Organizational

Crisis
Management
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Organizational
Crisis
Management
The Human Factor

Gerald Lewis

Boca Raton New York

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Published in 2006 by
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Organizational crisis management : the human factor / Gerald Lewis.
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Contents

1 Understanding the W ork Or ganization as a Social Milieu ....... 1

Technology: Our Love/Hate Relationship....................................................... 3
From Worker to Employee............................................................................... 4
The History of Management ............................................................................ 4
Organizational Culture...................................................................................... 6
Lord of the Flies: A Case Example of a Traumatized Culture...................... 9
Motivation and Morale ................................................................................... 10
Maslow at Work .............................................................................................. 12
Passive and Active Trauma ............................................................................ 16
Workplace Toxicity ......................................................................................... 17
Premorbid Conditions..................................................................................... 20
References........................................................................................................ 21

2 The Relationship between Or ganizational Cultur e and

Organizational Crisis Management (OCM) .............................. 23
Definitions of Business Disruption Incidents ............................................... 26
References........................................................................................................ 30

3 Incident Assessment: Pr oactive versus Reactive Measur es .... 31

Man-Made I (Single Perpetrator) ................................................................... 32
Man-Made II (Organized Group)................................................................... 33
Organizational Transition ............................................................................... 34
Factor 1: Locus of Impact .............................................................................. 40
Part of Building .......................................................................................... 41
Total Facility ............................................................................................... 41
Local/Regional Area ................................................................................... 42
Factor 2: Timing.............................................................................................. 43
Suddenness versus Warning...................................................................... 43
Factor 3: Duration........................................................................................... 43
Ongoing versus Contained........................................................................ 43
Factor 4: Impact on Operations .................................................................... 44
Factors 5 through 9: Damage and Injury ..................................................... 44

v
vi  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Factor 5: Damage to Premises .................................................................. 45

Factor 6: Damage to Reputation............................................................... 45
Factor 7: Injury and Death to Personnel ................................................. 45
Factor 8: Personal Property....................................................................... 45
Factor 9: Impact on and Damage to Social Structure ............................ 46
Factor 10: Concurrent Stressors ..................................................................... 46
The Human Impact Assessment Tool (HIAT) .............................................. 47
Points of Discussion: ................................................................................. 47
Shooting Incident with Three Dead and Four Wounded ........................... 49
Points of Discussion: ................................................................................. 51
Power Outage ................................................................................................. 51
Points of Discussion: ................................................................................. 53
Major Hurricane .............................................................................................. 53
Points of Discussion: ................................................................................. 55
References........................................................................................................ 55

4 Reactions to Crises, T raumas, Disasters, Catastr ophes .......... 57

Stress ................................................................................................................ 57
Beyond Stress .................................................................................................. 59
Depression....................................................................................................... 60
Anxiety and Panic Disorders ......................................................................... 61
Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) ......................................................... 62
“PTSD for Dummies” ...................................................................................... 71
Substance Abuse ............................................................................................. 73
Family Reactions ............................................................................................. 74
Critical Incident Stress .................................................................................... 74
References........................................................................................................ 75

5 The Lifespan of a Crisis, T rauma, Disaster , Catastr ophe ....... 77

Survival Phase (0 to 72 hours) ...................................................................... 78
Support ............................................................................................................ 79
Adjustment ....................................................................................................... 79
Resolution ........................................................................................................ 81
Re(dis)covery................................................................................................... 81
Groups of People Can Go through Stages and Phases .............................. 83
References........................................................................................................ 84

6 The Five “Rs” ............................................................................... 85

Contingency 1: Short-Term Release and Return .......................................... 85
Comprehensive Evacuation Plan .............................................................. 86
Contingency 2: Release and Short-Term Relocation
(e.g., power outage, weather, etc.) ............................................................... 86
The Need for Instant Communication .......................................................... 87
Contingency 3: Short-Term Relocation or Reassignment
to Alternative Work Site (e.g., fire, flood, etc.)............................................ 87
Contingency 4: Long-Term Reassignment or Non-Return
(e.g., major incident, facility closing, etc.) ................................................... 88
 Contents  vii

Contingency 5: Retaining at Work................................................................. 89

Real-Life Learning ........................................................................................... 91

7 Legal and Litigation Aspects of Crises, T raumas, and

Workplace Disruptions .............................................................. 93
Overview of Violence and Hostility in the Workplace ............................... 97
The Cost of Workplace Violence................................................................. 100
“Preventing?” Workplace Violence............................................................... 102
Displaced Domestic Violence ...................................................................... 104
A Comprehensive Job Description .............................................................. 105
References...................................................................................................... 109

8 Key Roles W ithin and Outside the Or ganization .................. 111

The SAFE-T Team ......................................................................................... 111
Management and Leadership ....................................................................... 112
Key Points ..................................................................................................... 115
Investigations and Passive Trauma......................................................... 115
To Policize… or Not to Policize… That Is the Question .................... 116
Saying You Are Sorry Is Acknowledging Suffering… Not Guilt ......... 116
References...................................................................................................... 118

9 Employee Services and Pr ograms .......................................... 119

Pre-incident Planning.................................................................................... 119
Policies, Protocols, and Plans ................................................................. 119
Employee Data ......................................................................................... 120
Emergency Wallet Cards .......................................................................... 121
Family Crisis Plans (FCPs)............................................................................ 122
Supervisory Training and Employee Education ......................................... 122
Evacuation Drills ........................................................................................... 123
Employee Services and Interventions ......................................................... 124
Comprehensive Employee Assistance Program (EAP).......................... 124
Be Sure That Your EAP Is a Right Fit for Your Company ....................... 125
Information Is the Lifeblood during a Crisis .............................................. 126
Media Management....................................................................................... 128
Crisis Intervention ......................................................................................... 130
Group Psychological Debriefings ................................................................ 131
Historical Event Reconstruction Debriefing (HERD)............................. 131
Psychological Debriefings........................................................................ 131
Family Services ......................................................................................... 138
On-Site Wellness and Stress Management Programs ............................ 142
External Resources and Alternative Health Services............................. 143
Employee Feedback...................................................................................... 143
Administrative Visibility ................................................................................ 144
Keep Your Head above Water (I Mean “de Nile”) Take the Time.......... 144
The Utilization of Consultants ..................................................................... 145
References...................................................................................................... 148
viii  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Appendices
A Workbook .................................................................................. 149
Organizational Culture Assessment ............................................................. 150
Human Factor Impact................................................................................... 159
Brief Business Impact Analysis .................................................................... 165

B Assessment of Or ganization and Or ganizational

Continuity Plan ......................................................................... 167
1. Assess Your Organization’s Continuity Planning Committee ............... 167
2. Assess Your Workplace Culture .............................................................. 169
3. Assessment of Pre-impact Preparedness ................................................ 172
4. Brief Business Impact Analysis ............................................................... 174
5. Human Factor Assessment ...................................................................... 174
6. Interventions ............................................................................................. 177
Index .................................................................................................. 179
Preface

It has been more than eleven years since writing my first book, Critical
Incident Stress and Trauma in the Workplace, and about seven since co-
authoring Workplace Violence: Myth and Reality with Dr. Nancy Zare.
Since then, we have seen many dramatic events, some of them earth
shattering as well as heart breaking. To note a few: terrorism in the form
of the Murrah Building, the Atlanta Olympic bomb, and 9/11; infrastructure
problems such as mass power outages and Y2K; natural disasters in the
form of hurricanes and earthquakes; and organizational crises such as the
Enron debacle, as well as the shift in the economy that has resulted in
the “dot.com” boom going to the “dot.gone” exodus. While homicide in
the workplace has actually diminished significantly, we continue to bear
witness to incidents such as Edgewater Technologies. Schools, often
thought of as a safe haven, have continued to experience mass murder
in libraries and classrooms.
As a country, we are in the midst of a significant transmutation in the
culture: a presidential impeachment; a presidential election whose legality
was questioned; a “preemptive” war. New terms such as “detainees,”
“Gitmo,” “weapons of mass destruction,” “IEDs,” “Homeland Security,”
and “the 9/11 Commission” have become common in the lexicon. New
practices such as taking off shoes at airports and removing computers
from cases are experienced as little more than inconveniences. Issues such
as gay marriage, illegal immigrants, and abortion continue to remain a
staple of intense political and social discussion. The country has polarized
politically as well as religiously in a way that has not been experienced
in quite some time.
Yet, work organizations carry on in an economy that is also going
through a significant modification. During the past ten years we have seen
the Dow Jones go as high as 11,000 and then drop after 9/11… to rise
again like the phoenix. Gas has reached its highest price in the history

ix
x  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

of this country. Work organizations continue to experience a myriad of

tumultuous shifts and changes demonstrated by major downsizing, reor-
ganizations, mergers and acquisitions, and closings. Outsourcing to foreign
countries has continued to decimate the ranks of many work organizations.
Government policies and policing have resulted in a significant amount
of work for certain groups.
We are also seeing the maturation of a new field — that of busi-
ness/organizational continuity and a new professional identity — that goes
by many different labels. For the purpose of this book, I call it the
“organizational continuity planner.” The field, while perhaps not in its
infancy, remains in its adolescence as it struggles to make sense of a new
world, new crises, and the greater need for compliance. While certain
work settings might be more focused on one aspect of information
continuity and disaster management, others look at security and workflow
continuation. From IT offices to educational institutions, from healthcare
settings to financial organizations, from the public to the private sector,
all must focus on how to maintain operations in the face of a wide range
of disruptions. People have arrived at these positions from a wide scope
of professions. Some took the road from information technology (IT),
while others came the way of security. Some journeyed through Human
Resources while others were drawn from Operations or Finance. Currently,
the field is an amalgamation of professions with a tendency to have a
myopic focus dependent on their specific training as well as the unique
concerns of their work organization. Yet they all have one common goal:
how to keep operations moving regardless of whether it is a hospital or
a school, a financial or factory setting, or a local or national company.
I also have taken a journey. Since the 1980s and 1990s, I have probably
provided more than 500 critical incident or trauma debriefings and other
interventions to a wide range of work settings. However, I discovered
that this was not enough. Often providing a debriefing was a positive
experience for the participants, but the organization needed more. I would
find myself sitting with management, discussing strategies for them to
continue to help their workforce after a significant event. In addition, the
management would express its own issues and reactions; and while we
were calling it “consultation,” it was often a “debriefing” of that level of
personnel. What struck me was that many well-meaning people were
quite often stuck not knowing what to do or how to do it. It also became
obvious that any intervention that took place in the first week or so after
an event did not do much for the reactions that were to emerge three to
four months later. In addition, while individuals may need one type of
intervention, the total organization as a system requires yet a different
level of service. What I also witnessed was the level of confusion and
chaos that often ensued as a result of little to no planning. While major
 Preface  xi

efforts may have been made to develop prevention and mitigation strat-
egies for the IT systems, or huge amounts of monies spent on hard
security, little had been done to consider the impact on personnel. What
became obvious in short order was what I describe as: “an organization
can get its phone lines back up and have its computers backed up …
but its workers may still be screwed up.”
This book is the culmination of what I have learned in working with
people in employment settings who have received “on-the-job training”
in crisis management. These are people and work organizations that have
experienced tragedy, trauma, and the ensuing turmoil. I have peppered
this book with references, research, and documentation, but it is intended
to be more of a “nuts-and-bolts” effort that the reader can immediately
apply to his or her work setting.
In addition, I must take a moment to comment on one of the major
pathways that opened up for me on this journey, one that was truly the
inspiration for writing this book. A couple of years ago, I was approached
by Boston University (BU). At the time, the university was in the planning
stages of developing an online graduate program in Emergency Manage-
ment and Organizational Continuity. I was invited to develop the course
that became The Social and Psychological Elements of Workplace Disrup-
tion. Since then, I was appointed the Faculty Coordinator for the program,
which soon will move from a four-course certificate program to a master’s
level degree program. Two important comments must be made: (1) BU,
a highly respected educational institution saw the “writing on the wall”
in terms of the need for this kind of education; and (2) BU was willing
to devote an entire course to the “human factor.”
I would like to dedicate this to all those people who have shared with
me their experiences, taught me significant lessons, and allowed me the
opportunity to share this with others. In addition, I would like to include
all of those students who have chosen to devote personal and professional
resources to pursuing this as an academic career and from whom I
continue to learn a great deal.

Gerald Lewis, Ph.D.

Introduction

This book intends to provide both theoretical background as well as

practical strategies for responding to workplace crises. While many pro-
fessionals are quite competent when dealing with operational aspects of
organizational continuity, often the “human factor” does not receive ade-
quate attention. This book provides a comprehensive understanding of
the ubiquitous yet complex reactions of the workforce to a wide array of
organizational disruptions.
The focus of Chapters 1 and 2 is on understanding the rapid historical
changes that have recently taken place and the current state of the
workplace milieu. These chapters introduce the reader to the necessity of
understanding the workplace culture, the industry-specific dynamics of
different work settings, the fragility of employee motivation and morale,
and the toxicity that occurs in any employment setting as well as the
dramatic impact of crises on all of the aforementioned variables.
While most business contingency plans focus on operations, Chapter
3 provides a methodology to assess the potential impact of dif ferent
categories of crises on the workforce. In addition, this chapter begins to
delve into some pre-incident mitigation strategies.
Chapters 4 and 5 explore the psychological reactions of individuals as
well as groups who have experienced a wide range of personal and
professional crises. The content also describes the stages and phases
through which individuals, families, communities, and workgr oups
traverse, often taking up to two to three years to reach a stable resolution.
Once again, efforts are made to impart pre-incident policies and plans as
well as post-incident services and interventions.
Chapter 6 investigates the impact of the “Five Rs”: Remaining at home;
Retaining at work (sheltering in place); Releasing to home or a shelter;
Relocating to a new facility; Retur ning to a previous workplace. Be it

xiii
xiv  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

a natural disaster, a power outage, downsizing, or terrorism, an organiza-

tion may be forced to displace workers, which results in a major disruption.
This chapter describes some pre- and post-transition strategies.
Chapter 7 looks at the legal and security aspects of workplace disrup-
tion. Events ranging from workplace violence to sexual harassment, from
layoffs to litigation, are discussed from a legal and security perspective.
Chapter 8 details specific services, programs, and interventions that
should be in place prior to any event. In addition, guidelines are set forth
for working with the media, emergency management agencies, and behav-
ioral health services.
The Workbook appendices provide the capstone of the book. Appendix
A provides a nuts-and-bolts application to a number of different scenarios.
It is designed to replicate a tabletop exercise or simulation, allowing the
reader or a team to walk through an evaluation process, assess the human
factor impact, and then derive strategies and services to implement.
Appendix B asks the reader to do an assessment of his or her own work
organization culture as well as the Organizational Continuity Team and
plan(s).
About the Author

Gerald Lewis, Ph.D., is an international organizational consultant and

trainer who has worked with government agencies, healthcare facilities,
educational settings, and private businesses on a wide range of work,
behavioral health, and organizational issues.
He has authored numerous articles and two books: Critical Incident
Stress and Trauma in the Workplace (1994) and Workplace Hostility: Myth
& Reality (co-author, 1998). In addition, he contributed the chapter entitled
“Violence at Work: Causes and Protection” in Psychopathology in the
Workplace: Recognition and Adaptation, edited by J. Thomas and M.
Hersen (2004).
He is an Assistant Adjunct Professor and serves as the Faculty Coor-
dinator of the Emergency Management and Organizational Continuity
Program at Boston University and teaches one of its courses, “The Social
and Psychological Impact of Workplace Disruption.”
He provides litigation consultation and expert testimony involving
workplace issues in the areas of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD),
sexual harassment, workplace violence, fitness for duty, negligent retention/
termination, Americans with Disabilities, malpractice, depression, drug and
alcohol issues, etc.

xv
Chapter 1

Understanding the
Work Organization
as a Social Milieu

Take a look at the changes that have taken place in the American
workplace and workforce over the past several decades. As described in
A Nation at Work by Schaffner and Van Horn: “Compared with three or
four decades ago, the U.S. workforce is composed of more women, more
minorities, more immigrants, more non-union workers, more service work-
ers, and more educated workers.”1 Specifically:

 The proportion of women at work grew from 32 percent in 1948

to more than 60 percent in 2000.
 In 1960, foreign-born workers comprised about 6 percent of the
workforce and now make up about 13 percent, and this percentage
continues to increase.
 The hallmark of U.S. productivity, manufacturing of all types of
products, has dropped to about 13 percent of all jobs.
 Further, U.S. workers are logging in more hours on the job than
any other Western industrialized nation while receiving fewer ben-
efits than their predecessors received.
 In 1950, six out of ten workers were considered unskilled. Now
that trend has reversed, with the majority of workers being more
highly educated. In fact, it is now estimated that 25 percent of all
jobs require at least an associates degree, and this is expected to
jump to 40 percent by 2008.
1
2  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

 In 1954, 35 percent of workers were employed in union positions

whereas in 2000, those numbers had dropped to about 13 percent.
 Finally, the American worker is older. For the first time in docu-
mented history, there will be more workers over the age of 40
than under the age of 40 as the baby boomer generation ages.

In 1956, William Whyte of Fortune magazine described the “Organi-

zation Man.”2 He (there really were no organizational women in 1960)
was well known in the American community as the abundance of veterans
returning from World War II and Korea blithely traded their military
uniforms for work uniforms, be it a tie and jacket or a set of boots and
overalls. They would return to their hometown, find employment, a wife,
and a home relatively close to where they had grown up. They would
go to their place of employment and hopefully rise within its ranks while
devoting years of service to the company. There was an unwritten contract
that defined the relationship between worker and workplace: you remain
loyal to the organization, and the organization will take care of you and
your family. Workdays usually were delineated by clear boundaries. People
would report to a specific place at a specific time and do a specific job
reporting to a specific boss. At the end of the day, they would return to
their homes, leaving their work at the office or factory and settle in for
a night of personal priority. In general, they would work with the same
group of individuals for some time before moving to another location or
position. When they reached the designated age of retirement, they would
leave with benefits that acknowledged their years of service. The TV
sitcoms of the 1950s through 1970s, as characterized by shows such as
My Three Sons, Leave It to Beaver, and Father Knows Best, were populated
by these men. While this description may seem a bit too simplistic and
perhaps naive, it was the environment in which many of today’s current
workforce grew up.
This is quite a change from the current baby boomer employee of
today who, on average, will work for seven different companies during
her 40+ years of employment. She may work from her home or be in a
group that is constantly shifting and transforming. The hierarchical loyalty
to the organization has been replaced by a sense of mutual commitment
to a time-limited contract or task-oriented project. Rather than building
cars, workers are providing service and information in cubicles that tend
to isolate them from others. The water cooler, cafeteria, or lunchroom has
been replaced with eating at one’s desk, running personal errands, or
perhaps going to the in-house gym. People’s bosses may be in an office
down the hall or just as likely may be in an office across the country.
This author consulted with numerous individuals who have never met
their boss directly, but speak by phone or communicate via e-mail instead.
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  3

Whereas the organization man of old was hired by his boss and, in
fact, was often known to his new boss because they had worked in the
same organization for numerous years, today’s worker may have entered
the company via a placement agency, Human Resources department, or
head hunter with limited direct input from her immediate supervisor.

Technology: Our Love/Hate Relationship

The rapid influx of technology has blurred what was the concrete bound-
ary of the workplace. Cell phones, pagers, computers, PDAs, W i-Fi
modems, fax machines, Webcams, and conference calls have facilitated
the development of virtual offices. People can work from anywhere
(including coffee shops, airports, and hotels) at any time with anyone in
any place in the world. Most of the message slips from secretaries have
been replaced by direct e-mails. Numerous people have told this author
that it is easier to check e-mail while on vacation than be overwhelmed
by the hundreds of messages waiting for them upon their return to work.
For many in service and sales, the need to be in constant touch with the
office has become the rule, not the exception, thus creating a blurred
boundary that keeps the individual “on call” most of the time. Restaurants,
movie theaters, museums, and other public places have established pol-
icies requesting that individuals refrain from using their phones and pagers.
Most every conference or workshop now is initiated by a request that
people put their phones on vibrate so as not to disrupt the program.
Complaints from family members that “she is always on the phone” or
“he is always working” have become a very common component of the
modern American family. It must be noted that technology is certainly
not all bad and has, in fact, provided a greater degree of freedom by
allowing people to telecommute or do their business directly and with
greater speed. I can remember when I was the Chief Psychologist at a
hospital and carried a pager (the old fashion kind). If I were driving in
my car and the pager went off, I would have to pull off the road to find
a pay phone, call the service to receive the message, then find enough
change to call the individual who had paged me, and I would conduct
my business from a public payphone. Now my phone is my paging system,
and I can receive a text message from the service, return the call, and
never let go of the steering wheel.
While technology has increased the ability to communicate, one might
question whether it has increased or diminished the capacity to connect
with co-workers in the workplace. It is through feeling this connection that
we derive our sense of team, community, attachment, and belonging —
all essential aspects of what humans need to feel: valued, respected, and
acknowledged. It is these core social and emotional elements that lubricate
4  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

human beings and keep them going in times of difficulty, be it a personal,

professional, or even a national crisis.

From Worker to Employee

While in many respects the conditions of employees have changed dra-
matically in recent years, these changes have generated a complex and
dynamic relationship between employer and employee.
The aforementioned “organizational man” has only been a very recent
development in human history. For thousands of years, workers were
considered little more than a discardable commodity. From slavery to
sweatshops, farms to factories, indentured servitude to in-house servants,
the worker was never a highly valued component in the workplace.
Working long hours in often-unbearable conditions, being paid a mere
pittance, the workers struggled with none of the benefits that are now
considered commonplace. They would struggle to maintain their job
despite these adversities because they understood the contract: “If you
don’t or can’t work, we will find someone else to fill your position. Do
not complain even in the face of discrimination, sexual harassment,
violence, and intolerable working conditions.” And for hundreds of gen-
erations throughout the world, this was standard. For a relatively short
duration in human experience, there was a dramatic shift that began
around the turn of the 20th century. Labor unions, civil rights legislation,
employment policies, psychology, two world wars, and governmental
intervention came together in a dramatic confluence that resulted in a
shift that the workplace had not seen in modern work history. Workers
became employees, personnel, staff, teams, signaling the acknowledgment
that the people in the workplace were not a disposable commodity, but
rather an essential element of the workplace. The new paradigm was that
employees should be developed, nurtured, and cultivated. Employees
should receive salaries and benefits. Vacation, sick leave, disability,
bonuses, pension plans, and health insurance became common staples in
the American workplace. Jobs should become careers or professions. A
personal covenant between worker and workplace developed. Most of us
grew up in this work environment, and we do not realize that this change
was hard fought (often including violence) yet extremely rapid when
viewed from a long-term perspective.

The History of Management

Along with this recent change came the study of organizational behavior,
defined as “the study of human behavior, attitudes, and performance within
an organizational setting; drawing on theory, methods, and principles from
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  5

such disciplines as psychology, sociology, and cultural anthropology to

learn about individual, group, structure, and processes.”3
While owners and masters, chiefs and leaders, bosses and foremen
have been around for millennia, the concepts of organizations, systems,
administrators, managers, and supervisors are relatively new. The notion
that human behavior at work should be studied, and that management
should have principles and theories, developed a little more than 100
years ago. (It is probably no coincidence that this concurred with the
beginning works of Freud, Jung, and other pioneers in the study of human
psychology.) During the mid-1800s when this country was fully ensconced
in the industrial revolution, the need to look at improving how people
worked was becoming more critical. In 1881, Joseph Wharton gifted
$100,000 to the University of Pennsylvania to study management. In 1886,
Frederick Taylor presented a paper entitled “The Engineer as an Econo-
mist,” in which he expressed his thoughts on “scientific management.”4
Regarded by many as the father of present-day management, he developed
four critical principles, roughly summarized as:

1. Develop a science for each element of an employee’s work.

2. Train, teach, and develop the worker.
3. Management and the worker should cooperate.
4. Develop a sense of equality between management and labor in
division of responsibility for the work.

