form of
cracking referred to as underbead, or delayed, cracking:
对于碳钢，如果下列三个因素同时存在，就可能会产生内部裂纹或延迟裂纹：

1. Presence of hydrogen in the HAZ

1. 在热影响区有氢存在
2. Residual Stress
2. 残余应力
3. HAZ hardness greater than Rockwell 30
3. 热影响区硬度大于 30 度（洛氏硬度）

Cracks---Hot Cracking
裂纹 — 热开裂

There are two broad categories of cracks, based on the stage in the welding cycle when cracking
occurs.
根据裂纹所产生的焊接阶段，裂纹可分为两大类。

Hot cracks typically occur in weld metal, at or near the time of solidification. In most cases, this
type of occurrence is more correctly described as a tear rather than a crack. As the weld metal
solidifies from the outer edges toward s the center, the metal is cooling and contracting.
Circumstances may develop to preclude the solidifying weld metal joining together in the center
of the weld.
热裂纹通常发生在焊接金属中，出现在凝固时或凝固前后。在大多数情况下，这种现象更
确切说应该是撕裂 而非裂纹。随着焊接金属从外部向中心凝固，金属不断冷却和收缩。周
围环境会逐渐阻碍凝固的焊接金属在焊缝的中心汇合在一起。

When the weld pool is deep and narrow (depth exceeding width) there is a risk of hot crack
development. In Figure 1.18, a throat crack, also known as a centerline crack, longitudinal
crack, or solidification crack is seen. The root crack may also develop from the same factors.
The crater crack or star crack derives from similar conditions. At the time of welding,
insufficient liquid metal was available, so the last metal of solidify was torn apart as cooling
proceeded.
当焊接池又深又窄时（深度超过宽度），就有可能形成热裂纹。在图 1.18 中，可以看到喉
部裂纹，也称为 中线裂纹、纵向裂纹 或凝固裂纹。同样的因素也会产生 根部裂纹。弧坑
裂纹 或星状裂纹 的产生条件也与此相似。在焊接时，可用的液态金属不足，当冷却继续
进行时，最后凝固的金属将被撕裂开。

36
There are other sources of hot cracks. Impurities in the weld metal may give rise to presence of
liquid films. These may impede joining of the solidifying weld metal along the weld centerline.
Sulphur or phosphorus in excess of 0.06% can cause cracking of this type, particularly if
manganese content of the weld metal is low.
其它原因也可能导致热裂纹。焊接金属中的杂质会导致液膜。这些液膜会阻碍凝固的焊接
金属沿着焊缝中线合拢。特别是在焊接金属中锰的含量较低的情况下，硫和磷的含量超过
0.06% 就会产生这种裂纹。

Figure 1.18 Cracks in Weld Metal

图 1.18 焊接金属中的裂纹

With certain steels, such as chrome-moly types, cracking based on liquid film presence may
occur during or following heat treatment. This is known as liquation or reheat cracking. It is for
this reason specifications frequently call for a further inspection, often with MT, for weldments
subjected to post-weld heat treatment. In addition to the sites mentioned above, liquid film
cracking may occur at the toes of welds.
对于某些钢，比如铬钼合金钢，在热处理中或热处理之后，会出现液膜引发的裂纹。这种
现象称为熔析开裂 或再加热开裂。正是由于这个原因，对于需要进行焊接后热处理的焊件，
规范中总是要求执行进一步的检验，通常需要使用 MT 检验方法。除了上面介绍的位置之
外，液膜裂纹 还可能发生在焊趾上。

37
 Hot cracks break the surface, and are detected by visual examination. Where cracks are
suspected, MT or PT will identify even the tight cracks. Crater cracks are caused by improper
weld termination technique, a matter that can be readily corrected by additional welder training.
The most common cause of throat cracking is restraint. Smaller weld beads, with added preheat if
required, will often overcome the problem. As already noted, weld pool width-to-depth ratio
should be greater than one.
热裂纹会撕开表面，因此可通过目测检验检测出来。如果怀疑有裂纹，可使用 MT 或 PT
方法，即使是很细小的裂纹也能检测出来。弧坑裂纹是由不正确的焊缝终止技术引起的，
只要通过焊工培训就能很容易地纠正这种操作错误。约束力产生喉部裂纹的最常见原因是
约束力。使用较小的焊珠，必要时再加上预热，通常就能解决这个问题。如前所述，焊接
池的宽深比应当大于 1。

Cracks----Cold Cracking
裂纹 — 冷开裂

Cold cracks typically develop at or near ambient temperature, certainly below the lower
transformation temperature (ambient). Cold cracks may be considered a metallurgical occurrence.
The principal factors generally involved when cold cracking occurs reduce to:
冷裂纹通常产生在环境温度下或接近环境温度时，当然是低于转变温度下限（环境）。可
以将冷裂纹看作是一种冶金现象。冷裂纹的发生通常受到以下主要因素的影响：

1. Weldability of the base metal

1. 母材的可焊性
2. Suitability of the weld procedure (WPS)
2. 焊接程序 (WPS) 的适用性

It should be noted that while in the case of certain hot cracks, welder skill might be involved;
with cold cracks welder skill is rarely a consideration. The problem stems from design or
supervision, or both.
应当注意，某些热裂纹与焊工技能有关，但冷裂纹基本不需要考虑焊工技能因素。问题主
要是由设计或管理，或这两个方面共同引起的。