More than 100 years later, these remain viable concepts for modern-day
managers.
In the early 1900s, Henri Fayol, a French industrialist, presented the
idea that management could be learned and taught and that colleges
should begin to offer courses in such knowledge.5
These individuals, among others, began the shift in understanding and
knowledge that developing skills in managing the workforce could prove
a viable strength and might lead to a greater level of productivity. Now
this might seem pretty straightforward, but at the time it was a provocative
concept. Further, this notion would lead to the development of concepts
such as organizational behavior, organizational development, work culture,
cross training, and the works of individuals such as Deming, Covey,
Blanchard, etc. More recently, in Workplace Psychopathology (2004), Jon
Frew writes of the work done by Hunsaker and Alessandra in 1986: “The
art of managing others is a dynamic process that is ever changing and
evolving. Many of the managerial concepts proposed only a few years
ago cannot and will not work in today’s envir onment. People have
changed. Government has changed. The world has changed.” Frew continues
on to say: “Into the 1980s and 1990s, the fundamental fabric of the
6  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

management role has been torn away. Managers who were once expected
to command, control, and persuade others to engage in activities they
would not do if not closely watched were now required to be leaders,
to be forward thinking, to have people skills, and to build self-managed
teams.”6 What factors came to coordinate for this rapid change in the
workplace would take too much time to discuss in this book. However,
to label a few, technology, the change from manufacturing to service and
information, the baby boomer generation with its sense of empowerment
(or perhaps, entitlement) that grew from the 1960s, civil rights, and
diversity in the workplace are some of the major influences.
The old adage in politics states that “all politics is local.” Well, in a
similar way, all productivity is the individual. With an increasingly diverse
workforce, understanding the individual characteristics of workers, how
to motivate them, how to maintain a level of satisfaction, and how to
mitigate the build-up of stress and strain in the individual and within the
group has become an essential task. As many supervisors acknowledge,
90 percent of the time is spent managing 10 percent of the workforce. In
times of crisis and tragedy, the ability to manage a traumatized or anxious
workgroup may be overwhelming for any level of management.

Organizational Culture
To understand a workgroup or any group of people, it is necessary to
understand the culture. Most of us live in numerous cultures at one time.
We may be brought up in a family culture, that is part of a community
culture, which is part of a regional culture, and is within a national culture.
We have gender cultures and we might belong to a religious group and
go to work in an office, factory, retail, healthcare, or governmental setting
— each with its own type of culture. We might have children who bring
yet another culture to us. We might belong to sports teams or activity
groups, each with its own culture. Most are able to find a way to manage
the multitude of cultures in which they find themselves. They can modify
their identity and behaviors as they transition from one culture to the
other. It is when cultures clash that the individual feels caught in a bind.
Let us look at cultures because nothing can potentially generate change
to a culture more than a crisis.
The word “culture” derives from the term “cultivate”: to grow, nurture,
care for. The development of a culture is an amazingly complex and ever-
changing process. Whenever groups of people come together, basic values,
attitudes, behaviors, and expectations develop that tend to exert an
influence on the individuals who compose the group. Be it a tribal village
in Africa, a cellblock in a prison, a fraternity on a college campus, or a
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  7

department within a work organization, the inborn tendency is to develop

a culture. Cultural differences can be described using four terms: symbols,
heroes, rituals, and values. Symbols are language, gestures, or artifacts
that are unique to the culture and are imbued with special meaning.
Examples are eagles and flags, crucifixes, and stars. Heroes “are persons
alive or dead, real or imaginary, who possess characteristics which are
highly prized in the culture and become a model for behavior.”7 Examples
are Jesus and Moses, George Washington and Martin Luther King. Rituals
are “collective activities that are technically superfluous, but which within
the culture are considered socially essential.”8 Examples are holidays,
handshakes, religious ceremonies, parades, etc. There is usually a docu-
ment or body of verbal stories that delineate the cultural norms. Examples
are the Bible, Koran, Constitution, and the Bill of Rights — or pledges,
corporate mission statements, etc., or myths, stories, or legends. These
documents or stories have been passed down through the ages, having
been studied, interpreted, and revered from generation to generation.
They are usually looked toward at times of turmoil and unrest as a way
of assuaging apprehension and anxiety among the group.
The bottom line of any culture is that it establishes norms and thus a
sense of identity and stability. The balance between fluidity and rigidity
in a culture is a constant dynamic. Systems that tend to be more fluid
may be better able to respond to external changes, new information, and
tend to incorporate components of other cultures as they evolve. The
“downside” to a culture characterized as fluid is that there may be a
tendency toward an individualistic orientation that might result in difficulty
for the group to respond cohesively to an overwhelming crisis. A system
that is considered more rigid has a difficult time incorporating new realities
or evidence that calls into question some of the basic tenets of the culture.
Within these cultures, there is a tendency to adhere to the norms, even
in the face of evidence that may be contradictory. For example, several
hundred years ago, it was the cultural norm to believe that the earth was
the center of the universe and to say otherwise was heresy, punishable
by death. Galileo, the father of astronomy, was punished severely for
preaching that the sun rather than the earth was the center of the solar
system, a concept that we now take for granted. It took years of repeated
scientific evidence to shift the paradigm to that of a solar-centric system.
In a similar manner, for hundreds of years, this country’s culture held that
African Americans were less than equal and it was (and still is, in some
places) the norm to discriminate against them. Speaking in generalities,
a scientific or academic culture may tend to be more fluid, seeking out
new data and incorporating new findings into its theories and beliefs.
Religious and military cultures tend to be more closed and rigid, often
struggling with and fighting against new information, be it technological
8  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

or trendy. Fluid systems tend to be more oriented toward the individual

while rigid systems promote the group. Rigid systems tend to foster a
sense of belonging to a larger group identity, which may be comforting
at times of severe crisis, yet also fostering a sense of dependency and an
expectation of adherence to the rules of the culture. Fluid systems work
better at times of smooth sailing, allowing for a greater tolerance of
individual differences and creativity. A culture creates a sense of stability
and identity for members within the group and facilitates strategies to
manage the turmoil and travails of a group.
Taking this a bit deeper, norms and values are established by a culture
and are its basic building blocks. Values can be defined as “the conscious
affective desires or wants of people that guide behavior…. Values are a
group’s ideas about what is right or wrong…. Values are passed down
from one generation to the next and are communicated through education
systems, religion, families, communication and organizations.” Be it a
country, a workplace, or an army, “cultures sustain people throughout
periods of difficulty and serve to ward off anxiety.”9 Further, with respect
to the workplace, “organizations are able to operate efficiently only when
shared values exist among the employees.”10
As indicated previously, cultures are always responding to internal and
external events and therefore are in a constant state of evolution. Be it a
family or a nation, a workplace or religious group, crises and tragedies
often provide a compelling stimulus for changes in a culture and its norms
and values. The question then arises: does organizational culture evolve
on its own on an unconscious level, or can it be influenced or actively
changed? As reported by Ivancevich and Matteson, typically there are five
steps to influencing a cultural shift: (1) get people to change their behavior;
(2) by helping them to understand the value of the change in behavior;
(3) through communication about changes via a number of modalities,
including rewarding those who comply with the changes; (4) as new
people enter the system, they do so with the new behaviors in place; (5)
while removing old members who are unwilling or unable to comply with
the new behavioral expectations.11 Fortunately or unfortunately, we wit-
ness this all the time in government and in the workplace. While this
book is being edited, we are seeing it in our own country as the cabinet
members of one administration are resigning and being replaced by new
people who are culturally more akin to the president’s desired cultural norms.
Nothing can impact a culture quite like a crisis. It is essential to
understand the pre-crisis culture of any type of organization. By doing
so, one may be able to formulate some pre-incident strategies to mitigate
the impact. However, often an organization continues blithely along until
it comes to an incident and then (over)reacts to the situation out of haste
and anxiety.
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  9

Lord of the Flies: A Case Example

of a Traumatized Culture
A well-known and notable work of literature that describes the evolution
of a culture among young boys marooned on an island was the book
(and later a movie), Lord of the Flies.12 While the book covered many
provocative aspects of human behavior, one perspective was about the
desire for, the war between, and the pressure to live within a culture that
had been impacted by tragedy. Cultures are defined as “[a] pattern of
basic assumptions — invented, discovered, or developed by a given group
as it learns to cope with problems of external adaptation and internal
integration.”13 If tolerated, the internal integration process within a culture
may allow for the establishment of different groups within the organization,
as seen in religious practices, different political parties, etc. Or, in a more
rigid system, the organization may be void of obvious variations, as in
totalitarian regimes and fundamental religious groups. At times, the internal
integration process may reach dramatic proportions, resulting in open
struggle such as civil war, governmental coups, or “hostile takeovers” as
one internal culture attempts to dominate another.
I would recommend to the reader renting the recent movie version of
Lord of the Flies and watching the group as they struggle to maintain the
old values of their culture, while they face fear of terrorism (the “monster
in the cave”), abandonment by their government, splitting between fac-
tions, and new norms, values, rituals, heroes, and myths. What is Jack’s
role? Piggy’s? Ralph’s? What do the youngins’ represent? What about the
conch? The fire? The monster? Living in America since 9/11, does this
have any familiarity to it? As this book is being written, one of the top
TV shows in America is the series Lost; a modern-day Lord of the Flies.
Once again, a group of people is marooned on an island after a plane
crash with all of the attendant dynamics and personal issues, including
an unseen monster in the bush, the hope for rescue, and the development
of factions. Taking this concept a bit further, the success of the TV series
Survivor is yet another example of crises, challenges, and the impact on
the evolving culture of the tribes and the members. One could spend
much time looking at the tribe-versus-tribe dynamic, the names and colors
of each tribe, the loss of members, the infighting between members, the
merging of tribes, the rituals such as the tribal counsel, etc., and the loss
of members as they are voted out. It is no wonder that since 9/11 these
types of “reality” shows have generated such a resonance with the viewing
public. Once again, they are examples of how humans cope with crisis,
character, and relational dynamics.
A business continuity planner must think about how a potential crisis
could impact the workplace culture. How will it affect the values and
10  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

attitudes? Does the workplace have a fluid or rigid culture? How has it
dealt with crises in the past? The past may often be a prelude to the
future. If not a prelude, then certainly a valuable opportunity to learn.

Motivation and Morale

During times of crisis, maintaining motivation and morale of the workforce
is a vital aspect to business continuity. As stated previously, the focus of
management has changed significantly in recent years. Most management
articles and books indicate that the critical priority in today’s fast-paced
occupational environment is to have managers work to improve the
motivation of their employees under the assumption that motivated
employees make better and more productive employees. So the question
remains: how can a work organization improve employee motivation? In
the face of increased work demand, layoffs, reorganizations, consistent
transitions, and turmoil — what this author refers to as “terror-phobia”
(tongue-in-cheek for the current level of apprehension that is being
experienced around the potential for terrorism) — how can motivation
and morale be maintained, let alone increased?
Since the times of Wharton, Fayol, and Taylor, there has been a shift
in the workplace culture. We see mission statements and learned experts
promoting concepts such as “empowerment,” “communication,” “develop
your workers,” “commit to people-first values,” and “teamwork,” yet very
few organizations actually walk the talk. It is this author’s opinion that it
is better for an organization to say nothing than to “promote” these types
of values or concepts and to then not to facilitate them among the
workforce or put them into practice. In recent history, most countries and
workplaces adhere to an understanding that, within a certain framework,
their leaders will conduct themselves by the same rules and regulations
as are expected of them. While there is a certain degree of flexibility and
an understanding that the higher up the “feeding chain” of an organization
one’s rank, there are certain “privileges.” However, it is a subtle yet very
powerful experience of betrayal when people in a position of power
indicate that they are conducting themselves and their organizations under
certain statutes, expectations, or protocols and the experienced reality of
the community (be it a church group, workgroup, or political group) is
something far different. Examples abound of this type of malversation, be
it a president lying about a sexual relationship with an intern, a priest
preaching religion while abusing the children of parishioners, a CEO living
the high life while the company and its pension plans go down the tubes,
a Viet Nam veteran who puts himself in harm’s way only to return to a
country that treats him like an enemy, or any number of smaller examples
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  11

that occur so often in so many ways. Feeling betrayed leads to a loss of

trust. A loss of trust may lead to a sense of isolation and existential
loneliness or a fomenting sense of rage that may be self-or other-directed.
In times of crisis and tragedy, any culture and the individuals within it
are vulnerable to these experiences. Thus, to counter this natural tendency,
strategies to nurture trust and a sense of community must be a key
component of any response plan.
If this is the case, how does one maintain or improve the motivation
and morale of the workforce when it is faced with a crisis? For the moment,
these terms are being used interchangeably; however, later we look at
the relationship between motivation and morale as they actually connote
two different but related concepts.
As mentioned previously, the study of human behavior developed into
an organized “soft science” a little more than 100 years ago. In the early
years, the new field of psychology spent much time attempting to deter-
mine the building blocks of human behavior. The Freudian school thought
that much was the result of upbringing and early childhood experience
that greatly influenced one’s intelligence, motivation, behavior, and sub-
sequent emotional disorders. Later, the Behaviorists thought that it was
all about learning and conditioning. Drawing on experiments conducted
with a wide variety of subjects ranging from rats to humans, their theories
held that if you reward certain behaviors, you could condition the animal
or human to repeat them. If you punished or did not reward behaviors,
the behaviors would be diminished or in their language “extinguished.”
For years the battle waged between the psychodynamic model versus the
behavioral model. Now it is understood that behavior is much mor e
complex than can be measured along this dichotomous dynamic. There
are many factors that influence behavior. Certainly, upbringing and early
experience, as well as conditioning, are included. In recent years, culture
and environmental factors have been viewed as significant determinants.
So too have biological and neurological factors.
All orientations believe that one core determinant of human behavior
is motivation. What “makes” people do what they do? Why do some
become violent, while others demonstrate heroism? Why are some honest,
while others are criminal? How come some are good employees while
others remain obstructionistic? Certainly, this discussion has waged for
decades and is an ongoing area of interest and research in the fields of
psychology and sociology and will not be covered sufficiently in this
book. However, one of the first researchers to look at motivation in the
early part of the 20th century was Abraham Maslow.14 He determined a
theoretical construct suggesting that people were motivated by the goal
of satisfying five levels of ascending needs as described in Table 1.1.
Further, that once a specific need was satisfied, it no longer served as a
12  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

TABLE 1.1 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-actualization: the opportunity to utilize one’s abilities to their
maximum free of constraint
Self-esteem: feeling valued, acknowledged, and appreciated by others
Belongingness, social and love: being with family or a community and
feeling a sense of belonging
Safety and security: a safe haven with limited threat of harm
Physiological: food, shelter, clothing, relief from pain

source of motivation. Also, the lack of satisfaction of a need could result

in frustration and stress, thus causing inappropriate behavior in an effort
to satisfy those needs.
Being realistic, it is not expected that any individual truly reaches the
ultimate satisfaction of all of his or her needs. Typically, most people get
85 percent of physiological, 70 percent of safety and security, 50 percent
of belonging, 40 percent of esteem, and 10 percent of self-actualization
needs.15
It should be noted that with most activities, more than one level of
need is receiving some degree of satisfaction. So, there may be a primary
level as well as secondary levels. As an example, working for a living
hopefully provides physiological, safety, self-esteem and self-actualization.
Depending on the culture, job duties, and salary, different levels of need
may be satisfied in greater proportion.
Table 1.2 looks at a range of behaviors and categorizes at least two
levels of satisfaction. One should note that of all of the above activities,
work is one that tends to impact on all levels of need satisfaction. (1
represents primary need and 2 indicates secondary levels of need satis-
faction.)

Maslow at Work
Applying this to the work milieu, one can once again look to the
organizational culture to determine if it promotes the satisfaction of these
needs or if it thwarts and frustrates them. Table 1.3 describes Maslow’s
hierarchy related to the job.16 This author has taken the liberty of adding
those italicized activities.
Think about how one’s workplace satisfies or does not satisfy the
ascending needs of the workforce. Because most jobs currently take care
of the first two levels of needs (physiological and safety/security), people
find that they work to satisfy and thus experience the most frustration
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  13

TABLE 1.2 Activities Satisfying Level(s) of Need

2 3
Safety Belonging, 4 5
1 and Social Self- Self-
Activity Physiological Security and Love esteem actualization
Eating 1 2 2
Mating 1 2 2 2
Praying 1 2 2 2
Seeking shelter 1 2
from a storm
Working 1 2 2 2 2
Sleeping 1
Fighting 1 2
Rock concert 1 2
Cuddling 1 2 2
Giving birth 1 2 2 2
Exercising 1 2
Child playing with 1 2
friend
Teenager putting 1 2 2
on makeup
Person getting a 1 2 2
tattoo
Listening to music 1 2
Yoga 2 1 2 2

attempting to ease the upper-level needs. However, during a workplace

crisis or tragedy, there may be a significant downward shift in the level
of needs. With the worry about terrorism, for a while people were less
concerned with self-esteem and actualization and more focused on safety
and security. At times of a layoff, one may experience the same shift from
“My job doesn’t empower and challenge me” to “I hope I have my job
next week.”
As an example, take a manufacturing company that is very structured
and hierarchical in its orientation. There is not a lot of flexibility, and
people feel like they are “cogs in a machine.” The company employs
14  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

TABLE 1.3 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Need Satisfaction and the Workplace

Self-actualization:
Challenging assignments
Development opportunities
Opportunities to use skill set

Esteem:
Job title and position
Promotions
Acknowledgment by others
Office furnishings and location
Merit salary increases
Lack of role conflict

Belongingness:
Compatible workgroups
Employee-centered supervision
Labor unions
Personal and professional friends
Office parties and social gatherings

Safety and Security:

General salary increases
Pension plans
Benefits
Insurance
Comfortable physical surroundings
Security and safety

Physiological:
Salary
Heating and air conditioning
Safety equipment

about 450 workers. Management keeps to itself and does not communicate
very well with non-management workers. The workforce is undereducated
and many feel that they stay at their job because they are “trapped by
their paycheck.” The work is boring and remains very much the same
from day to day. Supervisors receive little training, yet there is increasing
demand to deliver more product with the same level of workers. In fact,
positions have been cut through attrition. Some workers are subject to
mandatory overtime of about four hours per week. In addition, some
activities have been cut, such as company holiday parties, softball team,
etc. Also, benefits have lessened, such as increased employee premiums
for health insurance, sick benefits, and being able to carry over vacation
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  15

days. It is a predominantly all male, mostly white workforce who has

been with the company for an average of ten years. Five years ago, there
was an effort to unionize the shop, but it was thwarted by management
and the ringleaders were eventually let go. Currently, there are rumors
that the company may be sold and relocated to another state, but nothing
has been determined as yet.
What are the values and norms of this culture? What would you imagine
the areas of need fulfillment and dissatisfaction are for this workplace?
Let us develop the relationship between motivation and morale. While
much can and has been explored regarding these two concepts, however,
we discuss them as related to this material. Put simplistically, motivation
can be thought of as an internal, individualistic drive or striving to achieve
satisfaction. Morale is about belonging to a group, one’s feeling about
the group itself, and one’s feelings about oneself as a member of the
group. In general, we talk about individuals being motivated and the
group or team having good morale. Ideally, one would want individual
people to have strong motivation as well as there be good group morale.
However, there may be times when these two run counter to each other.
Examples from sporting teams are fraught with this type of conflict.
Recently, the Los Angeles Lakers had two members who ar e highly
motivated to achieve recognition and notoriety. They are both superstars
in their own right, yet they do not get along with each other. (Since this
initial writing, one has contracted with another team.) The team is lacking
in morale and this has borne out (although they did make it to the
playoffs). On the other hand, the New England Patriots have no superstars
and yet they are a team that is thought of as having a high level of morale.
In fact, at the beginning of each game, they do not enter the playing field
with individual announcements, but rather come out as a group. Military
boot camps are known to try to diminish the sense of individual motivation
to achieve (except to become a part of the team) and to increase the
sense of group cohesiveness and group morale; to think of one’s self as
a member of the team, to care about your comrade, to become a “band
of brothers.” In systems that have a high level of morale, there may also
be a strong degree of individual motivation. Yet, the motivation is to “win
one for the Gipper” rather than to take the trophy for one’s self.
So, what do motivation and morale have to do with crisis, trauma, and
disasters? How does morale connect with the ability to mitigate the
emotional impact of serious incidents, be they personal or professional?
People can tolerate quite a bit of trauma, abuse, and neglect as long
as they have a sense of community and trust… a sense of belonging and
being nurtured by the group, be it a family, a religious organization, a
gang, a country, or a workplace. Human beings have quite a reserve of
resiliency from which to draw strength as long as the culture has values
16  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

and rituals to help restore the individuals’ sense of well-being and identity.
Nothing taps it faster and more dramatically than feeling betrayed by or
disconnected from one’s family, group, country, or culture. Most people
can handle rejection, loss, and disruption as long as they feel that they
have a sense of comfort and connection and are being dealt with in a
sincere and honest manner.
Put quite simply, when there is a high level of morale within a group,
it facilitates the emotional recovery of the group and the individuals within.

Passive and Active Trauma

In his book entitled I Don’t Want to Talk about It, Terrance Real described
that there are two types of trauma: active and passive.17 Active trauma is
“a boundary violation, a clearly toxic interaction” — or, put another way
the actual injury, assault, surgery, loss of a job, crisis, etc. Passive trauma
is “a form of physical or emotional neglect”18 — the lack of response,
nurturance, support that the individual may need but not receive in order
to cope with the active trauma. During my workshops I use an example
that is probably familiar to many: Imagine a two- to three-year-old child
running around a playground. Suddenly, he trips and falls and scrapes
his knee and elbow. He picks himself up, and what is the first thing that
is done before he actually starts to cry? Most attendees of the workshop
respond: “Looks for his mother.” I usually chide them that fathers are
quite capable as well, but that they are correct… the child looks for a
source of nurturance… and then begins to cry. If the source of nurturance
were to reject or admonish the child with statements such as: “I told you
not to run around or you’d get hurt,” or, “Be a big boy, don’t cry,” or,
“I’m too busy right now.” These responses would be examples of passive
trauma. One may extrapolate from this minor example to larger ones such
as the woman who has surgery for cancer that leaves her disfigured (active
trauma) and is responded to by her husband with rejection (passive
trauma). Or the worker who is laid off (active trauma) and is treated like
a criminal when told to pack his belongings and leave the pr emises
immediately (passive trauma). Or the Viet Nam veteran who spends a
year in combat (active), only to return home to a community that does
not want to hear of his experience and where he is treated as a war
criminal (passive trauma). What is understood quite clearly is that most
individuals have the capacity to manage active traumas of significant
severity as long as they receive acknowledgment, support, and nurturance.
Taking this concept into the workplace, one can begin to understand
that there is a wide array of active traumas that take place in the workplace.
While the workplace may not be responsible for the active trauma as in
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  17

the case of a flood, fire, power outage, violent episode, or even a layoff,
the difficulty is that the way that the workplace manages the incident may
result in a significant degree of passive trauma. Often, the workers receive
little to no support or acknowledgment of an event that has impacted
them dramatically. Or, a business continuity (BC) plan may be rather
thorough and sophisticated with respect to the business operations, but
does not look sufficiently at the impact on personnel. Several years ago,
I was attending a business continuity conference in which people were
discussing a variety of plans that would be implemented in the case of a
severe flood. One presenter indicated that his company had spent much
time and resources setting up a “remote site” about 150 miles away in
which the communications work could be conducted. He then went into
elaborate detail about how plans were also made for critical employees
to stay in a hotel located close to the remote site. He continued on to
describe a very comprehensive plan to maintain business continuity. After
his presentation, I approached him and asked if any thought had been
given to the families of the “critical employees” and how they (the critical
employees) might react to leaving their families and homes to stay in a
hotel 150 miles away for an unlimited amount of time. The gentleman
smiled and said: “Well, it looked great on paper.” This anecdote is
mentioned because often a BC or DR (disaster response) plan only goes
so far in considering the impact on personnel.

Workplace Toxicity
In 1998, this author co-wrote Workplace Hostility: Myth and Reality.19 It
described two concepts that might result in hostility and possibly violence
in the workplace. The “at-risk” workplace is that which is vulnerable from
hostility and violence from outside. Table 1.4 presents the characteristics
of an “at-risk” work establishment.
Examples are convenient stores, liquor stores, taxis, etc. The primary
type of violence that is perpetrated upon these types of establishments is
robbery. However, often these intended robberies result in an assault on

TABLE 1.4 Characteristics of an “At-Risk” Workplace

Public service
Available cash
Few employees/customers
Isolated/high crime area
Easy access
Open at night
Limited security
18  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

TABLE 1.5 Characteristics of a “Toxic” Workplace

Authoritarian management style
Favoritism
Perceived humiliation
Arbitrary/inconsistent decisions
Poor communication
Increased work demands
“Poor” working conditions
Minimal management training
Betrayal and abandonment
Employees feeling trapped in their jobs

or death of an employee. The primary mode of protection from these

types of violent episodes is to “harden up” the security within and outside
the establishment. Although the number of homicides in the workplace has
dropped significantly in the past ten years (from around 1000 to below 800),
most of them are the result of robberies of this type.20 Increasing the number
of employees, better lighting, security cameras, etc. are methods used to
assure a lesser likelihood of being the victim of this type of violence.
The “toxic” workplace is that which is fraught with tension and turmoil
generated from within a work organization. It should be noted that all
workplaces suffer from some degree of toxicity. Metaphorically, it is the
equivalent of cholesterol or blood pressure in the human body. Both of
these conditions are normal and occur naturally. However, if one’s blood
pressure or cholesterol rises above a certain level, it may portend a
vulnerability for some type of serious medical problem. In much the same
way, if the toxicity in a workplace rises above a certain level, it too may
signal the vulnerability for a wide range of behaviors that could certainly
result in a disruption of work continuity. Table 1.5 shows the characteristics
of a toxic work organization.
As previously indicated, a certain degree of toxicity is to be expected
and can be tolerated by most work organizations. [Using our examples
of the sports teams, the Los Angeles Lakers probably have a system that
has a higher level of toxicity than that of the New England Patriots]. Toxic
systems usually have a lower level of morale, and systems with low morale
seem to diminish the motivational levels of individuals… unless it is to
leave the group. With a decrease in motivation, one often experiences a
decrease in individual performance. As more members of the system
experience this cycle, it usually results in a decrease in productivity, more
conflicts, diminished communication… and an increase in toxicity. Figure
1.1 describes the circular relationship.
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  19

Increase in Toxicity

Decrease in Performance Decrease in Group Morale

Decrease in Individual Motivation

FIGURE 1.1 The toxicity cycle: morale, motivation, performance.

TABLE 1.6 “Normal” Experiences That Increase Organizational Toxicity

Layoff, downsizing, or growth of an organization
Significant increase in work demands
Relocation
Demographic changes
Merger, reorganization
Strikes or protracted labor disputes
High negative visibility media coverage
Individual termination with discipline
Restraining order of a “significant other” of an employee

Toxicity exists in every system. Yet, there are events that can dramat-
ically increase the level and thus the potential for serious harm from
within the organization. These events are represented in Table 1.6.
Toxicity can damage morale and a sense of the social work environment.
Truax and McDonald (2002) found that poor work relationships, particularly
with co-workers, were a risk factor for depression.21 Conversely, mentoring
relationships were found to foster a better social work environment.
Now it must be understood that since 9/11 there is currently great
focus on terrorism perpetrated by outsiders (at risk). Prior to that, there
seemed to be a number of workplace and school shootings in which an
employee or student came to the workplace and randomly shot co-workers
(toxic). While statistically the numbers did not amount to a significant
percentage of deaths in the workplace, there was a great deal of attention
paid to these types of events. It should be noted that there is a wide
variety of other types of incidents that occur in the workplace that may
not be as notable, given that they do not result in a homicide; however,
they take place in much greater numbers and can affect work productivity
and in some cases lead to business disruption. See Table 1.7 for a list of
those types of events.
20  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

TABLE 1.7 Examples of Other Types of Workplace Hostility

Work slowdown (work to rule)
Increased sick leave
Lack of co-worker cooperation and communication
Strikes
Sexual harassment
Intimidation
Violence
Grievances or unnecessary litigation claims
Sabotage
Theft
Destruction of property
Computer hacking, etc.

While weapons of mass destruction and terrorism are of great concern,

there is the hope of thwarting these events. However, if one were to look
at the aforementioned list, one can expect that several of these have
occurred and will continue to occur in any workplace. These also represent
hostility in the workplace and a significant potential for operational
disruption.

Premorbid Conditions
There is a term in clinical professions called premorbid condition or
premorbid history. It refers to the condition of the organism before it is
affected by an accident, disease, or trauma. An individual may be admitted
to a hospital to have surgery or as a result of a heart attack. What must
be assessed is his or her premorbid condition prior to any intervention.
If the individual is healthy, then that must be determined; however, if he
has diabetes, is overweight, and has high blood pressure and smokes,
these are considered premorbid conditions that must be accounted for
and managed prior to any medical intervention or else it may result in a
more serious problem. In addition, these premorbid conditions may greatly
influence the recovery.
In much the same way, a child may be brought to a mental health
professional because she is depressed. An assessment of her premorbid
conditions must be ascertained. Perhaps she has a parent who has recently
left the home, or a parent who is an alcoholic, or she may have been
born prematurely and suffered from anoxia, or her family has recently
emigrated from another country, or she sustained a head trauma two
weeks ago. These can all be considered premorbid conditions.
 Understanding the Work Organization as a Social Milieu  21

Similarly, a workplace is a “living” system with a premorbid history or

condition as well. Unfortunately, events that cause workplace disruption
do not happen in a vacuum. As discussed, the workplace is a dynamic
and evolving culture that is constantly subjected to stressors and changes.
These stressors and changes can impact the toxicity and thus the premorbid
history. As an example, several years ago I was asked to do a str ess
management presentation for an organization. I went to the company and
quickly discovered that the company was not doing very well financially.
Further, there had been a significant demographic change, with the third
shift workers now being predominantly an ethnic minority group super-
vised by a Caucasian supervisor who did not speak their language. Some
workers had been laid off and mandatory overtime had been implemented.
A year prior, an employee had been seriously injured on the job and had
not been able to return to work. These were all events that had increased
the toxicity in the organization and thus any presentation on stress
management would be “too little, too late.” However, the show must go
on and I did my PowerPoint slide presentation while the workers sat
there with glum, taciturn countenance. Their body language signaled to
me: “You’ve got to be kidding. We’ve got more than stress.” I stopped in
the middle of the presentation and opened it up for discussion. Initially,
there was limited talk; but within a short amount of time, the floodgates
opened and people spoke of their frustrations. Reporting back to upper
management that a stress management seminar was not enough to fix the
problem was not received with a great deal of excitement. It was akin to
telling the overweight, high-blood pressured, smoking, diabetic patient
that the surgery could not be performed and would not be successful
until and unless he or she got his or her weight and blood pressure down,
and sugar under control. I offered further consultation and organizational
management training. They thanked me for my input and indicated that
they would take it under consideration. Needless to say, I did not hear
back from them. Several years later, the company went out of business.

References
1. H. Schaffner and C. Van Horn, A Nation at Work, Rutgers University Press,
New Brunswick, NJ, 2003, p. 3.
2. Fortune, March 16, 1988. Copyright 1998 Time Inc.
3. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 10.
4. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 9.
5. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 9.
22  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

6. J. Frew, in Workplace Psychopathology, edited by J. Thomas and M. Hersen,

Brunner Rutledge, New York, 2004, pp. 294–311.
7. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 93.
8. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 93.
9. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 73.
10. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 83.
11. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 73.
12. William Golding, Lord of the Flies.
13. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 67.
14. A.H. Maslow and A.R. Kaplan, Maslow on Management, John Wiley, New
York, 1998.
15. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 152.
16. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior and Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 152.
17. T. Real, I Don’t Want to Talk about It, Simon and Schuster, New York, 1997.
18. T. Real, I Don’t Want to Talk about It, Simon and Schuster, New York,
1997, p. 107.
19. G. Lewis and N. Zare, Workplace Violence: Myth and Reality, Accelerated
Development, New York, 1998.
20. http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/violhomi.html.
21. J. Thomas and M. Davis, Stress, Working Conditions and Work-Life Events,
in Thomas and Hersen, Psychopathology in the Workplace, Brunner-Rutledge,
New York, 2004.
Chapter 2

The Relationship between

Organizational Culture
and Organizational Crisis
Management (OCM)

So one might wonder what the relationship is between or ganizational

cultur e, toxicity , and crisis management . If it is through cultures that
values are determined and expressed, if it is through cultures that external
events are understood, if it is through cultures that an individual experi-
ences a sense of community and connection, if it is through cultures that
one derives a sense of stability and structure, then it is obvious that a
crisis management plan must start with an assessment of an organization’s
culture. As discussed, cultures can be open or closed; they have a
premorbid history and a certain level of toxicity. The cycle as described
in Figure 1.1 functions to create a downward spiral of toxicity, morale,
motivation, and performance. In much the same way that the patient with
the bad premorbid history has a medical crisis and requires surgery, a
work organization may function very much the same. In the case of our
patient, the premorbid history includes bad eating habits, limited exercise,
and smoking. The toxicity level is high and, as a result, the patient has

23
24  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

developed high blood pressure and high cholesterol, along with a bor-
derline diabetic condition. The different organs within the system (heart,
lungs, etc.) are not functioning well, and the morale and motivation of
the entire system are diminished (“I know that I should quite smoking
and lose weight…”). Even if the surgery were to be “simple,” the patient
is vulnerable to numerous complications that may be very dangerous to
the survival of the individual or, at a minimum, influence the recovery.
Metaphorically, the organization might experience the need for “surgery”
in the form of a layoff — or, a “medical crisis” that requires immediate
intervention, such as a flood or fire. In this case also, the survivability of
the organization as well as its recovery is greatly influenced by its pre-
morbid history and the level of toxicity. It may get even more complicated.
Assume that the overweight patient with a bad premorbid history with
much toxicity lives alone and does not have much in the way of a social
system to offer support and care. Statistically, as well as anecdotally, it is
understood that social connection at times of stress and strain impact
heavily on one’s ability to cope. As a reminder, some may have studied
Harry Harlow’s early work with surrogate monkeys. In this classic exper-
iment, he took newborn monkeys and divided them into two groups.
One group was placed with their natural mothers; the other was with
“surrogate” monkeys constructed of wire and terry cloth that were rigged
to deliver milk to the infant monkeys, but no sense of nurturance. What
was discovered was that although both groups received food, the group
that had nurturance from the real monkeys was both physically and
emotionally healthier. This difference in health continued even after the
young monkeys were reunited with real monkeys. Extrapolating from this
study, it was postulated that neglect (especially early neglect) with the
lack of nurturance can lead to lifelong personality difficulties. Similar
findings have been determined with children separated from their parents
due to war or illness. Once again returning to the work organization, if
there is limited social connection and support, the individuals within as
well as the total group may suffer in a similar way.
Imagine this situation: a significant incident happens in a workplace.
It could be an explosion, a flood, a downsizing. One of the work sites
is a factory, which is a predominantly working-class, male group with the
average educational level being high school. The workers have skills that
are not useful beyond the type of work they do in the factory. They all
have worked together for quite some time, and many live and went to
school in the community. A strong social fabric runs among the workers
and their families. The factory is a “mom-and-pop” operation that has
been owned and run by the same family for three generations. In its
heyday, it employed upward of 400 employees and now it has settled at
 Organizational Culture and OCM  25

around 250. The management style is friendly and social, yet hierarchical,
and people work cooperatively to meet established work orders and
deadlines. It is an aging workforce with limited turnover, and many people
have worked there for more than 20 years. Workers socialize outside the
work setting, and families attend the same schools and religious organi-
zations.
The other work setting is a high-tech computer software firm that has
been established for ten years and funded by venture capital. It has a
very diverse workforce of 175 people representing a wide range of ethnic
groups, ages, and religious affiliations. The majority of workers have a
college or graduate-level degree and have not been with the company
for any longer than two to three years. Most of the people work as
programmers and are between 25 to 35 years of age. Most commute
significant distances, and many work from their homes at least one or
two days per week. They are highly educated and tend to work alone in
their cubicles with limited contact among co-workers. The cultural norm
is that “people come and go,” moving from one high-tech company to
the next as individual opportunities arise. Management style is somewhat
laissez-faire, assuming that the individuals are independent and self-
motivated.
One can begin to understand how the same event might impact
different organizations with different cultures in very different ways, and
how the need to have a response plan must take into account the values,
expectations, and characteristics as delineated by the culture.
The topic of leadership in times of crisis is discussed in greater detail
at another point in this book. However, it is essential to begin to lay the
foundation of seeing how the culture and values of an organization must
be a central focus of any crisis response. In his book The Hidden Con-
nections, Fritjof Capra describes the paradox of the modern-day workplace
by asking if it is a “machine for making money” or a “living being.”1 Capra
drew on the works of modern-day management theorists such as Peter
Senge and Arie De Geus. De Geus wrote Living Company, in which he
looked at 27 companies that had survived for more than a hundred years.
His focus was on determining the unique characteristics that promoted
this type of resiliency. His work posited two such characteristics: (1) “a
strong sense of community and common identity around a common set
of values;”2 and (2) an openness to the outside world, tolerance for the
entry of new individuals and new ideas… and an ability to adapt to new
circumstances.”3 De Geus went on to write that when dealing with crises,
managers must “shift their priorities from managing companies to optimize
capital to managing companies to optimize people.”4
26  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Definitions of Business Disruption Incidents

While business continuity and disaster management had been evolving
for the past several decades, this author suggests that it was not until the
mid-1990s, with the growth of high technology, the growing concern
about the “millennium bug,” and “Y2K,” that the field truly began to
receive major notoriety and awareness. In a similar vein, 9/11 reconfigured
the playing field and brought an even greater awareness of the need to
develop response plans for a large-scale event.
Currently, the government and media are predicting the likelihood that
a large-scale event such as bioterrorism, or a “dirty bomb” might strike
this country. Once again, one can see that a culture determines how a
system responds to “problems of external adaptation and internal integra-
tion.” After 9/11, the values and beliefs of this nation began to shift
dramatically. Resources were diverted to new endeavors such as increased
security and military resources. Wars were justified and waged in Afghan-
istan and Iraq. Changes in legislation such as the Patriot Act were passed,
allowing for greater tolerance for the law enforcement agencies with
respect to investigating individual citizens. New terms entered the lexicon,
such as “detainees,” “terrorist cells,” “dirty bombs,” “insurgents,” etc. Home-
land Security, the 9/11 Commission, a Director of Intelligence (heretofore
unknown concepts) became regular topics of our experience. The nation
began to experience major struggles with respect to the internal integration
that accompanies this type of major shift in culture. Liberal versus con-
servative, secular versus religious right, Democrat versus Republican,
east/west coast versus the midlands — all emerged as the country became
polarized in an effort to adapt to a cultural change. In addition, similar
to the fictional story of Lord of the Flies, the United States began to openly
tolerate practices that heretofore were considered illegal, unethical, or
immoral. Examples of these practices include detaining people in a legal
limbo, questioning when torture may be utilized, and the development
of vigilante groups such as the “minute men” to patrol the Mexican border
for illegal immigrants.
However, work organizations have always struggled to manage in the
face of disruptions of all types. Let us begin by developing an under-
standing of some key terms. To do so, one can go to the Disaster Response
Journal Web site (www.drj.com) and find the following definitions:

 A business interruption is “any event, whether anticipated (i.e.,

public service strike) or unanticipated (i.e., blackout) which dis-
rupts the normal course of business operations at an organization
location.”5
 Organizational Culture and OCM  27

 Business continuity planning is a “process of developing advance

arrangements and procedures that enable an organization to respond
to an event in such a manner that critical business functions continue
with planned levels of interruption or essential change.”6
 A business continuity pr ogram is “an ongoing program supported
and funded by executive staff to ensure business continuity require-
ments are assessed, resources are allocated, and recovery and con-
tinuity strategies and procedures are completed and tested.”7
 Business impact analysis (BIA) is “the process of analyzing all
business functions and the effect that a specific disaster may have
upon them. Determining the type or scope of difficulty caused to
an organization should a potential event identified by the risk
analysis actually occur. The BIA should quantify, where possible,
the loss impact from both a business interruption (number of days)
and a financial standpoint.”8

While some might differentiate between business continuity and a

disaster response plan, for the purposes here, this will not be the case as
these two terms seem to have a fair amount of redundancy. Further, as
will become clearer, this author views a disaster as one type of business
interruption, different from other types, yet on a continuum, an incident
that must be addressed as part of a business continuity plan.
In 1994, this author wrote Critical Incident Stress and Trauma in the
Workplace.9 This book was written prior to Y2K, 9/11, the Murrah Building,
and most of the worldwide upheavals. Its primary focus was responding
to incidents that impact the workplace and in it was delineated the
categories of events that remain relevant for this discussion:

 Crisis: “An interruption from a previously normal state of function-

ing resulting in turmoil, instability, and a significant upheaval to a
system.”10 In this context, crises usually do not involve death or
injury to personnel. Examples of crises would include layoffs,
reorganizations, power outages, etc.
 Trauma: “An injury to living tissue caused by an extrinsic source.
It may be the result of surgery, an act of violence, a natural disaster.
Trauma usually results in a state of crisis.”11 In this context, trauma
is not used to refer to emotional trauma, but rather when people
are physically injured or killed. Examples might include an explo-
sion, accident, violence, etc.
 Disaster: “Is a crisis in which there has been traumatic injury/death
to many people often accompanied by destruction of property.”12
Examples would be transportation accidents, localized fires, etc.
28  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

 Catastrophe: Since the book was completed in 1994, catastrophe

was added to the list to delineate those types of disasters that affect
the infrastructure of the community. The difference between a
disaster and a catastrophe is that one can remove oneself from the
disaster, but cannot do so from the catastrophe. As an example,
there might be a car accident involving six cars. There might be
as many as eight to twelve victims with a wide range of traumatic
injuries. This would be considered a disaster for the paramedics
and emergency medical technicians (EMTs), as well as the pedes-
trian bystanders. However, one can leave the scene of the accident
and return to a degree of normalcy. On the other hand, a flood
or earthquake would be considered a catastrophe because it is
difficult to remove oneself from the trauma and turmoil. The utilities
are down, roads and communications systems are disrupted, and
often the people who are providing services are impacted by the
incident as well as the victims for whom they are caring.
Over time, other types of occurrences required further description, and
grief/ber eavement was added to the list to describe the deaths of
employees that occur outside the workplace and are not witnessed by
employees, yet may have a significant impact on operational continuity.
It is the contention of this author that all disruptive events that impact
any type of group or organization can be placed into one of the afore-
mentioned categories. As discussed later, a pre-plan strategy for the wide
range of events that might affect a workplace is an indispensable com-
ponent to any response plan. Certainly, each category requires a more
comprehensive and in-depth analysis and the development of subcatego-
ries within, which are discussed later in this section.
Table 2.1 is a list of incidents that might befall any work organization
and impact its business continuity.13 This list was taken with modification
from Contingency Planning and Management (www.contingencyplan-
ning.com), a worthwhile site for the reader to visit; and, while some of
the events may have redundancy, it is a worthwhile exercise to go through
to determine what type of incident might befall their workplace. Further,
many of the types of incidents would have a very different impact were
they to occur while people were at work versus if they were not in the
workplace. Also, as discussed earlier, these are the types of events that
can dramatically shift an organization’s belief system and thus its culture.
To simplify this list, Table 2.2 breaks it down into five “types” of
incidents that might befall a workplace causing disruption.
As one can imagine, each type brings with it its own unique set of
circumstances and impacts on operations and personnel. Chapter 3 will
provide an orientation toward assessing the incident and the potential
consequence.
 Organizational Culture and OCM  29

TABLE 2.1 Incidents That May Impact a Work Organization

Biological hazards Loss of records
Blackouts Medical emergencies
Business relocation Mergers and acquisitions
Civil/community unrest Negative publicity
Computer failure Power outages
Computer viruses Reduction in workforce
Computer hacking Sick building syndrome
Delivery malfunctions Staffing issues
Earthquakes Succession planning
Electrical storms Tornadoes
Environmental hazards Transportation disruptions
Espionage Unauthorized access
Fire Virus attacks
Flooding White collar crime
Hurricanes Winter storms
Labor disputes Workplace violence
Legal problems

TABLE 2.2 Types of Business Disruption Incidents

Acts of Nature Man-made I & II
Floods Fires
Tornadoes Hazardous materials
Hurricanes Explosion
Earthquakes Sabotage
Wild fires Disruptive individual
Storms/blizzards Violence
Other Civil disorder
Bomb threat, etc.
Terrorist activity
Infrastructure Disruption Organizational Disruption
Widespread power outage Layoff
Water/sewerage system breakdown Reorganization
Telecommunication outage Buy/sell
Major computer system disruption Relocation
Strike, work stoppage
Major change in policies, benefits
30  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

References
1. F. Capra, The Hidden Connections, Anchor Books, New York, 2004.
2. F. Capra, The Hidden Connections, Anchor Books, New York, 2004, p. 105.
3. F. Capra, The Hidden Connections, Anchor Books, New York, 2004, p. 105.
4. F. Capra, The Hidden Connections, Anchor Books, New York, 2004, p. 105.
5. Disaster Response Journal, Web site at www.drj.com.
6. Disaster Response Journal, Web site at www.drj.com.
7. Disaster Response Journal, Web site at www.drj.com.
8. Disaster Response Journal, Web site at www.drj.com.
9. G. Lewis, Critical Incident Stress and Trauma in the Workplace, Taylor &
Francis, Philadelphia, 1994.
10. G. Lewis, Critical Incident Stress and Trauma in the Workplace, Taylor &
Francis, Philadelphia, 1994.
11. G. Lewis, Critical Incident Stress and Trauma in the Workplace, Taylor &
Francis, Philadelphia, 1994.
12. G. Lewis, Critical Incident Stress and Trauma in the Workplace, Taylor &
Francis, Philadelphia, 1994.
13. Contingency Planning and Management, Web site at
www.contingencyplanning.com.
Chapter 3

Incident Assessment:
Proactive versus
Reactive Measures

It is well acknowledged that part of any crisis response plan should

determine the relative likelihood of an event occurring, and then establish
some pre-incident response guidelines.
In his book entitled Crisis Management: Planning for the Inevitable,1
Steven Fink describes how to derive a crisis impact value (CIV) by asking
five questions and subjectively rating them on a 1 to 10 scale (1 represents
a low likelihood of occurrence or impact, and 10 represents a very high
likelihood of occurrence or impact).

 Might the crisis intensify and if so, how fast?

 How observable is the crisis by outsiders such as media, regulatory
agencies, or customers?
 How much does it interfere with operations?
 Is the company the victim or culprit of this crisis?
 How damaging is it to the bottom line (however one defines bottom
line)?