Cold cracks may break the surface, such as with the transverse crack, as in Figure 1.19. However,
in general, cold cracks are subsurface and thus not readily detectable during visual inspection.
Rather, the welding inspectors principal activity with cold cracking is usually associated with
repair.
冷裂纹有可能撕开表面，比如横向裂纹，如图 1.19 所示。但是在一般情况下，冷裂纹发生
在表面以下，因此在目测检验中不易检测出来。焊接检验员处理冷裂纹的主要活动通常与
修补有关。

When cold cracking is detected, most codes require the crack site to be excavated, forming a boat-
shaped cavity, which ends over the full depth and of the crack. The length of the excavation is
typically required to extend beyond the identified limits of cracking by a certain amount.
在发现冷裂纹后，大多数规范要求挖空裂纹位置，形成船形空腔，此空腔要超出裂纹的整个
深度。通常要求此空腔的长度要足够大，超出裂纹两端一定的量。

38
 Figure 1.19 Weld and Base Metal Crack
图 1.19 焊缝和母材裂纹

Numerous types of cold cracks are reviewed in welding literature. Heat-affected zone cracks and
underbead cracks are just two of many types, which are described by their direction, by their
appearance, and at times by the position of their occurrence (see Figure 1.20). However, the common
factor is the stage at which cracks develop: at or below transformation temperature. (The temperature
at which certain micro structural changes occur.)
在焊接文献中，讨论了大量的冷裂纹类型。热影响区裂纹和内部裂纹只是其中的两种，这些
裂纹是按其方向、外观描述的，有时也根据其出现的位置来描述（参见图 1.20）。不过，最
常见的因素是形成裂纹的阶段：在转化温度下或低于转化温度时。（即发生某些微结构变化
时的温度。）

39
 Figure 1.20 Cold Cracks
图 1.20 冷裂纹

Another type of cold crack is delayed cracking------cracks that only develop some time after the
weldment cools to ambient temperature. Certain alloy steels, for instance, the quenched and tempered
steels ASTM A514 and A517, are prone to this problem. For this reason, many codes require
examination of such weldments after a delay of up to four days.
另一种类型的冷裂纹是延迟裂纹 — 只在焊件冷却到环境温度后的一段时间之后形成的裂纹。
某些合金钢，例如淬火并回火后的 ASTM A514 和 A517 钢就容易出现这个问题。因此，许多
规范要求最多可延迟四天的焊件检查。

Hydrogen is often involved in cold cracking, and for this reason welding of all alloy steels should
always be carried out with low-hydrogen consumables and using appropriate techniques in all
relevant areas. In particular, careful control of welding heat input and joint restraint are vital to crack
free welding.
冷裂纹常常与氢有关，因此在焊接所有合金钢时应始终使用低氢消耗品，并且在所有相关区
域使用适当的技术。要在焊接中不出现裂纹，精心控制焊接热输入和接头约束力尤其关键。

Incomplete Fusion
不完全熔合

Incomplete fusion is a significant welding problem; it has linearity and end condition. It develops
when molten weld metal flows over unmelted base metal or adjacent weld beads. Incomplete fusion is
found in one or more of the following locations:

40
不完全熔合是一个重大的焊接问题，它有着特殊的线性度和端头状态。当熔态焊接金属流到
未熔化的母材或相邻焊道上时，就会形成不完全熔合。不完全熔合一般出现在以下一个或多
个位置：

1. At the joint root, known as incomplete fusion

1. 在接头根部，称为不完全熔合
2. Between weld beads, known as incomplete inter-run fusion
2. 在焊道之间，称为道间不完全熔合
3. Between weld bead and weld groove, known as incomplete sidewall fusion
3. 在焊道和焊接槽之间，称为侧壁不完全熔合
4. Between weld metal and base metal, known as overroll or overlap
4. 在焊接金属和母材之间，称为过压 重叠或重叠

 Incomplete joint penetration or incomplete fusion is common with T-joints with both fillet and
groove welds adjacent to the root. Electrode size or improper manipulation or both are primary
causes. With incomplete joint penetration in groove welds, the cause is usually improper
electrode manipulation.
 接头未焊透 或不完全熔合 在 T 形接头中很常见，这种接头的角焊缝和坡口焊缝都与根部
相邻。产生的主要原因是焊条大小不当或操作不正确，或者同时受到这两个方面的影响。
对于坡口焊缝中的接头未焊透，产生原因通常是焊条操作不正确。

 Incomplete interrun fusion and incomplete sidewall fusion are shown in Figure 1.21. Again,
improper electrode manipulation is the primary cause. This may be exacerbated by improper
placement of weld beads. This restricts access and does not permit the arc to impinge upon and
melt all the base metal on which the weld pass is being made.
 道间不完全熔合 和侧壁不完全熔合 如图 1.21 所示。同样，不正确的焊条操作是其主要原
因。而焊道定位不正确会使程度加深。这样就阻碍了焊条接近，电弧无法冲击到和完全熔
化将要堆放焊道的母材。

Figure 1.21 Incomplete Fusion in various Locations

图 1.21 不同位置的不完全熔合

 Overlap results from molten weld metal flowing over unmelted base metal. This is potentially a
problem with all types of semi-automatic and automatic welding. When more molten filler metal
is available than can be contained within the area of molten base metal, overlap results. With this