Each incident, being (proactively) evaluated, would receive a rating from

1 to 50, which would then be divided by 5 for the CIV score, which gets
plotted along the vertical axis of the Crisis Plotting Grid as shown in
Figure 3.1.
31
32  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

High Impact/ 10 High Impact/

Low Probability High Probability
9

6
PFS
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

2
Low Impact/ Low Impact/
Low Probability 1 High Probability

CIV

FIGURE 3.1 Sample of Fink’s crisis plotting grid.

Next, Fink suggests deriving a Probability Factor Scale (PFS). Once

again, this is a subjective rating that assesses the likelihood of an event
occurring. This rating would be plotted on the horizontal axis of the Crisis
Plotting Grid.
Fink then suggests that one can place different types of crises in the
different quadrants and prioritize accordingly.
While this is an excellent exercise, it is my guess that many crisis/disas-
ter/business continuity planners have already gone through similar types
of exercises. However, my experience has been that most of these exer-
cises do not really seem to assess the impact on personnel.
This chapter looks at assessing incidents and the potential social and
emotional impacts on personnel. Previously, different categories of events
(crisis, trauma, disaster, catastrophe, grief/bereavement) that might occur
in the workplace were discussed. In addition, one must look at the five
different types of events as described in Chapter 2: man-made I and II,
natural disaster, organizational transition, infrastructure disruption. Each
type is described briefly.

Man-Made I (Single Perpetrator)

Is an act of violence or hostility perpetrated by a single individual against
an organization, its personnel, and its property? There may be death and
destruction to a workgroup or a community that is the result of an
 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  33

individual, a group, or an act of nature. Taking either of the previous

scenarios where four people were killed and many were injured in the
hurricane or earthquake, let us now imagine that, instead of a natural act,
it is the act of a lone gunman who walks into the workplace and begins
to shoot randomly at people with the same result. The human reaction
to either type of incident is extremely distressing; however, one can
speculate that the tendency of people is to see acts of nature as just that
and the reaction is usually one of grief, sadness, questioning of or returning
to faith, etc. During incidents that involve acts of violence, there are often
all of the aforementioned reactions. However, they also can be accompa-
nied by anger, anxiety, apprehension about safety and security, etc.
Further, the tendency is for the media to become more involved with the
incident in a different way than if they were covering a storm or an
earthquake. The incident tends to be covered for a longer time with media
reporting diversifying into related areas of the story such as the perpetra-
tor’s family and childhood, as well as those of the victims, other incidents
of similar events in other parts of the country, etc. Ther e is often a
profusion of “experts” giving 30-second sound bites of surface information
that tends to do little more than exacerbate the anxiety.
During acts of nature, an entire geographic region might be affected,
and people often bond together within communities. As the recovery
effort evolves, people look to their local, state, and federal governments
along with insurance companies to be “made whole.” With man-made
acts that occur within a specific work setting, there may be a sense of
isolation from the community as people may feel some guilt by association.
While family members and friends might reach out to the victims of a
violent episode, it often feels like the world keeps on goin’ while their
world has stopped. It is often the legal system where many victims of
these situations find themselves years later attempting to get some reso-
lution. Unfortunately, the legal system tends to progress in a slow manner,
and it can take years for a situation to be resolved. In Chapter 7, the legal
and liability issues involved with crisis and trauma are discussed. Further,
each stage of a legal proceeding brings with it “triggers” or associations
to the original event, causing further disruptions.

Man-Made II (Organized Group)

Following along the same lines, when violence or hostility is perpetrated
by an organized group, as in the case of terrorist action or gang-style
violence, or violent protests, there is another layer added to the afore-
mentioned reactions that involves a call for a political as well as a legal
response. There may be a tendency for groups to split off into factions
that are for or against a certain group. Politicians might use the events to
34  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

gain political inroads. We have witnessed this in our country on numerous

occasions in recent history. The events of 9/11, the Murrah Building, and
Waco, Texas, are examples. We have witnessed the politicizing of these
events… the tendency toward xenophobia… the increase in anxiety. All
of this results in a change in the culture.

Organizational Transition
This is an event that has only affected an organization and has not spread
beyond to involve the community. This may be a layoff, reorganization,
strike, acquisition, relocation, etc. While there may be no damage, death,
or injury to the employees or the workplace, there may certainly be a
disruption in operations, continuity of business, and the concomitant
emotional and social impact. Usually, there are rumors that run through
an organization prior to any real event. These rumors, while perhaps
maintaining a kernel of reality, often generate more anxiety and appre-
hension than minimizing the emotional distress.
Unfortunately, there is one type of transition that is quite widespread
and causes a fair amount of organizational disruption. Further, it is the
opinion of this author that many organizations handle this crisis quite
poorly. I am referring to when a company must lay off a portion of its
workforce. Vignette 3.1 is an article that this author wrote, describing the
mismanagement and potential fallout of the, often customary, method of
dismissing people from the workplace.

3.1 Layoffs for Cost… Not Cause:

A Subtle Form of Workplace Hostility?
“Treat people with respect, you earn respect. Show them a guard and
you have reasons to guard yourself. Hostility promotes hostility.”
—Anonymous

Unfortunately, over the past couple decades, “workplace violence” has

become a common term in our lexicon. Immediately, people begin to
think of “disgruntled” employees coming into work with “guns ablazin’.”
As tragic and dramatic as these events are, the reality is that, in actuality,
workplace homicides as well as non-fatal assaults have decreased sig-
nificantly over the past decade. Further, co-worker–to–co-worker vio-
lence accounts for only about 10 percent of actual incidents.1–3
The data reported by the Bureau of Labor and Statistics indicates that
the number of layoffs and the number of individuals affected by them
have increased by more than 50 percent over the past eight years to
 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  35

more than 1 million “initial claimants for unemployment” per year.4

While impacting potentially hundreds of thousands of individuals each
year, it should be examined whether the method of termination that has
become common practice (and perhaps well intended) might be con-
sidered discriminatory and perhaps a subtle form of hostile behavior on
the part of the workplace.
While not all employers implement what this author calls the “show-
them-the-door” method of termination, the scenario in many organiza-
tions may look something like this: the designated individuals are called
into a conference room by a department head or supervisor, either one
by one or as a group, and given a brief talk along with some forms or
documents describing the terms of their discharge, benefits package,
etc. Then the terminated employees are taken to their individual work-
stations, accompanied by a supervisor, security, or other type of moni-
toring personnel. They are assisted with the packing of their personal
effects and then ushered out of the company with a clear suggestion
not to return to the workplace. For many organizations, this has become
the “justifiably” standard process. When asked why such a method is
employed, the responses are usually vague references to security or
protection of intellectual property. At other times, there may be an
expressed concern about the laid-off employee(s) becoming a physical
or emotional disruption to the workplace. Others indicate that seeing
laid-off employees “moping” around the office might have a demoraliz-
ing impact on the remaining workers. Upon further reflection, one might
liken this orientation of treating all individuals as if they were potential
criminals or people with an emotional disturbance, to the practice of
racial profiling (i.e., responding to or classifying an entire group of peo-
ple on the basis of the behavior of a very small percentage of that group).
It is as if an organization operates by the philosophy that “You were a
good and trusted employee yesterday but because today we decided to
terminate you… we don’t trust you anymore and must treat you as a
potential criminal.”
Further, if the goal is to protect the other employees from the emo-
tional turmoil of a layoff, one should question this methodology. Anec-
dotal information as well as research indicate that many employees feel
great distress before, during, and after a layoff or reorganization. In his
book entitled Healing The Wounds,5 David Noer labels the people who
survive a layoff as “survivor-victims,” and describes their experience as
akin, albeit on a lesser level, to people who survive trauma such as
combat, the Holocaust, etc. They are left with feelings of survivor-guilt,
anxiety about whether they will be next, hopelessness about the random
nature of events, anger at the unfairness and seeming lack of purpose,
etc. The surviving workers often become disorganized and demoralized,
which diminishes their productivity. Further, there is often more tension
and conflict among the remaining workforce. So, as an antidote to the
demoralization of the remaining workers, this is a failed method. In fact,
this author has heard people describe a “lack of closure” or “feeling the
36  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

ghosts of the departed walking the halls” when their colleagues have
been summarily dismissed.
The next question is whether the “show-them-the-door” method
actually provides an increased level of security. “There’s always going to
be the person who thinks that ‘If they let me go, I’m going to make them
pay,’” warns a research manager of Internet Security Software. “If he
knows the company is in trouble, he could plant a Trojan or leave some
malicious time bomb that could go off when his name appears on a
layoff list. There have been a number of cases of people doing just that.”6
Or, as another IT Director wrote: “To safeguard the company from possible
retaliation, even when an effort is being made to treat the employee fairly,
all access to company resources should be disabled promptly upon termi-
nation. Further, in most cases, the employee should be given a brief period
to pack his or her things, then asked to vacate the facility on the same day
of termination. This is especially true in the case of IT professionals.”7
Although there is no “hard data” to support the incidents of mali-
cious behavior that warrant this method, one can speculate that it might
provide a certain degree of security as regards the employees who are
being laid off at that moment. However, one should consider that it is
equally possible that those who remain and bear witness to this type of
treatment of their colleagues might be putting together their own “bail-
out” package, should the same experience befall them. Further, it has
been clearly acknowledged that there is an increasing trend between
layoffs and wrongful termination litigation, and the associated legal
expense must be considered.8, 9
Perhaps one of the most extreme examples of the potential fallout
is described in this excerpt from the CIO Web site:10

“I have been working in software development since the late 70’s,

and during this time I have seen my share of downsizing. Most
of what I have seen has been done under what I would consider
to be less than favorable conditions. In many cases, turning peo-
ple who willingly would have taken a pay cut to keep their jobs
into people who would stop at nothing to damage the company
or its reputation. The most vivid memory comes from my time at
Bell Labs. In this instance, the switching division decided that the
factory in Mexico offered a cheaper product than the factory in
North Carolina. So instead of doing any type of announcement
and transition, AT&T chose to perform the layoff using the fol-
lowing fake fire alarm paradigm. The fire alarm went off and all
of the employees were herded to the parking lot. After all of the
employees were accounted for, the doors were all chained except
one, and each employee was escorted to their work area to pick up
any personal effects and given a 2-week severance check. Needless
to say, this not only resulted in a large number of disgruntled ex-
employees, but shook the morale and conscience of other employ-
ees of AT&T who were not affected by the immediate layoff.”
 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  37

As suggested in How to Avoid Litigation from Layoffs, “[e]mployees

are less likely to sue if they are satisfied with their severance packages
and you treat them with dignity and respect in the discharge process.”11
In his book entitled I Don’t Want to Talk about It, Terrance Real
describes two different types of trauma: “active” and “passive.” Put sim-
ply, active trauma is when we are hurt, be it physically or emotionally.
Passive trauma is when, after being injured, we receive insufficient sup-
port, nurturance, or kindness. Or, in fact, when we are further injured
by being shamed, rejected, or humiliated about the active trauma.12
Examples to clarify how these two types of trauma interact are as follows.
A child, injured during a Little League game, is reprimanded by his or
her coach or parent about the error that was committed. Or, after sur-
gery, a female cancer patient is rejected by her husband. Or, upon return-
ing from combat, Viet Nam era soldiers were treated as “murderers.” Or,
finally, an employee who is told that he is losing his job/income/identity
experiences further humiliation by the aforementioned method of sep-
arating people from the workplace.
While “reduction in force” has been common for many professional
groups (e.g., construction, tourism, etc.), it now is being utilized in many
work organizations. In his book entitled The Future of Success, Robert
Reich, the former Secretary of Labor in the Clinton Administration,
reported that it has been only in the last 20 to 30 years that employees have
been laid off for cost (rather than cause) on the scale that is now seen.13
One might argue that this method, if not similar to profiling, is reac-
tionary, possibly discriminatory, and is borne out of a shortsighted con-
cern for security and liability rather than a viable and comprehensive
plan. Further, many forward-thinking companies have discovered that it
is not necessary to use this method when letting go employees for cost…
not cause. And, in 1989 the Federal Government issued the Workers
Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act (WARN). Briefly, “a covered
employer must give notice if there is to be a mass layoff which does not
result from a plant closing, but which will result in an employment loss
at the employment site during any 30-day period for 500 or more employ-
ees, or for 50–499 employees if they make up at least 33% of the
employer’s active workforce. An employer who violates the WARN pro-
visions by ordering a plant closing or mass layoff without providing
appropriate notice is liable to each aggrieved employee for an amount
including back pay and benefits for the period of violation, up to 60
days.”14 The Department of Labor continues on to suggest that “While
this applies to large-scale layoffs, it sets the tone and priority that
employees must be given ample notification of job loss. With the WARN
provision implemented, what does this do to the aforementioned secu-
rity concerns? One may speculate that there should be even greater
concern if it is a large-scale downsizing with respect to the aforementioned
issues of security. Why shouldn’t the same priority be designated for
smaller organizations or lesser numbers? It is therefore prudent for
employers to weigh the desirability of advance notice against the possibility
38  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

of expensive and time-consuming litigation to resolve disputes where

notice has not been given. The Department encourages employers to
give notice in all circumstances.”15
When an organization is forced to downsize, it should be considered
not just a fiscal crisis, but also an emotional one that impacts all involved.
The long-range influence on the total organization extends well beyond
the departure of the designated employees. “Managing transition during
organizational downsizing often means guiding employees through the
‘survivor syndrome’ — a post-traumatic disorder linked to survivors of
major crisis situations. In order to avert the survivor syndrome, remain-
ing employees must feel they are valued by management. Survivors tend
to react more favorably when they believe that downsizing is being
handled fairly. It is up to management to maintain that perception of
fairness during times of transition. Providing employees with reasons
for downsizing helps solidify trust between employees and manage-
ment. Open and frank discussion is also crucial…. All affected individ-
uals should be notified well in advance.”16

Recommendations:
It goes without saying (but it must be said nonetheless), being laid off
as a result of a downsizing or reorganization is an extremely stressful
event for all involved. Certainly, for the employees who are being “let
go,” there may be far-reaching financial, familial, and emotional reactions
for them as well as their family members. It has been noted that a
percentage of people demonstrate a wide range of reactions to losing
their jobs, including anger, shame, anxiety, depression, addictions, and
self- and other-directed hostility. Even for those not acutely impacted,
the long-term stress of unemployment and the financial and relational
difficulties that it may spawn can impact an entire family. Therefore, the
following are some recommendations that may mitigate the impact for
all employees.

 Do not notify people on a Friday that they are being laid off. The
weekend is a time when unemployment offices are not open, and
other opportunities to find jobs, headhunters, resume services, etc.
are unavailable.
 Preferably, the holiday season is not the best time to deprive people
of their incomes. Yet, so often, work organizations choose this time
due to the schedule of their fiscal calendar.
 Let people know on Monday, Tuesday, or Wednesday of the week.
If they choose, allow them to come back to the office for the remain-
der of the week to pack their belongings, say their goodbyes, etc.
 An informal brunch or luncheon for the affected department(s) may
be of benefit.
 Allow the individuals to use their offices (or a designated location)
for outplacement services. Provide computers, copy machines, fax
machines, and Internet access for personnel to look for employment.
 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  39

 Provide outplacement services for the affected employees.

 Have the EAP available to people for a month after their leave the
company.
 Have the EAP or another facilitator conduct small group debriefings
for the remaining employees to discuss how this has impacted
them.
 Train the supervisors and department heads in how to deal with
the transition. Provide consultation and training to supervisors of
departments that have been affected by the cuts around personnel
management strategies. As David Gershaw writes in his article, “Sur-
viving a Layoff,” “When any transition occurs, supervisors’ support
of the workers is a critical factor. Workers need to have supervisors
who are willing to listen and provide both emotional and practical
support. When this occurs, both job performance and commitment
to the organization among the workers are higher. If companies
want the commitment of their employees, it would help to train
their supervisors to provide support for the workers.”18 Practice the
five “As” of organizational recovery:
– Attitude: be open, honest, and straightforward.
– Awareness of employees reactions.
– Acknowledge the event and allow for the expression of reactions.
– Availability: have supervisors and departments be highly visible.
– Appreciation: express appreciation to all employees.

References
1. NIOSH, Violence in the Workplace: Homicide in the Workplace, retrieved May
30, 2003, from http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/violhomi.html.
2. Bureau of Justice Statistics (BJS), Violence in the Workplace, 1993–99, U.S.
Department of Justice, Washington, D.C., December 2001.
3. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), BLS Survey of Occupational Injuries and Ill-
nesses, Department of Labor, Washington D.C., November 2002.
4. Bureau of Labor and Statistics as reported in http://stats.bls.gov/news.release/
mmls.toc.htm.
5. D. Noer, Healing the Wounds; Overcoming the Trauma of Layoffs, Jossey-Bass,
San Francisco, 1993.
6. Taken from Corporate Layoffs Create Security Havoc for IT Pros, July 2, 2002,
www.itmanagement.earthweb.com/secu/article.php/1380141.
7. Taken from Corporate Layoffs Create Security Havoc for IT Pros, July 2, 2002,
www.itmanagement.earthweb.com/secu/article.php/1380141.
8. B. Guryen, Careful Planning Can Reduce Litigation Risk in Layoffs, The Journal of
New England Technology, April 15–19, 2001, Vol. 19, No. 15., www.masshightech.
com.
9. Current Litigation Glut Outcome of Early 90s Layoffs, taken from www.cutter.com/
research/1998/crb980716.html.
10. Taken from www.cio.com.
11. Taken from www.lfhc.com/layoffs.cfm.
12. T. Real, I Don’t Want to Talk about It, Scribner, New York, 1997.
13. R. Reich, The Future of Success, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, 2000.
40  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

14. Taken from www.dol.gov.

15. Taken from www.dol.gov/dol/allcfr/ETA/Title_20/Part_639/20CFR639.1.htm.
16. Taken from www.rcmp-learning.org/docs/ecdd0058.htm.
17. Taken from www.azwestern.edu/psy/dgershaw/lol/Layoff.html.

In Psychopathology in the Workplace, Jay Thomas and Mandy Davies

wrote in their chapter, entitled “Stress, Working Conditions and Work-Life
Events” that while mergers, acquisitions, and downsizing are quite com-
mon, they are often characterized with “high turnover, low morale, low
satisfaction and commitment, unproductive behavior, sabotage, absentee-
ism and negative employee attitudes and behaviors.”2 They go on to report
that research indicates that anxiety for remaining employees after a layoff
is stimulated as they “face fewer resources, more workload demands, and
uncertainty regarding their future employment.”3 Further, the culture
undergoes a dramatic shift and it often takes several years for new values
to emerge and gel into a new culture.
During these times, significant efforts must be made to:

 Provide as much factual information as possible to all employees.

“Employees need both useful infor mation regarding coming
changes and frequent communication to develop positive attitudes
and trust for the new management.”4
 Nurture the new corporate identity to help foster a sense of
belonging.
 Clarify role changes within the organization.
 Acknowledge shifts in goals and values for the new organization.

The preceding was a brief description of the general types of events

that might befall a workplace and some of the ensuing dynamics that can
develop. To truly assess the impact on personnel, each of these types of
events must also be assessed, looking at ten factors that could determine
a very different impact on personnel and thus require a different level of
emotional response. The ten factors to consider are discussed below.

Factor 1: Locus of Impact

When an incident does occur, there should be contingencies dependent
upon the area of impact. A fire, power outage, or flood might just affect
a specific area of an organization. Or, just as likely, it could impact the
 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  41

entire building or geographic region. Therefore, any pre-incident assess-

ment should look at and plan for a response relative to the locus of impact.

Part of Building
If a portion of a work environment is impacted by a business disruption
event, it might result only in the closing of that one area of operation.
Activities in other areas or departments might carry on unaffected, or
might be influenced by the event as well. Questions — such as how much
downtime will transpire; what to do with the personnel; can they and
their duties and responsibilities be temporarily transferred to another area
of operation — must be assessed. If there is to be a transfer of personnel,
it must be evaluated just how this will impact the “transferees,” their
families, as well as the department or work area into which they are being
transferred.

Total Facility
The same questions must be addressed; however, a total business shut-
down is usually a much more dramatic event, requiring a greater level of
intervention. Certainly, the primary focus is on getting the work operations
back on line. However, if people are being released from work, this can
result in transportation issues, pay status for the time out, etc. Imagine
that people are being released from work as a result of discovering
Anthrax, as was the case with the U.S. Postal Service (USPS) building in
Washington, D.C.; or as a result of a power outage due to overloaded
circuits; or due to a fire. In the case of the power outage, the people
might return to work in a relatively short period of time with little to no
apparent signs of damage. With the fire, it might take a longer time or
people might be temporarily displaced while their area is rehabbed. In
the case of the U.S. Postal Service, people were out for two years and
had been transferred to other locations. During that extended time period,
people developed new relationships and workgroups. Some preferred
their “temporary” placement to their original placement. There was a much
higher level of apprehension and adjustment when the time came to return
to their original worksite. (It should be noted that the USPS devoted much
time and resources to planning the return and reentry to the original
building.) With the example of a fire, safety was the primary concern, as
was discovering how the fire started and what efforts were made to ensure
that it would not happen again. With the Anthrax, safety and security
were both primary priorities. Because it was a man-made event and the
perpetrators never found, it resulted in a heightened sense of ongoing
42  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

concern. Further, the original event resulted in the death of two workers,
leaving all feeling vulnerable. With the power outage, it was about how
to protect the technology and the personnel issues were of lesser concern.
As these examples point out, the planner must look at all factors
involved with any incident and predict the possible emotional repercussions.

Local/Regional Area
Should a city or local geographic area be affected, all of the aforemen-
tioned factors must be taken into account. However, one additional critical
factor is involved with an incident of this level: families of the workers
are impacted by the incident. Schools in the area might be closed or
releasing children, roads and utilities might be impaired, and spouses
might be trying to reach each other with limited modes of communication
available to them. Elderly parents may be in need of assistance from their
working children. People might be displaced from their homes to tempo-
rary shelters or living with relatives. Daycare and schools might be closed;
social service and healthcare agencies might be overwhelmed. Family
members might be called upon to provide services to others. Often, a
work environment can be returned to some level of work stability and
productivity before the workers’ personal environment.
It should be noted that with these types of events, certain professions
or certain workers within professions might be considered “essential,”
“critical,” or “key.” For example, utility workers and police, fire, and
hospital personnel may need to stay on the job while others are being
sent home. What has been noted is that special care must be devoted to
these groups. The following anecdote will clarify some of the issues. This
story was told to the author by an attendee at one of his workshops about
the recovery efforts during and after Hurricane Andrew. During that time
there was extensive damage to property as well as utilities and roadways.
The public service workers were informed that they needed to stay on
the job to restore power and clear roadways. However, the workers were
also hearing stories of flooding as well as looting in certain areas. They
were willing to work but felt a terrific sense of role conflict; who do they
take care of… their job or their families and homes? There were some
struggles before it was acknowledged that people needed to take care of
their personal priorities before they could focus on professional ones.
What should also be mentioned is that with incidents of this magnitude,
there may be a state or regional emergency management response that,
from a social/emotional perspective, creates another whole set of dynamics
and issues. While the “calling out” agencies provide needed support and
acknowledge the level of the incident, they also may generate a certain
degree of anxiety and apprehension. Factors such as declared states of
 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  43

emergency, curfews, media coverage, Red Cross, National Guard, politi-

cians, etc. might inadvertently escalate the emotional situation for individ-
uals, families, communities, work organizations, as well as politicians.