41
 type of discontinuity, electrode manipulation and travel speed are the key factors. Unusual weld
profile shape often indicates that overlapping has occurred.
 重叠 是由熔态焊接金属流到未熔化的母材上而形成的。各种类型的半自动和自动焊接都可
能产生这个问题。当熔态焊料超出了熔态母材区域所能包含的容量时，就会发生重叠。对
于这种不连续性，焊条操作和行走速度是其形成的关键因素。异常的焊缝外形通常表明发
生了重叠。
Overlap occurs if molten weld metal flows out of the weld on to unmelted base metal. Overroll is
common in out-of-position groove and fillet welds. Overlap and overroll are the only types of
incomplete fusion that may normally be detected by visual examination. Other types of
incomplete fusion are usually found only by a subsurface examination such as RT or UT.
当熔态焊接金属流出焊缝，流到未熔化的母材上时，就会发生重叠。在位置异常的坡口焊
缝和角焊缝中，过压现象很常见。重叠和过压是仅有的两种一般可通过目测检测发现的不
完全熔合。其它类型的不完全熔合通常只能用表面下的检测方法（如 RT 或 UT）来检测。
However, even these techniques have only limited reliability as the orientation of the incomplete
fusion may be unfavorable for detection by radiography and the ultrasonic echo may be lost amid
other echoes. This is a particular problem with the examination of fillet welds for depth of
penetration.
然而，即使采用这些技术，其可靠性也是有限的，因为射线照相术可能不适合检测特定方
向的不完全融合，超声波回波可能会消失在其它回波中。这是检查角焊缝焊透深度时存在
的一个特殊问题。

In-process inspection of weld bead placement allows potential problem areas to be identified and
corrected, if necessary. The arc must be able to “see” and be closest to the area of the base
metal/weld metal that the next weld bead will occupy when deposited. The arc takes the shortest
path from the electrode to the weld area. An assessment should be made before weld run
placement. As mentioned, examination after the event is too late, even where a subsurface
examination is specified. Welder awareness and welder skill upgrading provide the best route to
avoidance of incomplete fusion. In-process welding inspection gives the best assurance of
minimizing incomplete fusion.
焊道放置的过程中检查可发现潜在的问题区域，并可在必要时加以纠正。电弧必须要能
“看到”在熔敷下一个焊道时将占用的母材/焊接金属区域，并与该区域保持最近。电弧
在焊条和焊接区域之间走最短的通路。在安排焊道之前应当先进行评估。如前所述，即使
规定了表面下的检测，但出现问题后再进行检查已为时太晚。强化焊工意识和提高焊工技
能是避免出现不完全熔合的最佳途径。.过程中焊接检验为最大程度地减少不完全熔合情况
提供了最佳保证。

Incomplete Joint Penetration

接头未焊透

Incomplete joint penetration results from utilizing an unsuitable welding procedure. Incomplete
(or inadequate) penetration is differentiated from incomplete fusion by this consideration. In other
terms incomplete fusion results from improper or inappropriate manipulation of the electrode and
is thus largely a welder-based problem. Incomplete penetration, on the other hand, stems either
from the use of a welding procedure unsuited to work in hand or from the nonobservance of key
provisions of an otherwise suitable welding procedure.
接头未焊透 是使用不合适的焊接程序造成的。从这个角度来看，未完全（或未充分）焊透
与不完全熔合不同。不完全熔合是由焊工不正确或不合适的焊条操作而造成的，主要与焊
工有关。另一方面，未焊透主要是因使用的焊接程序不适合该工作，或未遵守其它适合的
焊接程序中的关键规定所造成的。
Figure 1.22 shows the general form of the discontinuity. In some respects, it is similar to
incomplete fusion; but it may not have the same ability to concentrate stress. It is for this reason

42
that incomplete penetration is considered less serious. However, it should be pointed out that
most codes prohibit either discontinuity in any amount. End condition and linearity are always
determinants.
图 1.22 显示了这种不连续性的一般形式。在某些方面，它与不完全熔合很相似，但其应力
集中的程度不同。因此相对而言，我们认为未焊透情况的严重程度相对较低。但是，应当
指出大多数规范禁止出现上述两种情况下的任何程度的不连续性。端头状态和线性度始终
是其决定因素。

Figure 1.22 Incomplete Joint penetration

图 1.22 接头未焊透

In most fabrication work, incomplete penetration is readily detected by visual inspection. For
joints welded from both sides, incomplete penetration should be identified during back gouging.
在大多数制造作业中，未焊透很容易通过目测检验检测出来。对于从两侧焊接的接头，应
在焊根清理期间确定未焊透的情况。

A notable exception to this rule is where small-diameter pipe and tube work are concerned.
Unless it is possible to view the back of a joint, directly or by borescope, the discontinuity can
only be detected by a subsurface examination. However, in contrast to incomplete fusion,
incomplete penetration is usually readily decerned on radiographs and by UT echo. The
radiographic image is typically clearly defined with both edges sharp as seen in Figure 1.22.
此规则不适用于小直径的管材。如果不能直接或利用管道探测镜看到接头的背面，那么只
能通过表面下的检测方法来检测不连续性。不过与不完全熔合不同的是，未焊透一般可随
时通过射线照相和 UT 回波检测出来。如图 1.22 所示，射线照相的图像通常可清晰地显示
两个边缘。

43
In the case of small-diameter pipe and tube work, repair typically involves complete removal of
the weld. In the case3 of groove joints welded from both sides, the weld on one side must be
removed.
对于小直径管材，修补时一般要清除所有焊缝。对于从两侧焊接的坡口接头，必须清除一
侧的焊缝。

Repair of incomplete penetration where the back of the weld is accessible presents little problem.
Backgouging is the only preparation necessary, but its thoroughness should be checked by MT or
PT to insure that the discontinuity has been eliminated.
如果可以对焊缝背后进行操作，则对未焊透情况进行返修将不会有什么问题。唯一要做的
准备工作就是清理焊根，但焊根清理是否彻底要用 MT 或 PT 来检查，以便确保消除了不
连续性。

Solid Inclusions
固体杂质夹带

The term solid inclusion embraces a variety of solid matter trapped in the molten weld metal and
remaining within the solidified weld metal at the time of examination. Inclusions, with the latter
most common (see figure 1.23). Inclusions are considered to be less severe than the
discontinuities considered above. The end condition is rounded and the linearity is less
pronounced.
固体杂质夹带 指的是熔态焊接金属中夹带的、在检验时仍然滞留在凝固后的焊接金属中的
各种固体物质。如图 1.23 所示，后一种情况的杂质最为常见。夹带的严重程度不及上面讨
论的不连续情况。其端头得到圆化，线性度不太明显。

Figure 1.23 Slag Inclusions

图 1.23 焊渣杂质

With non-ferrous metals, oxide inclusions can present a problem area, while in the case of the
ferrous metals; oxide inclusions are not a significant factor. Iron and its alloys of steel melt at
temperatures considerably above the melting temperature of the main oxides of iron, namely
ferrous oxide and ferric oxide. It is this property that enables carbon and many alloy steels to be
cut by burning in the rapid oxidation of flame cutting.
对于有色金属，氧化物夹带是一个问题；而对于黑色金属，氧化物夹带并不是十分重要。
铁及其合金钢的熔化温度远远高于铁的主要氧化物（名为氧化亚铁和氧化铁）的熔化温度 。
正是由于这个特性，碳钢和许多合金钢才能使用剧烈氧化燃烧的火焰切割。

44
Apart from metallic objects deliberately placed within a weld, such as weld rod stubs and
sometimes spatter, the only significant metallic inclusions normally encountered in welding are
tungsten and, to some extent, copper. Tungsten droplets may leave the electrode in both gas
tungsten arc welding (GTAW) and plasma arc welding (PAW), and become embedded in the
weld metal. For reasons not well understood, tungsten inclusions do not appear to exercise any
significant effect on weld properties, even in instances of fatigue loading. Thus most codes allow
considerable latitude with this type of discontinuity. Similar remarks are generally applicable to
copper inclusions in welds.
除了特意放入焊缝中的金属物体（如焊条段或有时为飞溅物），焊接中遇到较多的金属杂
质通常为钨和铜（少量）。在钨电极惰性气体保护焊 (GTAW) 和等离子弧焊 (PAW) 中，
钨滴可能离开焊条嵌入到焊接金属中。钨杂质对焊缝性能没有任何明显影响，即使在疲劳
载荷中也是如此，其原因还不很清楚。因此，大多数规范对这种不连续性的要求非常宽松 。
上面的说明同样适用于焊缝中的铜杂质。

Slag is the term describing all types of non-metallic inclusions that occur in weld metal. Except
for surface inclusions, slag inclusions are only detectable by subsurface examination. Slag is
readily discernable on radiographs. Slag inclusions generally result from improper electrode
manipulation. Part of welder skill is confining slag to the rear of the weld pool as the slag rises
therein. Slag in front of the electrode can be trapped, becoming an inclusion. Slag inclusions may
also result from wide weaving.
焊渣 是指焊接金属中出现的各类非金属杂质。除了表面夹带外，焊渣杂质只能通过表面下
的检测方法来检测。焊渣可通过射线照相的方法方便地检测出来。焊渣夹带通常是因不正
确的焊条操作产生的。焊工技能中有一项要求就是在出现焊渣时要将其限制在焊接池的后
部。焊条前方的焊渣可能会被夹带在焊接金属中，从而形成杂质。焊渣夹带也可能在横向
摆动焊接时产生。

Another type of slag inclusion is “wagon tracks.” In making the weld root pass, sidewall
undercutting may occur. To achieve penetration, without excess, the rate of travel is increased.
The groove sides are melted, but insufficient metal is available to completely fill the groove. Slag
acts to cover any sidewall undercut. Even if thoroughly cleaned of slag, a type of incomplete
fusion will result during the next weld run, which leads to either slag entrapment or a void along
one or both sides of the weld, hence the term wagon tracks.
另一种类型的焊渣杂质为 “车辙”。在完成焊缝根部焊道时，可能发生侧壁咬边。要实现
焊透而不过量，就要加快行走速度。坡口两侧被熔化，但没有足够的金属来完全填满坡口 。
焊渣会覆盖在任何侧壁咬边上。即使彻底清除了焊渣，在执行下一个焊道时也会产生某种
类型的不完全熔合，这样会导致沿着焊缝的一侧或两侧形成焊渣包络或空隙，这种情况就
称为车辙。