Factor 2: Timing
Suddenness versus Warning
Regardless of the type of incident (man-made, natural disaster, organiza-
tional transition, infrastructure disruption), one of the critical factors that
influences potential human reactions, as well as organizational response
strategy, is whether or not there is any warning prior to the event. One
concept generally acknowledged about human behavior is that if there is
time to plan and prepare, to organize and implement, then people tend
to have a greater capacity to manage the incident. When this author
conducts training programs, I ask the audience to consider two scenarios
and to speculate about the reactions of the individuals involved. Both of
these events have resulted in significant damage to property and infra-
structure, as well as four deaths and multiple injuries. People have been
displaced, schools and businesses as well as some major roadways have
been closed. From an objective paradigm, both have caused equal tragedy.
However, one event was a hurricane with subsequent flooding that had
been predicted for several days prior to the onset. The other was a
moderate earthquake that came suddenly and without war ning. The
earthquake occurred mid-morning when people were at work or home
and children at school. In the case of the hurricane, one can speculate
that people had a pre-impact phase that allowed them to prepare for the
event. Gathering family members together, covering windows, stocking
in foods, or evacuating, allows for a sense of preparedness and thus a
greater sense of personal control. In the other situation, the earthquake
struck without warning or preparedness. Family members may not know
of the status of others and may be unable to reach them by phone or
road. It is a time of chaos and confusion. Let us leave these scenarios
and explore further the impact of other factors.

Factor 3: Duration
Ongoing versus Contained
Once again, referencing the aforementioned scenarios, in the case of the
hurricane, it is an ongoing event with a pre-impact, impact, and post-
impact stage. While people might have had a chance to prepare for the
44  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

hurricane by boarding up their homes, evacuating the area, stocking in

supplies, and gathering family together, the event is considered ongoing
in that it does not have a clear end. Even after the hurricane has passed,
the flooding may continue for some time, wreaking further havoc and
continuing to cause even more damage. Efforts to repair and rebuild must
wait until floodwaters recede and roads reopen before recovery can
actually begin. On the other hand, while the earthquake may have been
initially much more disruptive and emotionally devastating as it caught
people off-guard, it is over (contained) and people and organizations can
immediately assess the damage and begin to bring resources to bear.
Another way to look at this continuum is to decide whether the
situation has stabilized or if there is potential for continued escalation
resulting in further damage. Just because an incident is considered con-
tained or over does not mean to imply that the emotional devastation is
over. In fact, for many situations, it is not until the incident is contained
that the emotional impact is experienced. Any incident has an ongoing
quality to it even when it may be over. As an example, many readers
might remember the Station Club fire in Rhode Island in which 100 people
were killed and many sustained serious burns and injuries. While this
event was considered “contained,” as it was limited to a specific building
and the fire was put out within hours, the repercussions of the incident
continued to escalate for many weeks, and the ripple effect continued on
for months and years. A later chapter discusses the life cycle of a crisis
or disaster and the ripple effect that continues to play out long after an
event has ended.

Factor 4: Impact on Operations

This is the typical focus of the BIA that most organizations are accustomed
to performing. It focuses on the impact on the operations of an organi-
zation. Do operations come to a complete stop, or is it a manageable
disruption? Because most readers are familiar with this type of analysis,
space will not be devoted to describing this factor.

Factors 5 through 9: Damage and Injury

While an impact analysis might focus on the impact of an incident on
business operations, often it does not include looking beyond the four
walls (be they virtual or otherwise) of an organization. Business property,
operations, and security are certainly a critical priority but may be easier
to assess and restore than the damage to personnel or personal property,
business reputation, and the resulting impact of these factors on operations.
 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  45

Factor 5: Damage to Premises

Has the workplace itself sustained a significant amount of damage? Fires,
floods, and violence often leave the workplace in a state of structural
disruption. Time is necessary to rebuild and rehab the facilities. Often,
this can result in the relocation of personnel or operations. Chapter 6
describes this factor in greater detail.

Factor 6: Damage to Reputation

Another “damage” issue discussed in greater detail in a later chapter is the
potential liability to the organization as well as the damage to its reputation.
While many incidents such as floods or hurricanes are akin to “no-fault”
incidents, the “man-made” or “organizational” incidents such as violence,
layoffs, strikes, and harassment claims can cause significant operational
disruption while also resulting in damage to the organization’s reputation…
which can then cause further operational as well as personnel disruption.

Factor 7: Injury and Death to Personnel

As will be discussed at another point, it is the opinion of this author that
the death of workers while on the job must be handled as a top priority
with certain specific interventions. Acknowledgment of the death of
employees while at work takes precedence even above that of restoration
of operations. Usually, this is the case; however, there are organizations
that tend to see the restoration of operations as the main concern and
the on-site death of its personnel as a lesser matter. Of course, in certain
professions such as public safety, government, military, medical, etc., oper-
ations must continue even in the face of line-of-duty death and serious injury.

Factor 8: Personal Property

When the author first began writing this book, the state of Florida had
been hit by three devastating hurricanes within one month. The financial
toll was in the billions. There had been numerous deaths, displacement,
and destruction of property. The federal and state emergency management
teams had been involved, along with the Red Cross, National Guard, U.S.
Coast Guard, and other support agencies. While businesses focused on
resumption of operations, this was usually completed in a relatively short
amount of time. However, in these situations, many of the employees
continued to experience the ongoing impact of the hurricane on a personal
level for a much greater duration in the form of:
46  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

 Temporary dislocation from homes

 Damage to personal property (homes, cars, recreational vehicles
and boats)
 Resolving insurance claims and the subsequent premium increase
 Destruction of personal and sentimental valuables
 Emotional disruption to children as well as family pets (yes, do
not forget them)
 Disorganization to the social community
 Debris and garbage visible for weeks
 Children being bused to different schools
 Religious buildings damaged
 Stores closed
 ATM machines not working
 Neighbors permanently relocating

It may be weeks or months before the social community is restored to a

semblance of normalcy.

Factor 9: Impact on and Damage to Social Structure

While many crises might not cause death, damage, or destruction beyond
a specific area, there are situations in which the social structure can be
impacted. Drawing on 9/11 as a dramatic example, there was little damage
and destruction beyond lower Manhattan; however, the social structure
in the surrounding communities was severely affected as many residents
who worked in the towers had been killed or injured. Still others knew
of victims of or lost family members. In a similar manner, the Station Club
fire in Rhode Island in which 100 people were killed was a contained
incident, and yet communities from all over Rhode Island and Massachu-
setts remain affected years later.

Factor 10: Concurrent Stressors

Whether it is humans or work organizations, stress is considered cumu-
lative. As discussed previously, premorbid history and toxicity are factors
that can exacerbate the reaction to a significant event, even if they seem
unrelated. Issues that might raise an organization’s toxicity — such as
labor management relationships, financial stability, recent changes in
demographics, etc. — are considered concurrent stressors. If an organi-
zation is under a lot of stress and is then hit by a crisis, it can result in
a stronger reaction on the part of personnel or an exacerbation of the
pre-incident stressors.
 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  47

The Human Impact Assessment Tool (HIAT)

This author has developed an assessment “tool” that might enable a
planner to think about the social and emotional impacts on personnel.
This is not a statistical instrument or an exact, scientifi cally derived
measure, but rather a brief estimate of potential impact. Using this tool,
rate each of the previously described factors on a 1 to 10 scale, with 10
being a high score. A total score of more than 50 should be considered
an event that could generate significant stress on the workforce, thus
requiring intervention strategies. The following are some examples of
utilizing this tool for different kinds of incidents.
For the purposes of example, several incidents will be assessed, the
first being September 11, 2001. This is a company with 1200 employees.
It is a financial institution that relies heavily on technology and has satellite
offices throughout the country. Some 850 of the employees are located
in the corporate office, while the other 350 are in the satellite offices
across the country. For the purposes of this exercise, concurrent stressors
have been rated at a mid-range of 5. Also, this organization is located in
Manhattan, approximately two blocks from Ground Zero
Table 3.1 shows the assessment tool utilized for the 9/11 event.

Points of Discussion:

 Locus of impact was rated as 8 because of the suddenness of the

incident, and thus limited time to transfer operations or to even
notify the satellite offices. Further, the entire city and, in fact, the
region was affected by the event. However, within a day or so,
operations were able to be transferred to remote sites or satellite
offices.
 Timing was rated as 10 because the attack occurred without any
warning, thus allowing no time to prepare, organize, or respond.
 Duration. While the incident was “over” within a few hours, it
was considered unstable and, in fact, there was great worry about
escalation of more events, bad air quality, etc. Therefore, along
the contained versus uncontained perspective, it was considered
ongoing and thus uncontained, resulting in a score of 10.
 Impact on operations. There was an immediate shutdown of
operations and people were immediately evacuated. Although data
was backed up and systems were in place within 24 to 48 hours,
this was a substantial impact on operations, and thus a score of 10.
 Injury and damage to pr emises. People could not return to the
building for a week, and operations had to be transferred to other
TABLE 3.1 The HIAT with 9/11
Man-made I Man-made II Natural Disaster Organizational Transition Infrastructure Disruption
Locus of impact 8
Timing 10
Duration 10
Impact on operations 10
I/D premises 10
I/D personnel 7
I/D reputation 1
I/D personal property 2
I/D social system 7
Concurrent stressors 5
Total score 70
48  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Note: I/D is injury/damage.

 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  49

locations. The offices had to be cleaned of dust and some debris.

While there was not extensive damage to the office or building,
specifically, the street, lobby and surrounding areas were dramat-
ically effected. Thus a score of 10.
 Impact/injury and damage to personnel. While no employees
were killed or injured, people had to immediately evacuate the
building and were witness to the trauma on the street. At the time,
there was no immediate accounting of all personnel. It should be
noted that one need not be a victim of an event to experience a
traumatic reaction. As described in Chapter 4, when discussing
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), just witnessing the death or
injury of others can dramatically affect an individual. (9/11 was
rated as 7.)
 Impact/injury and damage to r eputation. While not the fault
of the work organization, this type of event could have some
impact on reputation. Thus a score of 1 was given.
 Impact/injury and damage to employee r esidences. Some
lived near Ground Zero and could not immediately return to their
homes. A rating of 2.
 Impact and damage to social structur e. There was far-reaching
impact to utilities, transportation, communication, etc. In addition,
while few in this company were injured or killed, they knew of
many others in their communities or workplace who did die or
were seriously injured. Further, many witnessed the event as well
as the immediate aftermath. A rating of 7.

A score of 70 indicates a significant impact on personnel.

Shooting Incident with Three Dead and Four Wounded

Table 3.2 shows the impact of a shooting incident using the assessment
tool. An ex-employee, who had been terminated for cause three months
earlier, entered the building and randomly shot at employees as he walked
through the office. While stopping to reload, he was tackled by several
employees and restrained until the police arrived. The company is located
on three floors and this happened in one area on one floor. The other
two floors were unaware of the incident until it was over and the police
were sweeping all offices. Many employees on the affected floor evacuated
the building, and there was no organized system to account for all
employees or visitors. At the reception desk, the sign-in document indi-
cates that there were 28 visitors on company premises at the time of the
incident.
TABLE 3.2 The HIAT with Shooting Incident
Man-made I Man-made II Natural Disaster Organizational Transition Infrastructure Disruption
Locus of impact 5
Timing 10
Duration 6
Impact on operations 8
I/D premises 10
I/D personnel 10
I/D reputation 7
I/D personal property 0
I/D social system 1
Concurrent stressors 5
Total score 62
50  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Note: I/D is injury/damage.

 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  51

Points of Discussion:

 Locus of impact was limited to the workplace facility. While this

type of an event is certainly tragic and rather devastating, people
can leave and return to their homes and support systems, which
have not been affected by the incident. Thus, this factor was scored
as 5.
 Timing. As there was no warning, this was rated as 10.
 Duration. The incident was over within 20 minutes, but there is
significant ongoing impact. Law enforcement is still investigating.
People are being interviewed. The media is highly visible and
intrusive. Further, the office will be closed “until further notice.”
Thus a rating of 6.
 Imp act on operations. The incident immediately shut down
operations for at least one week in the corporate building; however,
there was some ability to transfer operations to other locations.
After the first week, only a skeletal staff was allowed into the
building to facilitate operations. Thus a score of 8.
 Damage to pr emises was extensive, with much blood and gore.
In addition, it was a crime scene and could not be disturbed until
the investigation was complete. Further, efforts were to be made
to rehab and reconfigure the office space, which would require
relocation to another temporary space. Thus a rating of 10.
 Injury and damage to personnel. With employees being killed
or injured, this was rated as 10.
 Injury/damage to residence is limited (rating 0).
 Injury and damage to r eputation was determined as 7 because
often after these types of events, the organization experiences a
negative impact from the public and customers.
 Social structur e was not impacted, except for those employees;
rating of 1.
 Concurr ent str essors, as stated, a rating of 5.

A total score of 62 and thus the expectation is that this event could
certainly have a dramatic impact on personnel.

Power Outage
There is a major power outage similar to the one that occurred in the
northeast region of the United States in 2003. It lasted for about six hours
and resulted in people being released from work. Transportation and
utilities were down for the time. Many people stayed within the city
TABLE 3.3 The HIAT with Power Outage
Man-made I Man-made II Natural Disaster Organizational Transition Infrastructure Disruption
Locus of impact 8
Timing 10
Duration 3
Impact on operations 5
I/D premises 2
I/D personnel 2
I/D reputation 3
I/D personal property 2
I/D social system 3
Concurrent stressors 5
Total score 43
52  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Note: I/D is injury/damage.

 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  53

because there was no way to drive to their homes in the suburbs. Schools
had to stay open to manage the children until parents could make
arrangements to pick them up. Hospitals ran on emergency generators.
There were some reports of looting and robberies but, in general, things
remained calm for the duration. State emergency management organiza-
tions were activated. Table 3.3 shows the assessment of this type of
incident utilizing the HIAT.

Points of Discussion:
 Locus of impact was 8, as this was a major power outage that
affected a large geographic area.
 Timing. There was no warning, thus a score of 10.
 Duration was scored as 3, as the outage was over in a relatively
short period of time with limited “ripple effect.”
 Impact on operations was scored as 5. While there was some
fallout from customers, much of the work was backed up and not lost.
 Injury/damage to pr emises was rated as 2.
 Injury/damage to personnel was rated as 2, as some people
were trapped in the building and commuting home was a signif-
icant problem. Some were unable to pick up their children at
school or daycare.
 Injury/damage to r eputation was rated as 3. There were some
complaints from customers who were unable to do business for a
while.
 Injury/damage to r esidence was rated as a 2. Some people
experienced loss of food as a result of refrigerators and freezers
defrosting. There was other minor damage to other residences.
 Damage to social structur e was rated as 3. Utilities and commu-
nication systems were down for 12 to 24 hours in some locations.
ATMs and other services were disrupted.
 Concurr ent str essors was rated as 5.

The total score was 43. This suggests a minimal social and emotional
impact on the total workforce.

Major Hurricane
A large, individual hurricane similar in scope to those in September 2004
(Frances, Charley, and Ivan) hits the coast of Florida at about 7 p.m. The
company is located approximately two miles inland, off a major highway.
TABLE 3.4 The HIAT with Hurricane
Man-made I Man-made II Natural Disaster Organizational Transition Infrastructure Disruption
Locus of impact 10
Timing 2
Duration 8
Impact on operations 6
I/D premises 5
I/D personnel 1
I/D reputation 1
I/D personal property 8
I/D social system 9
Concurrent stressors 5
Total score 55
54  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Note: I/D is injury/damage.

 Incident Assessment: Proactive versus Reactive Measures  55

Employees live in the surrounding areas, with many living closer to the
coast. Table 3.4 represents an evaluation of this incident utilizing the HIAT.
Once again, it must be stated that this is neither an exact science nor
a clinical or technological assessment, but rather a tool to facilitate thinking
about the potential impact on personnel.

Points of Discussion:
Once again, the locus of impact was rated very high as this was a large-
scale natural disaster that affected an entire region. The hurricane had
been forecast for several days, thus allowing for emergency management
planning, evacuation, etc. Between the pre-incident planning, the hurri-
cane itself and the following flooding, etc, it was considered as having a
long duration. Business functions were significantly impacted by the
experience but did not totally shut down operations as some work was
shifted to other facilities outside the region. There was limited damage to
the building itself and the reputation of the organization. Employees
experienced a significant amount of damage to personal property and
their homes. The social structure of the region was considerably affected
by the hurricane with loss of power, utilities, transportation, etc.
A subjective score of 55 indicates that there could be a noteworthy
social and emotional impact on employees that should be planned for
and managed.

References
1. Fink, Steven. Crisis Management: Planning for the Inevitable, iUniverse,
Inc., Lincoln, NE, 2002.
2. J. Thomas and M. Davies, Stress, Working Conditions and Work-Life Events,
in Psychopathology in the Workplace, Brunner-Rutledge, New York, 2004.
3. I. Nikandrou, N. Papalexandris, and D. Bourantas, D., Gaining Employee
Trust after Acquisition: Implications for Managerial Action, Employee Rela-
tions, 24, 334–355, 2000.
4. J. Astrachan, Organizational Departures: The Impact of Separation Anxiety
as Studied in Mergers and Acquisition Simulations, Journal of Applied
Behavioral Sciences, 31, 31–50, 1995.
Chapter 4

Reactions to Crises,
Traumas, Disasters,
Catastrophes

This chapter discusses the potential psychological impacts on the individ-

ual, family, and work organization. The focus is to familiarize readers with
key diagnostic labels and the symptomatology of each. In addition, readers
will understand the impact on the individual, his or her family, and the
work organization.

Stress
What is all the stress about stress? Initially, Hans Selye, known as the
“Father of Stress,” wrote extensively on the topic of stress.1 Since then,
books and articles on stress have found their way to such diverse outlets
as The Wall Street Journal and The Christian Science Monitor, the Journal
of the American Medical Association, and numerous other professional
journals. The past several decades have seen the concept of stress grow
to become a regular product of the media, marketing, as well as manu-
facturing. Books, tapes, and videos are available that purport to reduce
stress or at least help individuals manage it. “Alternative health,” the term
that now encompasses interventions such as biofeedback, meditation,
herbal remedies, acupuncture, aromatherapy, massage, reflexology, and

57
58  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

spiritual workshops has grown from the activities of small groups to a

mainstream staple. In the mid-1970s, Herbert Benson wrote The Relaxation
Response,2 in which he proposed that the people who practiced transcen-
dental meditation had lower blood pressure and lived healthier lives.
Further, he proposed that he could simulate the same biological response
by teaching people a simple form of relaxation exercise. Using measures
of heart rate, blood pressure, and galvanic skin measurements, his theory
was proven correct. Benson, a cardiologist, became a major influence in
the alternative health movement, writing several books about the practice
of meditation, prayer, and other forms of healing. Since then, universities
and medical centers such as UMASS Medical Center have developed Mind-
Body Departments that research and provide courses and programs on
alternative forms of health.
If one googles the term “workplace stress” or “stress in the workplace,”
one will get more than 1, 300,000 sites. Simply stated, stress is “an adaptive
response, moderated by individual differences, that is a consequence of
any action, situation, or event that places special demands on a person.”3
Taking the concept to a more comprehensive level, a stressful event can
be assessed by determining three factors: (1) importance, (2) uncertainty,
and (3) duration. Importance refers to “how significant the event is to the
individual.” Uncertainty refers to the lack of clarity about the outcome of
the event. And duration refers to the time factor involved. While there
are many other determinants for causing stress, these three can be con-
sidered the basic building blocks of stress.
It should be understood that stress is everywhere… and that it is not
all bad. In the 1960s, Holmes and Raye developed the Social Readjustment
Rating Scale,4 a list of lifetime events with “stress points” assigned to each.
People taking this questionnaire could then determine what level of stress
they had experienced during the past year. Included were events that
were considered negative: jail, divorce, death of a spouse, loss of job.
However, also included were positive events such as retirement, vacation,
Christmas. While this scale is often referred to in the stress literature, it
has come under scrutiny and question as to whether it is a true instrument
by which to measure stress. Further, it is a bit outdated (e.g., mortgage
of $10,000 or more). Also, each item must be interpreted by the individual.
For example, “change in living conditions” or “business readjustment”
could be a move to a better residence or an increase or decrease in the
work situation. Change in work responsibilities could be positive or
negative. The point is that any change is considered stressful, as it is just
that… a change from the usual and customary.
In September 2004, The New York Times ran a three-segment overview
on stress and its impact on the workplace entitled “Sick of Work” by John
 Reactions to Crises, Traumas, Disasters, Catastrophes  59

Schwartz.5 He describes the changes in the work culture with its bound-
aries blurred by technology, lack of security, ailing pension plans, and
diminishing benefits. Citing international studies, he explained that Amer-
icans work, on average, 1800 hours per year, which is more than the
Germans and Japanese (both groups thought of as workaholic cultures).
Schwartz referenced studies indicating that many workers feel that their
work had increased in the past six months and that they do not use all
of their allotted vacation time. Further, citing studies from Europe as well
as the United States, indications are that employees experience a significant
risk to their health when the work organization goes through a downsizing;
however, there is an even greater risk to health when the company goes
through an expansion. And finally, the article describes the relationship
between work stress and the development of other problems, such as
sleep deprivation, overeating, or drinking and the impact on family life.
It should be noted that for many workers this is the usual and customary
lifestyle of the modern worker. Add to that a crisis or traumatic incident
in the workplace and it may function as the last straw on the overtaxed
camel’s back.

Beyond Stress
While stress is considered a normal part of life and many people manage
the stress in their lives with limited negative impact, growing evidence
suggests that there is a continuum between stress and more serious
emotional conditions and mental disorders. Further, individuals have vary-
ing abilities and levels of resilience, and thus have different reactions to
the impact. It has been determined that a high level of stress that goes
on for a long duration may lead to an elevated level of physical, emotional,
and cognitive impairment. As a colleague of this author once stated (and
he may have heard it from someone else), “It’s not the stress that gets
you… it’s the strain.” “Estimates and projections from government, indus-
try, and health groups place the cost of stress at approximately 150 billion
dollars annually.”6 Some of this is the result of accidents and injuries, an
increase in healthcare claims, visits to physicians, and other factors. As
indicated in the aforementioned New York Times article, figures often cited
are as high as $300 billion per year.
As the field of behavioral health has developed and the stigma sur-
rounding the receipt of psychological services has diminished, there is a
growing awareness that one does not have to be “crazy” to experience
significant emotional difficulties. In fact, it is estimated that depression
and anxiety disorder are affecting greater numbers of people. The National
60  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Mental Health Association (NMHA) reports a wide range of statistics on

its Web site; the following is a representative sample of recent data on
depression, which estimates that:

 Approximately 18.8 million American adults, or about 9.5 percent

of the U.S. population age 18 and older in a given year, have a
depressive disorder.
 American employees used about 8.8 million sick days in 2001 due
to untreated or mistreated depression. Employee absenteeism due
to depression cost U.S. businesses between $33 billion and $44
billion per year. (NCQA, Sept. 2002; NIMA)
 In a typical workplace with twenty employees, four will likely
develop a mental illness this year.7

The two major disorders that seem connected to the stress of and
manifested in the workplace are depression and anxiety.

Depression
Even mild depression, called dysthymic disorder, affects a significant
number of adults in this country. “Depression is a major public health
problem that affects up to 6 million American men and 12 million American
women annually.”8
Table 4.1 explains dysthymic disorder as described in the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual, Fourth Edition, (DSM-IV)9:
A study that was reported by the American City Business Journals Inc.
indicated that “U.S. workers with depressive disorders cost employers $44
billion in lost productive time, compared with $13 billion for those without
depression, according to a study by Irving-based AdvancePCS.” 10 In an
opinion article posted on the same Web site, Barbara Bartlein of Great
Lakes Consulting Group writes: “Mental health matters now more than
ever. Business success depends on people who are resilient and well-
adjusted — motivated employees who can handle complex demands and
constant change.”11
As reported on the Chealth Web site in an article written by Nelly
Elayoubi entitled “Depressed Workers Cost Bosses Billions”12:

 More than $30 billion is lost in industrial production a year and

workers often go untreated.
 About 85 percent of jobs in the United States and Canada require
cerebral skills — skills that are impaired by depression or anxiety.
 Reactions to Crises, Traumas, Disasters, Catastrophes  61

TABLE 4.1 Dysthymic Disorder

 Depressed mood for most of the day, for more days than not, as indi-
cated either by subjective account or observation by others, for at least
two years. Note: In children and adolescents, mood can be irritable and
duration must be at least one (1) year.
 Presence, while depressed of two (or more) of the following:
– Appetite decreased or increased
– Sleep decreased or increased
– Fatigue or low energy
– Poor self-image, low self-esteem
– Reduced concentration or indecisiveness
– Feels hopeless
 During this two-year period, the above symptoms are never absent
longer than two consecutive months.
 During the first two years of this syndrome, the patient has not had a
Major Depressive Episode.
 The patient has had no Manic, Hypomanic, or Mixed Episodes.
 The patient has never fulfilled criteria for Cyclothymic Disorder.
 The disorder does not exist solely in the context of a chronic psychosis
(such as Schizophrenia or Delusional Disorder).
 The symptoms are not directly caused by a general medical condition
or the use of substances, including prescription medications.
 The symptoms cause clinically important distress or impair work, social
or personal functioning.
Source: From the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual IV.

Anxiety and Panic Disorders

Anxiety and depression are often “lumped together”; however, an anxiety
disorder is very different from depression and is characterized by:

 Psychological symptoms, including:

– Insomnia
– Irritability or anger
– Inability to concentrate
– Excessive worry and ruminating
– Free-floating apprehension
– Feeling unreal and not in control of one’s actions (depersonal-
ization)
 A wide range of possible physical symptoms, including some of
the following:
– Abdominal discomfort
62  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

– Diarrhea
– Dry mouth
– Rapid heartbeat or palpitations
– Tightness or pain in chest
– Shortness of breath
– Dizziness
– Frequent urination

For more information about depression and anxiety, one can visit the
National Institute of Mental Health Web site at http://www.nimh.nih.gov/
publicat/depression.cfm.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a unique mental disorder that
develops directly as a result of exposure to some type of trauma. To
qualify for a diagnosis of PTSD, an individual must be exposed to an
incident in which he or she feels that his or her life, safety, or emotional
integrity has been seriously threatened. Often, for victims who have
experienced a traumatic event, they may first be diagnosed with an
adjustment disorder or an acute stress disorder. However, this label is
appropriate only for those people whose symptoms remit within 30 days.
While many individuals seem to have a built-in resiliency, as many as 20
to 25 percent of victims of trauma remain symptomatic for longer periods
of time and therefore may qualify for a diagnosis of PTSD. Vignette 4.1
is an article written by this author for a presentation to the Massachusetts
Continuing Legal Education Association. While it includes some (limited)
information that is specific to attorneys, it is included here in its entirety
as a comprehensive overview of PTSD.

4.1 A Comprehensive Overview

of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder
Introduction
What is now referred to as Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) has
been around since recorded history under many different designations
and descriptions. As recently as the 1800s it was noted that people
involved in railroad accidents had emotional distress that was thought
to be caused by injury to their spine and were diagnosed with railroad
spine. Even in the literature, those who have Stephen Crane’s Red Badge
 Reactions to Crises, Traumas, Disasters, Catastrophes  63

of Courage or All Quiet On the Western Front will clearly be able to see
all of the signs and symptoms of PTSD as present in these literary
accounts of combat from the American Civil War and World War I.
During the U.S. Civil War, soldier’s heart or irritable heart was the
name given to a syndrome similar to today’s Post-Traumatic Stress Dis-
order by physician Jacob DaCosta.1 He later described this syndrome in
his paper in 1871 on Irritable Heart. From this, “cardiac neurosis” was
the label assigned, as it was thought that the heart was the source of
their emotional distress.
Other labels began to emerge through out the 20th century as
increasing numbers of soldiers seemed to be suffering from emotional
difficulties caused by the experience of combat. Shell shock and combat
fatigue came into vogue during the World Wars along with “combat
neurosis” as it became clearer that this was an emotional disorder pre-
cipitated by the extreme circumstances of warfare.
Clearly, combat veterans seemed to be the primary group of individ-
uals whose experience resulted in this “new” disorder. However, as the
field of psychology developed, it was becoming clearer that even non-
combatants were vulnerable to similar symptoms. Janet, one of Freud’s
earliest colleagues, described, “When people experience vehement
emotions their minds become incapable of matching their frightening
experience with existing cognitive schemes. As a result, memories of the
experience cannot be integrated into personal experience and are split
off (dissociated).”2 Freud noted that many of his patients would describe
dreams and “flashbacks” in which they were sexually abused or trauma-
tized. Due either to the times or his own personal issues, he determined
that these were not real events that had occurred, but rather fantasies
that the patient had about adults and coined the theories of Oedipal
conflict, penis envy, and castration anxiety, along with the potentially
misogynist notion that these accounts of sexual mistreatment were pri-
marily hysterical fantasies of young women.3 One may argue that had
Freud taken these recounted events as reality rather than fantasy, the
issues of sexual and physical abuse may have received greater scrutiny
many decades before it did.
Later, the labels of rape trauma syndrome and battered child syn-
drome were utilized to describe the emotional picture of victims of these
tragedies. However, it was not until the 1970–1980s that a clearer under-
standing of the impact of sexual mistreatment of children developed
and it was discerned that the symptomatology of these victims looked
very much like those of combat veterans. Thus, PTSD first appeared in
the DSM-III as a diagnostic label delineated from other diagnoses and
could be applied to a wide variety of individuals who had experienced
an intense and traumatic event in their lives. It has now been more than
25 years and the field has grown to have even greater understanding as
to how PTSD differs from other diagnoses, the etiology of the disorder,
the biological factors and the other types of experiences that may pre-
cipitate such a syndrome.
64  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Diagnostic Criteria
PTSD is characterized by a specific group of symptoms that set it apart
from other types of psychological disorders. First noted in the DSM-III
and now in the DSM-IV, PTSD is described as follows.4

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (309.81)

 The patient has experienced or witnessed or was confronted with
an unusually traumatic event or events that has both of these ele-
ments:
– The event(s) involved actual or threatened death or serious
physical injury to the patient or to others, and
– The patient felt intense fear, horror or helplessness*
 The patient repeatedly relives the event in at least one of these ways:
– Intrusive, distressing recollections (thoughts, images)*
– Repeated, distressing dreams*
– Through flashbacks, hallucinations or illusions, acts or feels as
if the event were recurring (includes experiences that occur
when intoxicated or awakening)*
– Marked mental distress in reaction to internal or external cues
that symbolize or resemble the event
– Physiological reactivity (such as rapid heart beat, elevated blood
pressure) in response to these cues
 The patient repeatedly avoids the trauma-related stimuli and has
numbing of general responsiveness (absent before the traumatic
event) as shown by three or more of:
– Tries to avoid thoughts, feelings or conversations concerned
with the event
– Tries to avoid activities, people, or places that recall the event
– Cannot recall an important feature of the event
– Marked loss of interest or participation in activities important
to the patient
– Feels detached or isolated from other people
– Restriction in ability to love or feel other strong emotions
– Feels life will be brief or unfulfilled (lack of marriage, job, chil-
dren)
 At least two of the following symptoms of hyperarousal were not
present before the traumatic event:
– Insomnia (initial or interval)
– Irritability
– Poor concentration
– Hypervigilance
– Increased startle response
 The above symptoms have lasted longer than one month.
 These symptoms cause clinically important distress or impair work,
social, or personal functioning.
 Reactions to Crises, Traumas, Disasters, Catastrophes  65

Specify whether:
 Acute. Symptoms have lasted less than three months.
 Chronic. Symptoms have lasted three months or longer.
 With Delayed Onset. The symptoms did not appear until at least six
months after the event.

Coding Note
*In children, response to the traumatic event may be agitation or disor-
ganized behavior. Young children may relive the event through repetitive
play, trauma-specific reenactment, or nightmares without recognizable
content.
The following is a brief(er) summarization of the aforementioned
symptoms of PTSD:

The individual had to experience/witness an intense event in their

life in which they perceived that they and/or others were in
extreme danger.
Re-experiencing symptoms involves a sort of mental replay of the
trauma, often accompanied by strong emotional reactions. This
can happen in reaction to thoughts or reminders (triggers) of the
experience when the person is awake or… in the form of night-
mares during sleep. For children the re-experiencing may take the
place of reenacting the trauma in play, art, etc.
Avoidance symptoms are often exhibited as efforts to evade activ-
ities, places, or people that are reminders of the trauma. The
avoidance may be hidden behind a defensive style, or an anxiety
disorder/phobic reaction.
Numbing symptoms are typically experienced as a loss of emo-
tions, particularly positive feelings. Alcohol or other drugs may be
used to facilitate the numbing.
Arousal symptoms reflect excessive physiological activation and
include a heightened sense of being on guard as well as difficulty
with sleep and concentration.
The symptoms must persist for over one month, cause significant
distress, and affect the individual’s ability to function socially,
occupationally, or domestically.

“Simple” and “Complex” PTSD

While PTSD is characterized by the aforementioned symptoms, it is
understood by mental health professionals that there are two types of
PTSD: “simple” and “complex.” Complex PTSD (Disorder of Extreme
66  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Stress) is defined as the disorder that results from long-term, ongoing

stress, prolonged trauma, especially that is experienced during child-
hood or adolescence. Usually it is also characterized by disruptive envi-
ronmental conditions and colors the child’s total life experience.
Examples of this would be ongoing physical or sexual abuse, severe
neglect, growing up/living in a war zone, etc. As will be discussed later,
it is believed that this type of experience may disrupt the child’s normal
development, resulting in organic and hormonal changes that can
impact memory and emotions (see “The Biology of PTSD”). For adults,
the same conditions would apply to the same events as well as being
imprisoned, tortured, in combat, etc.
Simple PTSD is the result of one single event that has occurred in
the individual’s life and is over. Examples range from accidents, assaults,
to being the victim of an earthquake, tornado, etc. The event itself has
closure and the individual may return to a regular and stable life.
Not all victims of trauma develop PTSD. While many individuals who
experience traumatic events may develop PTSD, it is essential to note
that not all become symptomatic to the point where they would “qualify”
for a diagnosis. Studies after World War II of concentration camp survi-
vors indicated that long-term extreme trauma had severe biological,
psychological, and social consequences…including a diminished capac-
ity to cope with both psychological and biological stressors later in life.
However, not all Holocaust survivors had PTSD. In recent years, it seems
that the Viet Nam war rocketed the label of PTSD into the regular lexicon
of America. Yet, only about 15 percent of Viet Nam veterans suffer(ed)
from long-term PTSD.
In a study by Foa and Rothman with victims of rape, 94 percent had
symptoms that reached the level of PTSD one week after the assault.
After two months, only 52 percent had symptoms at that level and nine
months later, only 47 percent of the victims evidenced the diagnostic
criterion.
To summarize, “…the experience of traumatic events is extremely
common — for example, a random sample of young adults living in
urban Detroit found that the prevalence of trauma was 39 percent (Bre-
slau et al., 1991). Second, only a percentage of people exposed to a
traumatic event go on to develop the picture of PTSD, indicating the
importance that vulnerability and resilience factors play in the etiology
of the disorder. In the Detroit study, 23.6 percent of those exposed to
traumatic events had lifetime PTSD (Breslau et al., 1991). Third, although
only some of those exposed develop PTSD, this disorder is nevertheless
highly prevalent, with estimated lifetime prevalence of up to 8 or 9
percent in the general population of the United States (Davidson et al.,
1991; Helzer et al., 1987; Solomon and Davidson, 1987). In vulnerable
communities and high-risk groups, such as war veterans and rape victims,
the incidence of PTSD is far higher; 30 percent in war veterans (Kulka et
al., 1990), 47 percent of sexual assault victims (Rothbaum et al., 1992).”5
 Reactions to Crises, Traumas, Disasters, Catastrophes  67

It is essential to remember that humans have a great capacity for

resiliency and self-healing. To overdiagnose does an injustice to the
individuals who truly suffer from PTSD. Further, when working in the
legal arena, it is essential to be sure that the plaintiff qualifies for a
diagnosis that cannot be refuted by the other side’s expert.

The Biology of PTSD

Until recently, the only way to look into the human brain was to wait
until the individual died, perform an autopsy, remove the brain, and take
gross slices of tissue and look at them under a microscope. This, along
with animal studies, allowed for only the most rudimentary observations.
With the advent of new technologies such as CAT and PET scans and
MRIs, the human brain and its activities may be viewed while the indi-
vidual remains alive and the brain active. PTSD has always been viewed
as primarily a psychological disorder marked by specific symtomatology.
Now, studies indicate that there is a significant biological component
that may, in fact, be the cause of these psychological symptoms.
Although still in the early stages, the findings are pointing to changes in
both brain chemistry as well as neuroanatomy. To simplify, the produc-
tion of neurotransmitters (the chemicals that are produced in the brain
and that keep the brain working) seems to be disrupted by acute stress
of a significant level and duration. Further, there is evidence to suggest
that parts of the brain infrastructure may be underdeveloped as a result
of the types of events that result in complex PTSD. Further, these parts
of the brain are located in the limbic system, which is thought to be the
seat of human emotion. Specifically, the amygdala and the hippocampus
are the areas that seem to be uniquely disquieted by trauma. When the
brains of victims of PTSD are viewed by the aforementioned technology,
it appears as if these areas in the brain are constantly “on” and unable
to be regulated as in a normal brain. Thus, intense emotions, hyper-
arousal, mood swings, and agitation are thought to be the result of this
trauma to the brain development or even just the brain chemistry. Further,
there is evidence to suggest that parts of the brain may shrink or develop
abnormally as a result of traumatic experiences. This may account for the
often-seen co-morbidity of substance abuse along with the myriad of other
manifestations of long-term PTSD. (See “Co-morbidity.”)
When working with PTSD victims, I often use the metaphor of a
computer that has received a virus and thus experiences significant
disruption and corruption of the software. The longer the virus remains
on board without “treatment,” the greater level of impairment. As indi-
viduals attempt to cope with their difficulties, they may develop a wide
range of coping mechanisms, including some that are inappropriate or
maladaptive, yet these mechanisms provide the ability to put the com-
puter into sleep mode, or a screen freeze, rather than have a total system
crash.
68  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

The following is a more complex description of some of the recent

findings with respect to the biological/neurological issues.
A number of biological factors have been linked to PTSD symptoms.
It has been claimed that they make people with PTSD hyper-responsive
to stressful stimuli, especially stimuli that are reminiscent of the trauma.

Chronic Stress Reaction

Chronically enhanced secretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline in
patients of PTSD are consistent with a chronic stress reaction. In keeping
with the enhanced secretion of these stress hormones, patients show
enhanced startle response and higher baseline heart rates and blood
pressure.

Hypothalamic-Pituitary-Adrenal Axis Abnormalities

Patients with PTSD have abnormally low levels of cortisol. On adminis-
tration of low-dose dexamethasone, patients exhibit hypersuppression
of cortisol, the pattern of findings suggesting enhanced negative feed-
back in the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis and that it is set to pro-
duce a large response to further stressors.

Neuroendocrinological Abnormalities
Several neurotransmitter systems seem to be dysregulated in PTSD:

 Sensitization of the noradrenergic system — in particular, down-

regulation of the alpha-2-adrenergic receptors, causing increased
levels of noradrenaline and enhanced locus coeruleus activity,
explaining in part symptoms of autonomic hyperarousal and re-
experiencing (through the effects of beta-adrenergic receptors in
the amygdala and cortical structures).
 Sensitization of the serotonergic system — serotonin controls the
function of septohippocampal behavioral inhibition system, sensi-
tization would lead to activation of the same by mild everyday
stressors, explaining in part symptoms of hyperarousal.
 Endogenous opiates have been suspected to mediate the symptoms
of emotional numbing and amnesia.
 Veterans with PTSD have been found to have enhanced levels of
corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF) in the cerebrospinal fluid; this
might be the reason behind enhanced plasma adrenaline and nora-
drenaline concentration and the consequent anxiety and fear
related behavior.

Thyroid Function
Some studies have detected increased levels of thyroid hormones in
PTSD patients, the levels correlating with the severity of hyperarousal
symptoms.
 Reactions to Crises, Traumas, Disasters, Catastrophes  69

Neuroimaging
 Magnetic resonance imaging has shown a reduced hippocampal vol-
ume in war veterans and women with a history of childhood sexual
abuse. Disturbances of hippocampal function may lead to enhanced
reactivity to stimulation and deficits in autobiographical memory.
 Dysfunction of the amygdala is often considered the key to delay in
the extinction of fear responses to reminders of the traumatic event.
 Positron emission tomography has depicted reduced blood flow in
the middle temporal cortex, which is supposed to play a role in the
extinction of fear through inhibition of amygdala function.6

A Bio-Psycho-Social Trap:
To sum it up, Shalve and Rogel-Fuchs describe PTSD as a biological-
psychological-social trap characterized by (1) a permanent alteration in
the neurobiological processes that results in hyperarousal; (2) the acqui-
sition of conditioned fear/avoidance response to trauma-related stimuli;
(3) altered cognitive schemata and social apprehension that result from
the dissonance of the traumatic event and one’s previous knowledge of
the world.7

Other Factors
Much thought has gone into trying to understand why some individuals
develop PTSD, while others may develop other or no symptoms after a
dramatic incident. A wide range of factors may account for the variance
in reactions. While this list is too long to go into detail, it is important to
have an understanding of each factor when dealing with victims of PTSD.

 Type and circumstance of incident (e.g., reactions to sexual assault

may be very different to those of being a victim of an earthquake)
 Age of the victim at the time of incident
 Duration of the incident
 How much time has elapsed since the incident occurred
 Psychological preparation for the event
 Who/what was the perpetrator/cause of the incident
 Type(s) of injury to the victim
 Multiple or individual victims of the incident
 Prior traumatic incidents in the lives of the individual
 Did the individual keep it a secret or did he receive support
 Other than the traumatic event, does the individual have a stable,
supportive lifestyle
 Co-morbidity issues

From both a psychological as well as a legal perspective, these issues

may generate a significant orientation to both treatment as well as legal
strategy.
70  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

The Role of Shame

One of the key features that often accompany a diagnosis of PTSD is
shame. So often, there is an underlying sense of responsibility for what
has occurred. Or, a faulty perception that perhaps he or she might have
been able to avoid the event, perpetrator, accident, etc. Even though
they may rationally acknowledge that they were a child at the time or
that they had no control over the earthquake or their buddy died as a
result of a firefight with the enemy, or the rapist assaulted them in their
hotel room, there is often an underlying sense of culpability. This sense
of guilt and shame is what often leads to greater levels of depression,
and suicidality… especially if others in their familial or social circle
mirror any of this dynamic. Further, these potential improbabilities are
often played upon by the defending side of legal cases. The questioning
of plaintiffs around these issues may generate a significant amount of
distress, leading to an intensification of psychological impairment. The
client must understand and be well prepared for this type of “retrauma-
tization.”
As Terrance Real describes in his book, I Don’t Want to Talk about It,
when dealing with trauma there are two levels: active trauma and passive
trauma.8 Active trauma is the actual event or incident that has resulted
in the injury. Passive trauma refers to the response of others… or lack
thereof. As an example, consider a victim of sexual assault, certainly a
dramatic and traumatic event. This would be considered the active
trauma. Let us further consider the further emotional impact upon her
if her husband or parents responded with the non-nurturing attitude of
blaming her for being “in the wrong place” or wearing seductive clothing.
Another example might be the woman who has the active trauma of a
surgery that disfigures her body and the passive trauma of her husband
rejecting her sexually. Even on a national level, one can see the interac-
tion between active and passive trauma when one reviews how 18- to
20-year-old Viet Nam era soldiers were sent into combat for a year and
then were rejected upon their return to the United States, often labeled
as “baby killers,” “war criminals,” etc. What we understand about trauma
is that many people have a natural inborn resiliency that can help them
manage and move beyond many terrible and awful situations and events.
However, what is most devastating is not the active, but rather the passive
trauma as it plays on the guilt and shame that must be resolved as part
of the recovery process.

Co-morbidity
The lifestyles of victims of unresolved (and often untreated) PTSD are
often characterized by a range of other problems and difficulties. With
mood, hyperarousal, and avoidance being difficult to regulate, the indi-
vidual may be vulnerable to self-medicating with drugs or alcohol. In
addition, relationships may be fraught with intense bouts of overreactive
anger accompanied by distance and remoteness. This, in combination
 Reactions to Crises, Traumas, Disasters, Catastrophes  71

with guilt and shame, may result in a lifestyle punctuated by impulsivity,

poor judgment, risk-taking behaviors, substance abuse, and further inci-
dents of victimization. Clinicians often see patients whose “computer”
has been severely infected by a virus to the point where it has interfered
with many of individual’s “programs.” Getting to the core PTSD issues
often means dealing with a wide variety of other “surface” issues such
as drug/alcohol, relational, and occupational issues. Many victims of
complex PTSD may not present as the most appropriate of clients.

PTSD in the Workplace

With increasing frequency, more cases are coming forward where the
workplace or individuals within are seen as the perpetrators or cause of
extreme of stress. Sexual harassment, bullying, wrongful termination,
intimidating management style, assault, and witness of violence have
been cited as the cause of severe emotional duress. While perhaps not
rising to the level of PTSD, a number of these types of cases have been
settled against the work organization. While this paper cannot cover this
topic in appropriate detail, one may review some of the recent cases by
visiting the Web site www.bullyonline.org/stress/ptsd.htm#Legal.

References
1. T. Lewis, The Soldier’s Heart and the Effort Syndrome, Paul B. Hoeber, New York,
1919.
2. B.A. van der Kolk and L. McFarlane, Editors, Traumatic Stress, Guildord Press,
New York, 1996, p. 52.
3. B.A. van der Kolk and L. McFarlane, Editors, Traumatic Stress, Guildord Press,
New York, 1996, p. 52.
4. American Psychiatric Association, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders, American Psychiatric Association, Washington, D.C., 2000.
5. www.brainexplorer.org/ptsd/PTSD.
6. www.twilightbridge.com/psychiatryproper/ailmentguide/ptsd/bio.htm.
7. A.Y. Shalev, Y. Rogel-Fuchs, and R.K. Pitman, Conditioned Fear and Psychological
Trauma (Editorial), Biological Psychiatry, 31, 863–856, 1992.
8. T. Real, I Don’t Want to Talk about It, Scribner Book Company, 1997.