Most codes permit a certain size and number of slag inclusions to remain un-repaired. As the
stress concentration ability is not great and the end conditions is usually rounded, many codes
consider slag more from the point view of section loss. Under such conditions, repair is only
mandated incases of gross excess, which often indicates a poor weld.
大多数规范允许存在一定大小和数量的焊渣夹带，不需要返修。由于焊渣的应力集中现象
不严重，端头通常为圆形，因此许多规范更多地从断面损失的角度来考虑焊渣。在这种情
况下，只有当总熔入过量时（通常说明焊缝质量差），才要求返修。

Gaseous Inclusions (Porosity)

气体夹带（气孔）

45
As discussed above, the molten weld pool dissolves and takes considerable amounts of gas into
solution. Most, if not all, of these gases come out of solution and are expelled into the atmosphere
as the weld metal cools. Gases remaining after solidification will form pores, wormholes or
piping (three basic types). These discontinuities are collectively known as porosity.
如上所述，熔态焊接池溶解和吸入大量气体。随着焊接金属的冷却，大多数气体（如果不
是全部的话）都会离开溶液，排入空气中。凝固后仍然残留下来的气体将形成气孔、虫状
气孔或管道（三种基本类型）。这些不连续性总称为气孔。

Fast freezing weld metal and incorrect or improper electrode manipulation are the primary cause
of porosity. At the instant a consumable electrode arc is struck, no shielding is available. Thus the
first metal deposited will contain pores, due to fast freezing. This dictates a particular method to
commence consumable electrode welding, the weld start technique. The arc should be struck
12mm downstream on the weld axis and quickly move to the intended starting position as the arc
stabilizes. At that point, normal welding should commence.
快速凝固焊接金属和不正确或不适当的焊条操作是产生气孔的主要原因。在消耗型焊条电
弧冲击的瞬间，焊缝处没有任何保护。因此最先熔敷的金属会因快速凝固而包含气孔。这
就要求焊工必须采用特定的方法来开始消耗型焊条的焊接，即 焊接开始技术。电弧应冲击
到沿焊缝轴线下游 12 毫米的地方，然后当电弧稳定后快速移动到预期的起始位置。此时，
可开始进行正常的焊接。

As the arc moves over the previously deposited (but porous) weld metal, it is remelted and the
entrapped gases are able to escape, along with such gases as are taken into the molten weld pool,
as is normal. If a bead is characterized by raised bumps at the stop-start positions, grinding the
cap off the bump will often reveal starting porosity.
当电弧移动到先前熔敷（但有气孔）的焊接金属时，此处再次熔化，其中夹带的气体可以
逸出，同时逸出的还有在正常焊接中带入熔态焊接池中的气体。如果焊道的开始和停止位
置有高出的凸起，则将凸起的顶部打磨掉后通常就能看到起始气孔。

Holding the face of the weld pool open and not allowing the slag to run over molten metal and
seal in the gases, greatly facilitates gas escape for the production of porosity free welds.
将焊接池的表面保持敞开状态，不允许焊渣在熔态金属上面流动，封入气体，可极大地有
利于气体逸出，以产生无气孔的焊件。

Porosity assumes a number of forms, and the occurrences are named for the appearance, most of
which are self-explanatory. Single or “isolated” pores, uniformly and non-uniformly scattered
porosity, starting porosity, linear or longitudinal porosity are examples. In addition there are what
may be termed special event porosity, porosity that arises from a specific cause. The most
common are pores caused by lack of cleanliness.
气孔表现出多种形式，每种情况都按外观来命名，大多数名称可直接说明其形态。例如，
单个和“孤立”的气孔、均匀和不均匀散布的气孔、起始气孔、线性或纵向气孔。此外，
还有些术语如特殊事件气孔，其是因特殊原因产生的。最常见的气孔是因不清洁而产生的。

Some scale remains on the line of welding. Arc heat melts and decomposes it into iron, oxygen
and water vapor (such oxides are usually hydrated). These gases plus those already present in the
weld pool are unable to escape as the weld pool solidifies, resulting in cluster porosity. Pores
may be elongated to some extent in the welding direction.
一些锈皮会留在焊接线上。电弧热可将其熔化并分解成铁、氧气和水蒸气（这些氧化物通
常是水合物）。这些气体加上焊接池中已经存在的气体无法在焊接池凝固时逸出，就会产
生集束气孔。这些气孔有可能沿焊接方向拉成细长状。

46
When the rate of gas escape is matched by the rate of solidification of the weld metal, elongated
pores result, sometimes known as wormholes or vermicular porosity. Such porosity may be as
shown in Figure 1.24. Alternatively, individual wormholes with tails may form. Another
possibility is a gas bubble moving linearly along the weld to form a longitudinal pipe.
当气体逸出速度和焊接金属的凝固速度相匹配时，就会出现细长的孔，有时称其为虫状气
孔或蠕虫状气孔。这些气孔如图 1.24 所示。另外，单独的虫状气孔会形成尾巴。还有一种
情况，当气泡沿着焊缝直线移动时，可形成纵向管道。

A vertical pipe, on the other hand, forms when molten metal in a subsequent weld pass is
deposited over weld metal having a pore, which is open to the surface. The air therein expands
and forces a path through the molten metal of later passes.
另一方面，当后面焊道中的熔态金属熔敷到有气孔的焊接金属上时（气孔在其表面敞开），
会形成垂直管道。其中的空气会膨胀，并在后面焊道中的熔态金属内冲开一条通道。

Figure 1.24 Porosity Types

图 1.24 密集气孔类型

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Shape discontinuities
形状不连续性