“PTSD for Dummies”

One of the metaphors that this author uses when teaching about or
working with victims of PTSD is that of a computer. When an individual
experiences trauma, it is as if the brain has an overload of too much
information all at once and cannot process it. The sensory input is intense
and coming in from all modalities: visual, auditory, olfactory, and tactile
72  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

(touch). It is analogous to a computer that is running too many programs

at the same time and trying to process or download too much information.
Many of us may have had the experience of the computer becoming
overwhelmed and experiencing a shutdown, as evidenced by a “screen
freeze.” No matter how much you bang on the machine, it will not budge
from the last image that was on the screen just before it crashed. It is as
if the computer is experiencing a flashback of the trauma. The only thing
that can be done is to reboot the computer and hope that you had saved
your data. Unfortunately, it is not as simple to reboot the human brain.
However, there are interventions and treatments that actually are analogous
to rebooting and reprogramming a computer. Another way of explaining
what happens to humans who experience a significant event that may
result in PTSD is to once again use the computer metaphor. The trauma
acts as a virus that affects the software of the computer. Anyone who has
had the experience of a virus in his or her computer will understand that
it is an insidious influence that can wreak havoc with the proficiency of
one’s computer. In much the same way, trauma can get into the brain and
severely impact one’s social, emotional, and even cognitive programming.
One of the other things that is understood about victims of trauma
and severe crisis is that it is not a cognitive experience. What is meant is
that although the individual may know that the event is over cognitively,
the inner brain, which houses the emotional center, does not pay attention
to what the cognitive center has to say about an event. The emotional
center does not have a sense of time or place. It may be easily triggered
by any stimulus that may be associated with it. One of the most dramatic
examples of this was when this author was working with a Viet Nam
veteran who had spent much time in combat. One day about 20+ years
after leaving Viet Nam, he was cutting his lawn. It had been raining for
quite a number of weekends, and he had not been able to get to it on
a regular basis and now the grass was too tall for his mower. Therefore,
he had to cut it by hand with a machete. He reported that the action of
cutting the grass with the machete, along with the smell of the cut grass
and the heat and humidity, resulted in a flashback to a similar action in
Viet Nam when he had to cut through the jungle. Although he cognitively
knew that he was not there, the emotional center of his brain had been
activated by the sensory stimuli and reproduced images and emotions of
the original trauma.
Another dramatic workplace event was one in which there had been
an explosion at a factory that killed three workers and seriously injured
three others. One of the injured workers spent a month in the hospital
recovering from burns. Upon release, he looked forward to returning to
work and assuming his usual responsibilities. However, almost immedi-
ately upon entering the building and going to his workstation near where
 Reactions to Crises, Traumas, Disasters, Catastrophes  73

the explosion took place, he experienced an overwhelming panic attack

and ran from the building. Unfortunately, he never was able to return to
work in that facility. In fact, he gave up riding motorcycles and could
only light his cigarettes with regular matches… not lighters. Both the
motorcycles and lighters activated an intense fear of gas explosion. It
should also be noted that this individual was not a wimp by any stretch
of the imagination. He had been in numerous fights, motorcycle accidents,
and even spent time in jail. Part of what was so emotionally disruptive
and shaming for him was the acknowledgment that he was now afraid…
a new emotion for him.
This point is being made (and perhaps over-made) at some length
because it is important to understand that people who experience trau-
matic events can experience a recurrence or escalation of the event for
some time afterward. Further, it must be understood that it is usually not
a case of malingering or emotional weakness if one has this type of
reaction. Finally, the entire brain gets overloaded, and the cognitive center
that helps us process emotional experiences can be rendered impotent.
When working with victims, current best practices suggest that interven-
tions that involve both a cognitive (left brain) as well as an emo-
tional/esthetic (right brain) component seem to provide the best results.
Therefore, a combination of modalities such as talk therapy, medication,
support groups, exercise, art, massage, and yoga could be used in com-
bination as a viable prescription.
Similarly, to truly understand PTSD, it is not enough just to use the
cognitive center of one’s brain (by reading this material), but to involve
the total brain to conceptualize the experience.

Substance Abuse
As described in the preceding material, while the stigma surrounding
mental health issues has lessened, it still remains and individuals suffering
may not seek out services. Further, many people do not recognize that
they are experiencing a clinical problem, but rather just see it as a part
of life or “just the way things are.” Many wind up self-managing or self-
medicating their condition with a variety of remedies. For many, using
other substances such as alcohol, drugs, “process addictions” (gambling,
sex, porn, Internet, shopping, etc.), and abuse of medication becomes a
bigger problem than the original condition. As discussed previously, the
co-morbidity of substance abuse is often seen as the primary problem,
and it is not until the individual begins to deal with that that they might
discover the underlying mood disorder, childhood abuse or trauma, or current
lifestyle issues that have impacted their psychology and the connection
74  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

between the maladaptive efforts to manage the symptoms and their over-
involvement with substances. Even now, in many cultures, it is more
acceptable for people to acknowledge, “Well, I have a drinking problem,”
than “Well, I have a mental/emotional problem.”

Family Reactions
Health issues of any type are a family condition. Whether it be a physical
problem or an emotional one, the effect on family members may be
equally if not, at times, more dramatic than on the individual who is the
patient. There are many occasions when the individual who experiences
a traumatic event seems to come through it with minimal reactions. Yet,
someone in their family may have a more pronounced reaction. As an
example, there may be a flood that effects an entire area. While certain
workers may want to return to duty as soon as possible, they may find
that their family members are having a difficult time. The individual may
experience role conflict… to whom do they owe allegiance… family or
work?
Two films do a compelling job of portraying reactions to trauma. It is
recommended that the reader view these two movies — Door in the Floor
and Fearless — to see how trauma impacted these individuals and their
families and the role that re-experiencing, depression, shame, and co-
morbidity plays in these dramas.

Critical Incident Stress

This author wrote his first book, Critical Incident Stress and Trauma in
the Workplace (1994), which described the advancing concept of critical
incident stress (CIS). Developing from the work of Jeffrey Mitchell, who
first wrote about CIS, the book describes the impact of workplace trauma
on rescue personnel, as well as the victims themselves. What is now
known in the field is that both the victim, as well as the caregiver, can
develop significant reactions to a traumatic event. While not considered
a clinical diagnosis, CIS can be experienced by public safety and emer-
gency service professionals. In recent years, articles have appeared describ-
ing the numbers of police, fire, and rescue workers and utility workers
who worked at Ground Zero. Three years later, many are still suffering
from emotional reactions as a result of their work at Ground Zero. Often,
these reactions appear similar to those of PTSD; and for many who work
in the crisis care professions, there is a vulnerability to developing an
emotional condition that could meet the diagnostic criteria of PTSD. The
 Reactions to Crises, Traumas, Disasters, Catastrophes  75

concept of critical incident stress is discussed briefly in a later chapter of

this book. However, for a more detailed understanding of this concept,
please read the aforementioned book by this author.

References
1. H. Seyle, The Stress of Life, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1978.
2. H. Benson, The Relaxation Response, William Morrow & Co., New York,
1975.
3. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 266.
4. T.H. Holmes and R.H. Raye, The Social Readjustment Rating Scale, Journal
of Psychosomatic Research, 11, 213–218, 1967.
5. Sick of Work: Always on the Job, Employees Pay with Health, by John
Schwartz, New York Times, September 13, 2004.
6. J. Ivancevich and M. Matteson, Organizational Behavior Management,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002, p. 280.
7. www.nmha.org/may/fastfacts.cfm.
8. www.nmha.org/may/fastfacts.cfm.
9. The American Psychiatric Association, The Diagnostic and Statistical Man-
ual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), The American Psychiatric Association,
Washington, D.C., 2000.
10. Taken from www.bizjournals.com.
11. Taken from www.bizjournals.com.
12. Taken from chealth.canoe.ca/health_news_detail.asp?channel_id=11&news_
id=10609.
Chapter 5

The Lifespan of a Crisis,

Trauma, Disaster,
Catastrophe

Take a moment to think about a personal crisis or event that you (the
reader) have experienced during your adult life. It should be something
that was of significant impact — perhaps the sudden death of a loved
one, a serious surgical procedure, getting married, having a child, getting
divorced, having to relocate to a new home in another state, being laid
off from a job. These are samples of “normal” life events that many of
us might experience. As this chapter describes the stages and phases, you
should consider your specific event in an effort to see if the stages “fit”
with your own personal experience.
Often, it is not understood that significant events have a life cycle that
might continue on long after the initial incident has concluded. Be it a
death of a loved one, a surgical procedure, a divorce, a layoff, floods,
9/11, or warfare, the participants (victims) go through stages and phases
of recovery. In the 1970s, Dr. Elizabeth Kubler-Ross wrote her initial book,
On Death and Dying,1 in which she proposed that when people receive
a diagnosis of a life-threatening illness, they go through psychological
stages: shock, denial, bargaining, anger, depression, and acceptance. This
author can remember having meetings with other professionals, discussing
whether a person was in the bargaining stage or the denial stage. Were
they depressed or angry? Having attended numerous workshops with Dr.

77
78  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Kubler-Ross, she made it clear that it was not a rigid set of stages through
which the individuals go, but rather that these are phases or emotional
transitions that can all be experienced at different times and in different
sequences… sometimes all together.
Others have also developed a stage/phase paradigm through which
individuals move as they attempt to cope with trauma and tragedy. While
neither intending nor attempting to reinvent the wheel, this author divides
the process into five different phases. Further, not all people who have
experienced an event have the same reactions or proceed at the same
rate through these phases or stages. However, it is important to understand
that these are not rigid parameters, but rather characteristics or features
that can be experienced during a certain sequence in the process. Further ,
the same may hold true for a gr oup of people, whether they be a
family, a community, or a work or ganization. In addition, it should
be noted that each one of these stages coincides with Maslow’s hierarchy
of needs (see Table 1.1 in Chapter 1).

Survival Phase (0 to 72 hours)

During this time of acute reaction, the individual might be in an extreme
state of emotional (and/or physical) distress. As an example, during a
surgical procedure, the individual would be in surgery, then in recovery,
receiving medications, and with limited capacity to take care of his or her
biological needs. Or, if an individual receives word of the sudden and
unexpected death of a loved one, the emotional impact of such news
may render him or her unable to process information and proceed with
many activities of daily living. Or, as in the case with a large-scale
catastrophe such as an earthquake or 9/11, people are just trying to
survive, connect with family, and may be in a state of “shell shock.” Even
the community and the rescue efforts can go through a stage of disorga-
nization before a coordinated plan of action is brought to bear. This phase
may last (roughly) from 1 to 3 days after an incident. People usually
require basic needs such as food, shelter, relief from pain, and connection
with family and near friends. They may be in a state of physical or
emotional shock and not able to process the incident or its impact. It is
a time for quiet consolation, a compassionate presence, and caring for
basic biological needs. Going back to the example of the death of a loved
one, it is a time when the individual may need to be surrounded by close
friends and family and cared for with food and emotional support. This
is where crisis care professions (police, fire, hospital, clergy, etc.) are
instrumental in the initial management of a situation. This survival stage
coincides with Maslow’s first stage: physiological.
 The Lifespan of a Crisis, Trauma, Disaster, Catastrophe  79

Support
It is at this time that the individual or group begins to get an accurate
assessment of the nature and impact of the incident. The state of shock
gradually diminishes and the reality sets in. This phase transitions from
the former and can last up to the next one to two weeks, depending
upon the circumstances and nature of the event. In the case of the death
of a loved one, funeral plans are made, family is coming together, and
depending upon religious orientation, formal condolences are imple-
mented. Or, in the case of a large-scale incident, rescue and recovery
operations are in full swing, shelters have been set up, and emergency
management departments have developed a formalized operational strat-
egy. Or, in the case of a patient who has been hospitalized, he or she is
now transferred from recovery or the ICU to a regular medical floor,
rehabilitation center, or even home. This is the phase in which professional
services (funeral directors, emergency management personnel, social ser-
vice agencies, clergy, temporary shelters, etc.) are brought to bear. In
addition, the familial and personal social support networks become very
involved. Once again, note that this phase coincides with Maslow’s second
level of need satisfaction: safety and security.

Adjustment
We are now about one to four months out from the original incident.
This next phase is often the most difficult. It is the time when the individual
must start to transition back to a “normal” life. Be it a death of a loved
one, surgery, or even a dramatic catastrophe, there comes a time when
the expectation is that “life must go on.” Kids go back to school, people
must return to work, shelters begin to close as people go back to their
damaged homes, the patient leaves the hospital, etc. This phase is usually
an extended period as the individual faces the realities of the situation.
Unfortunately, it is often a time when support drops away. For example,

 Funerals are over and the condolence visits and notes stop coming.
 Stitches have already been removed and physical therapy has
begun.
 The layoff has taken effect and unemployment is in place, and the
arduous task of looking for a new job has begun.
 The floods have receded and now it is time to pick through the
rubble and deal with insurance agencies and other bureaucracies.
 The workplace is indicating that it is time to return to your usual
and expected duties and responsibilities.
80  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

 Children need a parent, oftentimes now more than ever.

 The expectations are that financial, social, and occupational respon-
sibilities must be assumed in full measure.

For most, it is a very difficult time when the expectations are demanding
a return to usual and customary duties and responsibilities. It is often a
period when people begin to falter and to evidence signs of emotional
or social distress. Take as examples these two scenarios:

A woman is diagnosed with breast cancer and has a mastec-

tomy. After three days, she is discharged home with visiting
nurse care. After six weeks of home care, it is determined that
she can return to work. Initially, her return is met with much
attention and emotional fanfare, with cards and flowers on her
desk. However, by the second week back, the flowers have
wilted along with the emotional support, and she is beginning
to find that it is difficult for her to keep up with her workload.
In addition, she has had to go for follow-up visits to her surgeon
and is beginning to “think about” reconstruction surgery and
may need to be out of work again for two weeks. Co-workers
who were “covering” for her during her absence now expect
to have some relief because she is back to work. However,
they find that “she is not her old self,” is making mistakes, and
is unable to produce as she did prior to her absence.

A bank was robbed by armed perpetrators who were shouting

loudly with threats and swearing, and even fired their weapons
into the ceiling of the bank. The employees and customers
were herded into an area of the lobby and told to lie on the
floor with their faces down and eyes closed. One customer was
shoved down roughly and hurt his arm and knee. The robbers
then completed the robbery and left the bank. After the alarm
was sounded and police and bank security responded, the
employees were interviewed and finally allowed to go home
about four hours later. It was determined by bank administration
to give the employees two days off. All reported back to work,
with the bank’s expectation that it was all over, no one was
truly hurt, and “let’s get back to business as usual.” For the first
week, all went well for most of the employees because there
was a lot of support from administration as well as customers,
along with increased police surveillance. Within a week or so,
one employee began to experience problems with nightmares,
difficulty falling asleep, or early morning awakening. Another
 The Lifespan of a Crisis, Trauma, Disaster, Catastrophe  81

employee began to have anxiety symptoms, leading to panic

feelings when she was driving to work. The first employee
began to call in sick and the other came to work but his
concentration was impaired, took frequent breaks, and made
several significant errors. As these problems were causing job
performance difficulties, both were being counseled by the
branch manager by the second or third week. In response, the
employee with the sleep problem went to her physician, who
“wrote her out” for a six-week short-term disability. The other
employee sought services from the bank’s employee assistance
program (EAP). In both cases, it was deter mined that the
difficulties and the job performance impairment resulted from
the bank robbery incident. Morale within the branch began to
falter as some thought that the employee was a malingerer
while others thought that the bank was being insensitive.
Request for transfers to other branches began to be submitted.

Both of these cases demonstrate that it is often not until the adjustment
phase that individuals or organizations begin to bump into the reality of
the incident. This phase can last up to the first year after an incident as
seasons, holidays, birthdays, and anniversaries are celebrated. Or, as scars
form and the reality of disfigurement or disability are coped with; or as
homes are repaired, rebuilt, or relocated; or as job interviews are conducted,
offers are awaited, and hopes are raised and lowered. Once again, this
coincides with level three of Maslow’s needs: belonging, social, and love.

Resolution
Resolution lasts approximately 6–18 months. It is the phase when people
begin to accommodate to their new life. They are no longer bumping into
the day-in and day-out harsh realities of the trauma, crisis, or transition.
They have begun to establish new coping strategies, r esources, and
supports. No longer does the event seem to be the primary focus of their
day. However, there are still issues and incidents that must be dealt with
that are the residual from the original incident. This stage coincides with
Maslow’s fourth level: self-esteem.

Re(dis)covery
Re(dis)covery lasts 2+ years. It is the term that this author uses rather than
recovery. Recovery is synonymous with healing, mending, and (incorrectly)
a misconception that there will be a return to the original state-of-being
82  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

established prior to the incident. As described in a previous chapter, one

can consider this the premorbid state. Unfortunately, for most people who
experience significant crises or tragedies in their lives, this is usually not
possible after a significant event. If one thinks of an individual recovering
from an event such as a divorce or death, or an organization recovering
from a layoff or a reorganization, or a community that has experienced
a flood or an earthquake, these types of incidents are “life changers,” be
it for the individual, family, community, or work organization. As much
as it may be desired, things do not “return to normal.” Rather, there is a
painful ordeal when the system struggles to resolve and recover. Part of
what makes the recovery process difficult and painful is the acknowledg-
ment that things are different. Things will never be the same. The accep-
tance of this is often a crucial step in the healing pr ocess, be it an
individual, a family, or a work organization. This reminds this author of
a time when he was working with a patient who had been one of the
victims of a factory explosion in which three were killed and several
(including himself) were seriously injured. After several months of therapy,
he asked, “When am I going to be my old self?” Although the exact reply
is not remembered, it was gently communicated to him that, as disruptive
as it may be to hear this, in all likelihood he will not return to his old
self, and that this should not be the goal… trauma is a life changer… and
he will mend and rediscover a new self. Hopefully, a stronger self as a
result of what he has gone through. What we are really talking about is
the formation of a new self-concept or self-identity that incorporates the
incident into the fabric of the individual’s life... the family’s life, the
corporation’s life, or as in the case with 9/11, the nation’s life. Crisis and
trauma forge new cultural shifts, new dynamics, and new experiences. As
a personal example, this author went through a divorce about ten years
ago. For a period of time, it seemed that he was bumping into his original
life, having difficulty sorting out things: What to do at the holidays? How
to be with my children? Who were my friends, and who were those of
my ex-wife? Where was I going to live? How do I tell my colleagues that
the psychologist was unable to keep his own marriage together? I can
remember going to a high school reunion and feeling the embarrassment
when asked how was my wife? It took upwards of two years for my new
identity to form as a divorced man. To no longer feel the sense of shame;
to establish a new and different relationship with my children; to be able
return to providing couples therapy; to be able to use the experience
professionally… as being written about here. (That is not to say that this
author has reached self-actualization, but this phase does coincide with
Maslow’s fifth level of need satisfaction.)
 The Lifespan of a Crisis, Trauma, Disaster, Catastrophe  83

Groups of People Can Go through Stages and Phases

Groups also go through the phases and stages. Take, for example, a layoff
in an organization. The first stage is survival; people find out who is going
to survive the layoff and who is not. After that, there might be a brief
support phase during which some efforts are made to help the employees.
Oftentimes, this is not the case and, as David Noer in his book, Healing
the Wounds,2 describes, the survivor victims are often like a combat troop
that has survived a military encounter and suffered casualties. While the
individuals who were laid off certainly experience a significant crisis, they
may have outplacement services and unemployment, and have moved on
to the new endeavor of trying to find new employment. Often, the attitude
(from management) toward those still employed is that “You should be
happy just to have your job.” As Noer explains, survivor victims of layoffs
often have a mini-version of PTSD with survivor guilt and anger at the
management and the lack of support. Further, there is the spoken or
often-unspoken expectation that the organization is going to “return to
business as usual.” Adjustment or reactions on the part of the remaining
workers is not acknowledged, expected, or managed. Yet, as is the case
with the aforementioned events, these types of crises proceed through
similar stages and it is around two to six months later that departments
begin to experience decreases in morale, inter- or intra-department con-
flicts, decreases in productivity, etc.
In much the same way, it should not be expected that a work
organization will recover in the sense of returning to its original param-
eters, cultural dynamics, and organizational paradigms. Instead, after a
certain amount of time and the resolving of new boundaries, relationships,
inter- and intra-departmental communications and conflicts, etc., the orga-
nization rumbles and grumbles to form a new identity. Some personnel
stay, while others move on. In talking to people who survive these
transitions, they often describe it as a tumultuous time that is fraught with
much stress, disorganization, in-fighting, and a sense of uncertainty. The
culture has been dismantled or at least diminished. It no longer provides
the same sense of stability and consistency. It is usually a time of turmoil
before a new organization is in place.
If organizations do make an effort to respond to the human factor,
it is usually a very time-limited and half-hearted endeavor, with minimal
provision of HR or EAP services metered out during the first week after
an organizational transition. Unfortunately, it is often a “too little, too
soon” situation that provides little benefit to the individuals or the
organization.
84  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

References
1. E. Kubler-Ross, On Death and Dying, Touch Stone Publishers, New York,
1974.
2. D. Noer, Healing the Wounds, Jossey-Bass Publishers, San Francisco, CA,
1993.
Chapter 6

The Five “Rs”

Remain at home, Retain at work, Release to go home or

shelter, Relocate/r eassign to another facility, Retur n to a
previous facility

Different situations require different plans for all or part of the workforce.
Where do they go, what do we do with them? Who do we need?
Whenever a workplace must make a decision to r etain workers (shelter
in place), r elease workers, or tell them not to come into work (r emain
at home), it usually connotes a significant disruption fraught with opera-
tional, financial, reputational, as well as emotional impact. Depending on
the length of time away, r elocating/r eassigning people to temporary
placements and then r etur ning them to their original work facility may
be fraught with stress. This chapter looks at incidents in which these types
of management decisions are made and the impact that is generated on
the workforce.

Contingency 1: Short-Term Release and Return

This might be an incident in which the employees are temporarily released
from work but remain on site. Examples include bomb scares, fire drills,
and other incidents that require evacuation of the premises. While most
people have experienced such incidents with a limited amount of stress,
since 9/11 there has been a heightened level of apprehension concerning
even a simple fire drill.

85
86  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Comprehensive Evacuation Plan

While it is assumed that most work organizations have evacuation plans,
I have been surprised by the number of workplaces that do not have
such plans in place. Further, some of them are very “skimpy” in terms of
their organization and implementation. While every aspect cannot be
determined for each type of organization, the following will illustrate some
of the points that should be taken into account.
What is recommended for most organizations includes:

 Evacuation plans with predetermined exit paths. These should be

posted in a variety of places. In fact, employees should have copies
posted in their workspaces and easily visible to them and visitors.
 A predetermined meeting area outside the building. Large organi-
zations should have specific areas for each department, etc.
 Each department or area should have specific people who are
designated as “counters” who keep track to make sure that all are
accounted for. Receptionists or security responsible for signing in
guests and issuing visitor passes should take the list with them to
be sure that visitors are also accounted for.
 There should be other people who are “first aiders” who receive
some basic first-aid training and have a small “go kit” supplied
with water, eye baths, bandages, flashlights, etc.
 Each department should determine those individuals who may
need assistance in exiting the building and assign members to
facilitate their leaving the building.
 People should have mini-lights on their key chains or chemical
“snap lights” in case of a power outage.
 Unless there is an urgent and immediate need for evacuation, people
should be instructed to gather their personal belongings such as coats,
keys, etc., before exiting the facility. (This author knows that this one
might meet with some resistance from security, but to take 30 seconds
to return to one’s workstation may not be critical.)
 If emergency equipment has been distributed, it should be kept
in a specific location and be immediately available.
 Practice the evacuation several times during the year.

Contingency 2: Release and Short-Term Relocation

(e.g., power outage, weather, etc.)
This is similar to Contingency 1; however, in this situation, people are
told to go home, to another location, or to a shelter. In this case, workers
will need to know how to get information regarding when (or where) to
 The Five “Rs”  87

return to work. In addition to the evacuation plans of Contingency 1, it

is recommended that there be an “800” number that people can call to
hear the latest updated information. Further, it is critical to have an up-
to-date phone/e-mail list of all employees. While understanding the con-
cern for personal privacy, this list should include home phone numbers,
cell phone numbers, and e-mail addresses.