Shape refers to the weld profile (in cross section). The most significant feature of weld shape is
the angle between the base metal and the weld. As this angle increases, the stress concentration
increases.
形状 是指焊缝的（横截面）外形轮廓。焊缝形状的最重要特性是母材和焊缝之间的角度。
这个角度越大，应力集中就越严重。

Figure 1.25 illustrates the significance of the weld reinforcement angle with respect to load
carrying capacity of the joint operating in conditions of cyclic loading.
图 1.25 说明了当接头处在周期性载荷环境中时，焊缝加强角度对于其载荷能力的重要性。

Figure 1.25 Reinforcement Effect

图 1.25 加强高的影响

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The load capacity of fillet welds is based on the weld throat. In fatigue loading it is also a
function of the angle the weld makes with the base metal. For this reason specified limits of shape
are laid down in codes applicable to welding. The diagrams in Figure 1.26 show typical
requirements for both fillet and groove weld shape. It is possible to have more than one shape
discontinuity present in a single weld, for example, undercut and insufficient throat.
角焊缝的载荷能力决定于焊喉。在疲劳载荷中，承载能力也受到焊缝与母材之间的角度的
影响。因此，在针对焊接的规范中，规定了形状限制。图 1.26 中的图表显示了对角焊缝和
坡口焊缝形状的典型要求。在单个焊缝中，有可能出现多种形状不连续性，例如，咬边和
喉部厚度不足。

Figure 1.26 Examples of Under fill and Undercut

图 1.26 填充不足和咬边的范例

The diagrams in Figure 1.27 are from AWS D1.1, Structural Welding Code---Steel. The limits of
convexity C for fillet welds are shown bellow:
图 1.27 中的图表来自 AWS D1.1，结构焊接规范 — 钢 (Structural Welding Code---Steel)。
角焊缝凸面 C 的限制范围如下所示：

 8mm leg 1.6mm

 8 毫米焊脚 1.6 毫米

 8mm -  25.4mm 3.2mm

 8 毫米 -  25.4 毫米 3.2 毫米

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 and  25.4mm 4.8mm
以及  25.4 毫米 4.8 毫米

In the same code, the allowable weld reinforcement height R for but joints is 3.2mm, irrespective
of the thickness of members joined. Notice that size under-run is considered a shape
discontinuity.
在同一规范中，不论构件的厚度如何，对接接头的允许焊缝加强高 R 总是 3.2 毫米。请注
意，尺寸不足被认为是形状不连续性。

Shape discontinuities are associated with the manner in which welding is carried out. The
opposite of the excessive reinforcement reviewed above is under fill, which gives rise to
insufficient throat. In figure 1.26 there are examples of this discontinuity at both the face and the
root of a joint.
形状不连续性与焊接进行的方式有关。与上面讨论的加强过高相反的情况是 填充不足，所
形成的喉部厚度不够大。在图 1.26 中，在接头的表面和根部都存在这种不连续。

Remedial steps are simple, except in the case where preheating was specified for the original
welding. In all cases, restoration of under filled joints requires welding to be carried out using the
original welding procedure or a specific repair procedure. Weld examination and testing should
be as specified for the original welding.
除了在最初焊接时规定了预热的情况之外，其它的补救措施都很简单。在任何情况下，对
于填充不足的接头的修补，总是要求使用原焊接程序或特定的修补程序执行焊接。焊缝检
验和测试应当与原焊接中所规定的要求一致。

Possibly the most common shape discontinuity is undercut. As already discussed in connection
with sidewall difficulties, undercut results from the non-availability of sufficient metal to
completely fill the weld area melted by the arc heat.
最常见的形状不连续性可能是咬边。在前面讨论侧壁问题时已经提到，咬边是在没有足够
的焊接金属完全填满被电弧热熔化的金属区域时产生的现象。

50
Figure 1.27 Acceptable (Conforming) and Unacceptable (Non-Conforming) Weld Shapes (AWS
D1.1)
图 1.27 可接受（符合要求）和不可接受（不符合要求）的焊缝形状 (AWS D1.1)

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 Possibly the most common shape discontinuity is undercut. As already discussed in connection
with sidewall difficulties, undercut results from the non-availability of sufficient metal to
completely fill the weld area melted by the arc heat. Figure 1.26 shows the two usual forms of
undercut. While not a discontinuity that is entirely position sensitive, welds made in the
horizontal position is(not or) most vulnerable.
最常见的形状不连续性可能是咬边。在前面讨论侧壁问题时已经提到，咬边是在没有足够
的焊接金属完全填满被电弧热熔化的金属区域时产生的现象。图 1.26 显示了咬边的两种常
见形式。虽然没有哪种不连续性完全与位置相关，但在水平位置加工的焊缝最容易产生不
连续性。

An accompanying likelihood is that overlap----a type of incomplete fusion as mentioned earlier.

Liquid metal runs out of the weld pool and covers unmelted base metal. Notice in the diagram
Figure 1.27 the fillet weld. Overlap is present at the weld toe of the horizontal member, as shown
in Figure 1.27(c). This is not as readily evident as in the case of the groove joint. When undercut
is present at one toe of the weld, it is prudent to search the area of the other toe to ensure
overlapping or over rolling have not taken place.
与此相伴的另一个不连续性就是 重叠 — 如前所述，是一种不完全熔合。液态金属流出了
焊接池，覆盖在未熔化的母材上。请注意图 1.27 中的角焊缝。重叠出现在水平构件的焊趾
处，如图 1.27(c) 所示。这没有坡口接缝中表现得那么明显。当焊缝的一个焊趾上出现咬
边时，应检查另一个焊趾位置，看看是否出现重叠或过压。

Both Undercut and overlap are readily corrected. If shallow, that is, not of a depth in excess of the
base metal thickness tolerance, it can be ground out to a shallow dish. If depth exceeds the
thickness tolerance, undercut is repaired by welding. As with other corrective welding, it is to be
carried out using the original procedure (WPS). For deep, narrowing undercut, it may be
beneficial to grind the undercut channel to a more favorable shape for welding.
咬边和重叠都很容易纠正。如果很浅，其最深处还没有超出母材厚度公差，则可以将其打
磨成一个浅盘平面。如果最深处超出了厚度公差，可通过补焊来修补咬边。在执行其它补
焊时，应当使用原来的程序 (WPS)。对于很深很窄的咬边，最好将咬边沟槽打磨成更易于
焊接的形状。

Miscellaneous Discontinuities
其它不连续性

 Welding-Caused Discontinuities
 焊接引起的不连续性
Although welding involves both weld metal and base metal, there are distinct divisions between
the two when it comes to a series of miscellaneous discontinuities identified in connection with
weld fabrication. Spatter and arc strike, for instance, are clearly welding caused discontinuities.
Equally clear, Laminations and cold laps are material discontinuities. Welding and materials are
thus the basic divisions of this topic.
虽然焊接涉及到了焊接金属和母材，但当谈到一系列与焊缝加工相关的其它不连续时，这
两者就可以截然区分开。例如，飞溅物和弧击击完全是焊接引起的不连续性。同样很清楚，
分层结构和冷隔是材料不连续性。因此，这个主题可基本划分为焊接和材料两种情况。

Lamellar tearing, a combination of factors, represents yet a further type of discontinuity that does
not fall into any of the preceding categories. Without welding, it would not have developed. On
the other hand, there is no lamellar tearing can be avoided by welding control methods, taken in

52
isolation. Lamellar tearing will therefore be considered as a separate part of the topic under
review.
层状撕裂由多种因素决定，代表了另一种不连续性，无法归入前面的任一类别中。如果不
焊接，就不会形成层状撕裂。另一方面，如果单独来讲，任何焊接控制手段都无法避免层
状撕裂。因此，我们将层状撕裂作为一个单独的主题来讨论。

Spatter is a normal Accompaniment of the consumable electrode welding processes. Typically,

during transfer across the arc, not all the molten electrode stream is retained within the arc cone.
Metal droplets are thus deposited on the base metal outside the weld area. Provided the droplets
or spatter are small, such droplets will be removed during normal wire brush cleaning of welds.
However, if droplets of spatter exceed a specific size, relative to droplet volume and temperature,
sufficient superheat will exist to cause at least partial welding of the spatter to the job. Apart from
the difficulty of removal of such spatter, a situation analogous to arc strike (see below) may have
developed.
飞溅物 是消耗型焊条焊接过程中的一个普通伴随物。通常，在穿过电弧时，并非熔化的焊
条物流都能保留在电弧圆锥范围内。因此，金属熔滴会溅落到焊接区以外的母材上。如果
熔滴或飞溅物很小，可以在用普通钢丝刷清洁焊缝时将其清理掉。但是，相对于熔滴的量
和温度，如果飞溅物的熔滴超过了特定大小，随着熔滴量的增多和温度的升高，达到足够
的过热时就可能把飞溅物焊接到产品中，或者至少焊入一部分。除了难以清除飞溅物之外 ，
还会形成类似于弧击击（参见下图）的情况。

Apart from identification of the possible arc strike condition, spatter removal serves a number of
purposes. The composition of spatter is different (due to oxidization) from that of the base metal
upon which it falls. This can cause preferential corrosion. If the weld in the spatter area is to be
examined by UT, spatter will prevent good coupling with the work piece. If spatter remains on
work to be painted, it may be later dislodged, again with corrosion potential. Further, the spatter
may mask discontinuities when the area is examined. The ease, or difficulty of spatter removal is
often a guide as to the general weld quality.
清除飞溅物不仅有助于检查是否会出现弧击的情况，还有其它许多用途。飞溅物由于被氧
化，其成分与溅落处母材的成分不同。这可能会引起优先腐蚀。如果使用 UT 检验方法检
查飞溅物区域的焊缝，飞溅物会影响设备与工件间建立良好的耦合。如果飞溅物保留在准
备油漆的工件上，虽然以后可以去除，但也会引起腐蚀。而且，在检查这些区域时，飞溅
物还会隐藏不连续性。根据清除飞溅物的难易程度，通常可看出一般焊缝的质量。

Arc strike occurs when a live part of the welding circuit contacts the work piece 9in any area not
to be melted during welding. This typically, but not exclusively, arises from accidental contact
between electrode and work piece. The potential danger associated with arc strike comes from
possible consequences of the super-fast cooling rate experienced by the base metal at the point of
the arc strike.
在焊接时，当焊接电路的带电部分接触到工件上不熔化的任何区域时，会发生弧击。这通
常（并非一定）是由于焊条与工件之间的意外接触而产生的。与弧击相关的潜在危险是母
材在弧击位置经受到极快的冷却时所产生的后果。

Arc strikes are readily identified. Characteristics often include a small area of discoloration, with
some shallow gouging and usually evidencing a drop of weld metal (that has melted during the
occurrence) and often one or more gas pores. Potentially, micro cracking may have also occurred
as a result of accelerated cooling rate experienced by the area in question.
弧击很容易鉴别。其特征通常表现为一个小的变色区域，有一些浅浅的沟，一般还有一滴
焊接金属（在弧击发生期间已经熔化），经常有一个或多个气孔。当上述区域在经受加速
冷却后，有可能出现微裂纹。

53
The remedial operation consists of two stages:
修补操作可分成两个阶段：

1. The area containing the arc strike is ground out to produce a shallow dish, centered on
the arc strike.
1. 以弧击为中心将包含弧击的区域打磨成浅盘形。

2. The site of the arc strike is examined visually and tested. This means conducting either
MT or PT in the area. The aim of this test is to insure that no cracks remain in the area of
the arc strike.
2. 目测检查弧击的位置，并进行测试。即在该区域执行 MT 或 PT 检验。测试的目
的是确保在弧击区域不存在裂纹。

Base Metal-Caused Discontinuities

母材引起的不连续性

Metal plates and sections arriving from the supplier are normally inspected more for quantity than
for quality. For this reason, certain base discontinuities may only become evident during
fabrication, with laps and seams most commonly encountered. During the rolling process,
considerable movement of metal takes place and a lap may form. In certain circumstances, such
laps may become a seam. Both are evidenced as non-coherent junctions or separations between
otherwise sound metal. Laps and seams result from rolling practices.
对来自供应商提供的金属板材和型材的检查一般更注重数量而非质量。因此，只有在加工
期间，才会注意到某些基本的不连续性，最常遇见的是搭接 和接缝。在轧制过程中，金属
要进行大量的移动，因此会形成搭接。在某些情况下，这种搭会变成接缝。这两种情况都
被认为是金属之间的不连贯的连接或分离，没有它们其就会成为坚固的金属。搭接和接缝
产生于轧制操作。

The next base metal discontinuities to be considered concern lamination. There are two types of
lamination that are caused by failure to fuse during rolling or that caused by metal’s composition
or its processing.
下一个母材不连续性与分层有关。有两种分层结构类型，它们因轧制时的熔合失败而产生，
或者因金属的成分或加工而产生。

Considering only the latter, as shown in Figure 1.28, a lamination is a closed separation of metal
on a plane parallel with the plate, slab, or billet surface. Delamination occurs when a lamination
physically separates as shown.
如图 1.28 中所示的后一种情况所示，分层结构是指在平行于板材、板坯或钢坯表面的平面
上产生的封闭的金属分隔。当分层结构在物理上如图所示分离开时，就形成了分层。

54
 Figure 1.28 Lamination and Delamination
图 1.28 分层结构和分层

Manganese, an alloying element in steel, serves several functions. One is to combine with and neutralize
the effects of sulfur. Manganese sulfide, formed in this process, exists as high-melting temperature beads
within the metal. During rolling, these beads are flattened and dispersed with in the body of the metal.
However. If their number is great and they aggregate on a common plane, a lamination may result. The
risk increases as metal thickness increases. For joints at risk, UT scans readily identify such material. A
lamination scan should always precede a weld UT examination.
锰是钢的一种合金元素，它有几个功能。一个是与硫相结合并中和硫的影响。在此过程中形成的
硫化锰以高熔化温度的熔珠形式存在于金属中。在轧制期间 ，这些熔珠被压平并散布到金属体内。
但是当它们数量很多时，会聚积在一个共同的平面上，这样就形成了分层结构。当金属厚度越大
时，这种可能性也就越大。对于可能出现分层结构的接头，使用 UT 扫描可方便地进行检验。分
层结构扫描始终应在焊缝 UT 检查之前进行。

Figure 1.29 illustrates a discontinuity known as lamellar tearing. Shrinkage associated with cooling weld
metal causes lamination- prone steel to tear. Lamellar tearing presents a step-like, wood –grained
appearance when visually examined. In many instances, there is no external evidence of the presence of
lamellar tearing until failure under load takes place. As with other types of lamination, lamellar tearing is
readily identified by UT. Joints applying tension in the through-thickness direction are vulnerable. It is
thus prudent to take steps to avoid lamellar tearing when working with thick materials that are at most
risk. Corrective action often requires considerable rework or replacement of material. Some avenue for
design change exists with most corner joints.
图 1.29 说明了称为层状撕裂 的不连续性。与焊接金属的冷却相关的收缩会使易于分层的钢材撕裂。
在目测检查时，层状撕裂表现为台阶状、像木纹一样的外观。在许多情况下，层状撕裂的存在没
有任何外部征兆，直到在承受载荷失败时才会表现出来。和其它类型的分层结构一样，通过 UT
也可以很快地检测到层状撕裂情况。在贯穿厚度的方向上受力的接头很容易受到破坏。因此在处
理最有可能发生层状撕裂的厚材料时，应当采取措施避免出现这种现象。纠正措施通常需要大量
的返修工作，或者要更换材料。对于大多数角接接头来说，在某些情况下也可以更改设计。

55
Figure 1.29 Examples of Lamellar Tearing
图 1.29 层状撕裂的示例

56