The Need for Instant Communication

Until recently, the method of getting information out to workers was rather
hit-or-miss and haphazard. There would be a hierarchical phone chain
from administrative level to department heads, to managers, to workers;
each individual in the chain knowing whom he or she should be calling.
(Public schools are familiar with this as they often have done a similar
phone chain to notify about snow days, etc.) In r ecent years, many
organizations have become aware of and utilize a more technologically
advanced service where one individual can make a single phone message
that goes out to all employees. This might be considered a “pricey” service
for some organizations; however, it is certainly a more efficient method
of providing information to all in real-time.
In both Contingency 1 and 2 (if possible), it is very helpful to have
the senior staff on the street circulating among the employees either during
the evacuation or as people are being released. The visibility of senior
management at times of stress can serve as a calming influence. When
one thinks of 9/11, it is exactly what New York Mayor Rudy Guiliani did
during the first days. He floated among the people, trying to provide some
degree of comfort and reassurance.

Contingency 3: Short-Term Relocation or Reassignment

to Alternative Work Site (e.g., fire, flood, etc.)
If people are moving to an already operating workspace and might be
displacing other workers, this could result in a significant disruption. This
was the situation for many of the financial organizations after 9/11. People
from New York City offices were relocated to New Jersey, upper state New
York, and Connecticut offices. In some cases, people had to double up on
office space or cubicles, etc. In addition to issues of commuting, there were
also problems with displacing other workers from their workspace.
Further, people would now be commuting to a new location, working
with people they do not know. If it is known that the situation will resolve
in a short period of time, then the people may remain somewhat isolated
and disconnected from the regular workers at that site.
88  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

As discussed in a previous chapter, if there has been a large-scale

catastrophe such as a flood or earthquake in which the employees’ homes
have been affected, then there is the issue of dealing with distance from
family members and social network. This too can be a stressful situation
for the workers whose space is being intruded upon.

Contingency 4: Long-Term Reassignment or Non-Return

(e.g., major incident, facility closing, etc.)
This was the situation in 2001, when the U.S. Postal Service discovered
that the building in Washington, D.C., was infected with Anthrax and two
people died. People were reassigned to several other work locations for
two years while the investigation was taking place and the building was
totally rehabbed and disinfected. Two years is a long time; people had
established work relationships. Some were apprehensive about returning
despite the medical and technical evidence that the building was now
clean. Some wished not to return for a number of other reasons, while
others were ready to go back with little issue.
When the time came to return people back to the building, I was
involved as a consultant working with a team of people to do the best
job possible with this transition. I had wanted to use the U.S. Postal
Service’s efforts as a “case study” of how an organization tries to do the
right thing when faced with an overwhelming task. However, it was
requested that I not to go into any specific detail. I will put forth some
of the suggestions that I came up with as the outside consultant to their
team. I will also say that I believe that they devoted a significant amount
of time, effort, resources, and money to making the transition as palatable
as possible.
The following are some of the salient features of the consultation that
I provided to the U.S. Postal Service. The team worked very hard to
implement these and others components.

 Bring personnel back to the site, from the top down (i.e., upper
management first, then supervisory, then nonsupervisory). This is
discussed in greater detail in Chapter 9.
 All-day supervisor training with 30 attendees in each grouping to
deal with their concerns and issues and train them on how to deal
with their employees. Ideally, this is to be done at the facility. The
second-best option is to have it done elsewhere. Ideally, have the
training done within seven to ten days of the plant opening.
 Upper management should be present at each training to give a
brief “pep talk.”
 The Five “Rs”  89

 The day-long program should be interactive, and not a “talking

head” production. There should be small group discussions with
an emphasis on how to deal with the questions and concerns that
they may have.
 Develop a FAQ sheet that can be distributed to all employees and
addresses some of the common concerns.
 “Virtual tours” using videos and still pictures of the rehabbed facility
should be made available to all employees at their present site(s).
 Establish a call-in number where employees can leave a message
and have their specific question or concern addressed in a timely
manner (within one or two days).
 Nonsupervisory personnel should be reoriented in groups and
receive a tour from their supervisor. Ideally, this should be done
the day before the actual work is to begin. Each supervisor should
go through a one- to two-hour orientation meeting with his or her
staff. Workers are then dismissed with the expectation that they
will return the next day for regular work assignments.
 At the end of the shift on the first day, supervisors should end 15
minutes early to “check in” with group.
 There should be high visibility of senior management on orientation
day and first work week.
 EAP and medical staff should also be visible to employees.

Contingency 5: Retaining at Work

There are three situations when employees might be retained at work.
One is for their own safety (sheltered in place); the second might be
when there is a criminal investigation and law enforcement institutes this
order (see Chapter 7, “Legal and Litigation Aspects of Crises, Traumas,
and Workplace Disruptions”); and the third is when employees are needed
to provide critical services at times of catastrophes. There are a few
occasions when workers will be sheltered at work rather than be evacuated.
These might occur if there is an armed perpetrator in or outside the
building, or if there has been a sudden calamitous event in the local area.
Or, perhaps some other type of incident has occurred that has created a
potentially hazardous environment. At the October 2004 New England
Disaster Response Information Exchange (NEDRIX) conference, I partici-
pated as one of the experts at the final simulation on the last day of the
conference. The scenario was one in which a financial institution had a
fake Anthrax scare as part of a larger scenario. While many participating
in the simulation felt that the best strategy would be to immediately
evacuate the facility, the HAZMAT expert who sat on the panel with myself
90  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

and a security expert indicated that any contamination had already taken
place and that the immediate response should be to shut down the HVAC
and to retain workers in the facility. Each person could then be immedi-
ately tested to determine if they were contaminated. He further pointed
out that while it is not so easy to become contaminated with Anthrax as
people may suspect, were people to leave, they might inadvertently take
the Anthrax with them and contaminate others outside the building.
While there are other situations that might require retaining employees
at work, it is usually done to provide shelter and safety and to deal with
security issues. While retaining people at work may be a part of a plan,
it should be noted that one cannot force people to stay within a facility.
In fact, only law enforcement personnel and some healthcare professionals
have the power to contain and restrain people under specific orders.
Therefore, it is strongly recommended that any retaining policies or
sheltering-in-place interventions should be determined ahead of time and
be made clear to all personnel when they can be exercised. One of the
major learning points from the NEDRIX simulation exercise was the need
for training and education of personnel around this issue.
Finally, certain professions are expected to remain on duty to provide
24/7 operations, especially at times of crisis. These might include health-
care, law enforcement, and utilities as the obvious. However, one must
remember hotel personnel, local roads and highway personnel, university
or college personnel, etc. If certain staff members are considered critical
or essential, then this must be decided beforehand, and each member of
this cadre of staff should be prepared for this possibility. It must also be
understood that this situation places the individuals in situations of great
stress, as it not only affects them, but their families as well if there is a
major catastrophe that has affected the local region. In Chapter 7, there
is a hospital situation in which hospital personnel were disciplined (and
some terminated) for not reporting to duty as scheduled. This type of
situation must be avoided at all costs as the ripple effect causes a great
deal of toxicity.
The following is recommended:

 In addition to any policies or protocols where this might be stated,

it is essential to meet periodically with this group to delineate the
roles and expectations.
 Have a biannual drill.
 It should be required that each individual develop a Family Crisis
Plan that would include the following:
– Determine who should be notified (and how) if the employee
must remain on duty.
 The Five “Rs”  91

– Determine the personal responsibilities that may not be done

if this person must remain at work (e.g., daycare pick-up, dog
walking, carpool, other part-time job, aged parent who needs
some assistance).
– Each family should develop an action plan regarding how it
will operate to cover the aforementioned duties.
– Determine how different family members will communicate
with each other.
 Some work organizations suggest that the individuals on this team
keep a spare change of clothes, hygiene apparel, medication, etc.,
in the workplace or the trunks of their cars, should the need arise
for them to stay in place.
 If these people are activated and must stay on duty, there should
be a policy whereby they receive some time off as well as some
debriefing services (discussed in Chapter 9).
 Unless specific training precludes others, this team should be
rotated to include all staff members.
 Arrangements should be made to shelter immediate family mem-
bers of “critical” staff.

It should be noted that there may be a variety or combination of the

aforementioned contingencies. Regardless, employees need to have train-
ing programs and orientation programs that describe these situations and
the expectations of the workplace should they be implemented. Employees
may need a time to express concerns, ask questions, and receive infor-
mation. This is far better than having to implement these directives at the
time of a real crisis.

Real-Life Learning
In early 2002, this author provided consultation to one of the financial
institutions located a block from Ground Zero with a view of the “pit”
from its office windows. While some technical personnel reentered the
building that same day, the majority relocated to other facilities in New
Jersey, Connecticut, and New York. About a month later, plans were made
to have workers transition back to the main buildings. Workers would
have to return while it was still a crime scene, surrounded by police, the
military, and a wide range of security. They would look out their windows
to observe bodies being recovered. The pit was still smoldering and the
air quality was questionable. Initially, the idea was to “have people just
get on with it and return to work.” However, after some discussion, it
92  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

was clear that there should have been a transition plan because the people
were still deeply affected by the event.
This author worked closely with Dr. Leo Flanagan, the head of lead-
ership development for this company. Flanagan was instrumental in imple-
menting programs and policies to facilitate the reentry and reorientation
of personnel back into the building. We have spoken on several occasions
since then and with more than two years retrospective, he points out
several key concepts that were put in place to mitigate the potential impact:

 Orientation meetings that took place while the employees were still
in their relocation placements. While employees were still deployed
to other locations, there were group debriefings to discuss the
return to the main building. Subject matter experts were available
to answer a wide range of questions such as security, health
hazards, work issues, etc.
 Group tours of the building prior to reentry to work. People were
taken in groups from their temporary work sites, via ferries and
buses, through security into the building for a brief tour. No one
worked that day. Instead, they toured the building and then
returned home as a group.
 Availability of upper management. Management was highly visible
on the first days of reentry in the lobby of the building to greet
the employees as they went through the phalanx of law enforce-
ment and security personnel.
 Availability of EAP, HR, and Occupational Health Services. These
services were highly visible, “floating” through the offices rather
than waiting for people to come to them.
 Dissemination of medical information. There was a wide range of
medical information made available to all employees regarding
health issues.
 The little things were often the big issues: “How do I get to work
now?” “Where do we eat since the courtyard has been destroyed?”
“I don’t want to look out my window at the hole.” “My child is
scared about me working here and has nightmares.”
 Do not send an out-of-town administrative person to manage the
crisis. The attitude can be that “You are not one of us and you
were not there.”
 Ongoing support. Such support is required for a long time.
 Information is critical. This will be discussed in Chapter 9.
Chapter 7

Legal and Litigation

Aspects of Crises,
Traumas, and
Workplace Disruptions

While weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and bioterrorism, earthquakes

and hurricanes, floods and fires, power outages, and personnel reductions
may take the primary focus of Business Continuity Planning and Disaster
Management, all of these can often result in security and legal issues.
Frequently, the disruption caused by legal and security aspects has far-
reaching impact beyond an initial event. Unfortunately, these types of
incidents occur far too often and are not always handled appropriately.
They include:

 Homicide:
– Co-worker to co-worker
– Customer to worker
– Worker to customer
– Customer to customer
– Estranged partner to worker
 Robbery:
– On site with employees (e.g., bank robbery)
– Off site (e.g., delivery truck)

93
94  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

 Assault:
– Physical or sexual assault
– Co-worker to co-worker
– Customer to worker
– Worker to customer
– Customer to customer
– Estranged partner to worker
 Other criminal activity:
– Arson
– Sabotage
– Embezzlement
– Destruction of property

While time does not permit us to explore the repercussions that

emanate from each of these types of events, it is safe to suggest that each
of these situations can result in a wide range of security and liability
concerns. As an example, consider the sexual assault of a woman who
is staying at a hotel. It is about 9:00 p.m. and the assailant is a well-
dressed man who has been sitting in the hotel lobby across from the
elevators as if waiting for someone. A woman in her mid-twenties enters
the hotel lobby and proceeds to the elevators. As he sees her cross the
lobby, he follows her to and off the elevator and then pushes her into
the dark room as she is opening the door. He blindfolds her, ties her up,
rapes her, and then quietly leaves the room. She is discovered when her
muffled screams are heard by other guests in the hallway and they notify
the front desk. The front desk calls up to the room and there is no answer.
Security is called and they go to the room, hear her calls for help, and
proceed to open the door where they find her tied on the bed, partially
undressed, beaten and raped.
Certainly this is a trauma for the victim, who is immediately taken to
a hospital. The police are called and they have no way of determining
whether the assailant is still in the hotel… is he a patron?… an employee?
Everyone is considered a suspect. The detectives begin to interview as
many guests as possible, as well as staff. The media joins the circus with
their vans and news reporters on the streets surrounding the hotel. Imagine
the initial impact on the patrons and staff.
Fast forward to two days later. It has been determined that the assailant
left the hotel after the assault. The media have had their “involvement”
with the incident and the story has fallen off the front page (and even
the back page). The victim has been discharged from the hospital. Things
are back to business as usual… or are they?
Four weeks later, corporate headquarters of the hotel chain receives
a letter from an attorney representing the victim. The attorney indicates
 Legal and Litigation Aspects  95

that they are bringing charges against the hotel as a result of the sexual
assault on his client. They are citing inadequate security and poorly trained
staff as the primary reason for the civil suit.
What is the impact at this point on patrons and staff?
Two months later, there is a feature article in the local newspaper
about the rate of violent crime in the city’s hotels. Specific reference to
the sexual assault at the hotel receives significant coverage. The hotel
notices that patrons are beginning to ask the front desk personnel about
security issues. In addition, there has been a slight decrease in the number
of reservations since the article appeared.
Consider the same scenario, but now the assault is against an employee
of the hotel. Perhaps one of the housekeeping staff is assaulted while
preparing one of the rooms. Or, what if the assailant was an employee
of the hotel? Or, what if the victim was an employee and the assailant
was an estranged husband?
Does this represent a business interruption? An organizational crisis?
First, one must revisit the definition of “business interruption” from the
Disaster Response Journal Web site: A business interruption is “any
event, whether anticipated (i.e., public service strike) or unanticipated
(i.e., blackout) which disrupts the normal course of business operations
at an organization location.”1 In addition, one must ask what is the
business of this organization? Is it filling hotel rooms to capacity? Is it
the housekeeping and maintenance services? Is it the “customer service”
provided by front desk and concierge, parking, landscaping, security
personnel? Is it the provision of fine cuisine in the hotel restaurant and
lounges? Or, is it something less tangible, such as providing a sense of
safety and security for the guests? Is it securing the reputation of the
organization? Is it protecting the organization from liability claims? Is it
dealing with the social and emotional impacts on the employees of the
hotel? One can consider that it is all of the above.
Let’s return to the original incident and the receipt of a letter from the
victim’s attorney. Does this represent a business disruption? The basic
services at the hotel continue uninterrupted. The physical premises is
untouched. Computers, phones, and other utilities continue to work.
Employees continue to come to work on their regular schedule. There is
no natural disaster or major power outage. There is no strike, layoff,
acquisition, or merger. So what is the disruption?
Think about the impact of the legal proceedings. One can expect the
following to occur:

 Corporate legal begins to strategize a response to the letter.

 Part of this strategy is to contact the hotel to review with security
and hotel administration what actually transpired.
96  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

 The insurance carrier of the company is notified of the potential

lawsuit. The carrier begins to plan a response.
 Perhaps there is a need to interview or re-interview employees. If
there was an initial interview at the time of the incident, the
materials must be read and the individuals re-interviewed. Perhaps
some of the employees no longer work at the hotel and efforts
are made to relocate them.
 Employees may have been interviewed by the police at the time
of the event, then interviewed by hotel security, as well as the
hotel legal department and perhaps the insurance carrier’s inves-
tigator. The ripple effect of these types of interviews is discussed
later.
 The media may get wind of the lawsuit and begin to contact the
hotel, corporate office, as well as individual employees or guests.

Does this represent a business continuity problem? An organizational

crisis?
While the above is a hypothetical situation, albeit based on a real
occurrence, consider the following incident and the potential repercussion.
It was reported on the MSNBC Web site that a hospital in Ormond
Beach, Florida, had to discipline (including terminating) 25 hospital work-
ers because they did not show up for their scheduled work shifts, claiming
the impact of the hurricanes as the reason. According to the article, “Nurses
at Florida Hospital–Ormond Memorial were fired for not calling in, not
showing up or refusing to work, while others were suspended for not
completing a shift or coming late.” The hospital drew a lot of “bad press”
as a result of this administrative action.
This author spoke with a hospital spokesperson who was able to give
more details than the media coverage provided. She claimed that as a
healthcare facility, this was part of hospital policy. Further, hospital per-
sonnel knew for several days prior to the hurricane that was forecast and
to make arrangements for their families. In addition, the individual depart-
ments worked with their own personnel to accommodate those who had
extreme situations at home. Finally, the hospital made arrangements for
24/7 on-site daycare and set up shelters to house employees’ families.
It should also be noted that this hospital is non-union, employs over
2000 people, and that these 25 employees represented about 1 percent.
Were it a union workplace, could this have been done? If so, would there
have been grievances? Wrongful termination claims?
As with any crisis, there are “lessons learned” or “take away points.”
Take a moment and speculate as to ways to avoid this type of personnel
crisis.
 Legal and Litigation Aspects  97

Overview of Violence and Hostility in the Workplace

In the past couple of decades, “workplace violence” has become a familiar
term in our lexicon. Vignette 7.1 is an excerpt from a chapter written by
this author entitled “Workplace Violence: Protection and Causes” in Psy-
chopathology in the Workplace by Thomas and Hersen.2

7.1 Workplace Violence:

Protection and Causes
Source: Psychopathology in the Workplace by Thomas and Hersen
Now that the world and the workplace have moved into the 21st century,
there is increasing awareness of changes in individuals, families, com-
munities, countries, and the workplace. Change leads to stress, and
stress produces reactions. The majority of people cope quite well with
the stresses of their lives; however, some people become overwhelmed
and develop reactions that are maladaptive in nature. While there is
mounting concern about workplace violence, it should be understood
that this is but one way that people evidence pain, anguish, and suffer-
ing. Substance or alcohol abuse, marital/familial, financial or emotional
problems, and physical impairments are known to develop if people
cannot manage the stresses of their lives. These maladies cause signifi-
cant turmoil in personal as well as professional lives and place the indi-
vidual (and the workplace) “at risk” for more severe difficulties.
“Violence in the workplace” has become a familiar phrase in the
modern-day employment setting. Reports have been coming fast and
furious from a variety of sources citing stories and statistics that increase
alarm, anxiety, and apprehension. Statistics are reported in the media
that purport a dramatic increase in violence in the workplace. Certainly,
one should be concerned about these reports and should make every
effort to respond whenever possible. However, this response should be
done in an effective and proactive fashion that does not escalate the
issue with hype and hysteria! It must be remembered that as tragic as a
violent episode may be, it is still a low-frequency occurrence in the
workplace.
The National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health reported
data indicating that the number of workplace homicides dropped from
929 to 757 between 1980 and 1992. (NIOSH, 2003, ¶ 1 and 2.) Further, this
report indicated that 75 percent of these workplace homicides are com-
mitted as part of a robbery by an unknown assailant and that only 4–6
percent of homicides in the workplace were committed by co-workers.
(NIOSH, 2003, ¶ 11.) Finally, NIOSH and the CDC suggest that there are
more than one million nonfatal assaults in the workplace each year.
98  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

However, this only represents about 18 percent of the total acts of vio-
lence per year in the United States. (OSHA, 2003, ¶ 1–3.) The Department
of Justice data reports that between 1993 and 1999, the number of non-
fatal assaults decreased by 44 percent while workplace homicides
dropped by 39 percent. Eleven percent of these homicides were com-
mitted by co-workers, former co-workers or customers (Bureau of Labor
Statistics, 2001). There were 639 homicides in the workplace in 2001,
down from the 677 homicides that took place at work in 2000 (Bureau
of Labor Statistics, 2002).
Although the data may vary as a result of reporting discrepancies and
other factors, the numbers indicate that, in fact, the workplace is a
relatively safe environment when compared to the streets and homes
of America. Compared to feudal systems, slavery, sweatshops, “pre-
unionized” factories, and farms, the worker of today is at much less risk
of violence, injury, discrimination, or harassment. The last 50 years have
seen laws and policies that have improved the quality, comfort, and
safety of most workplaces.
While the primary goal of any work organization is to provide busi-
ness operations, it must be remembered that the Occupational Safety
and Health Administration (OSHA) has determined that “Each employer
shall furnish to each of his employees employment and a place of
employment which are free from recognized hazards that are causing
or are likely to cause death or serious physical harm to his employees”
29 U.S.C. 654(a) (OSHA, 2003). In recent years, interpretations of this
policy have come to include personal safety. The forward-thinking work-
place has instituted workplace violence policies that are similar in scope
to sexual harassment policies and protocols.
The goal is to have today’s work environment continue to provide
an increasing level of safety and security. And while there is no guarantee
of 100 percent prevention, there is much that can be done to enhance
safety and protection.

During the 1990s, the media (and mental health) attempted to draw
attention to workplace violence. However, the focus was on the wrong
perpetrator. While articles were written and seminars given about the
“disgruntled worker” and how to recognize him or her, it did little to
increase a sense of security and safety. In fact, it created a sense of
paranoia as people began to become suspicious of fellow workers. Train-
ing sessions were developed and rolled out to supervisors about how to
recognize the potentially violent individual. The often-cited characteristics
are described in Table 7.1. When this author provides training programs,
a slide of this material is included and entitled “Interesting, but Unhelpful
Information.” This is primarily the case because it is too broad, and much
of the information will be unknown to the workplace supervisor. Or, as
 Legal and Litigation Aspects  99

TABLE 7.1 Often-Cited Characteristics of the Potentially Violent

Individual
 35+ white male
 Familiar with and/or owns weapons
 Likes gun or hunting magazines
 Uses or misuses alcohol or other substances
 Is a loner
 May have a previous history of assaultive behavior
 Complains about work and co-workers
 May have been a victim of early childhood trauma
 May have sustained a head injury
 May have previous history of mental health issues

TABLE 7.2 Average Annual Rate of Homicide in the Workplace

by Victim/Perpetrator Relationship: 1992–1999
Average Percentage
Annual of Total
Relationship to Victim Number (%)
Total 897 100
Stranger 753 84
Co-worker, former co-worker 67 7
Customer, client 36 4
Husband 17 2
Wife — —
Boyfriend 10 1
Other relationship/acquaintance 14 2
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCVS.

one police officer stated, “Well, this describes half the guys in our depart-
ment.” And finally, even if we did have a worker who was characterized
by the aforementioned qualities, this is not an indicator that he will, in
fact, act out in a violent manner. To treat him differently or with increased
scrutiny would be akin to racial profiling. “The guy has not done anything
wrong but he looks like someone who might… therefore, let’s keep an
eye on him.”
What is now understood is that homicides in the workplace are a true
anomaly, and the incidence of co-worker–to–co-worker homicide is a
relatively rare occurrence. Table 7.2 describes the average annual rate of
100  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

TABLE 7.3 Average Number, Rate, and Percentage of Workplace

Violence by Category: 1993–1999
Average Percentage of
Annual Rate per Workplace Violence
Category Number 1000 (%)
All crimes 1,744,200 12.5 100
Homicide 900 0.01 0.1
Rapes/sexual assault 36,500 0.3 2.1
Robbery 70,100 0.5 4
Simple assault 1,311,700 9.4 75.2
Aggravated assault 325,000 2.3 18.6
Source: Bureau of Justice Statistics, NCVS.

homicide in the workplace by victim/perpetrator relationship and also

indicates that co-worker–to–co-worker violence is not the primary source
of concern. In fact, of the homicides that do take place in the workplace,
somewhere around only 5 to 7 percent, are co-worker to co-worker. The
same is true for other types of violent behavior. Table 7.3 describes the
categories of violent crimes in the workplace between the years 1993 and
1999. These statistics indicate that homicides in the workplace represent
less that 1 percent of all the violent crimes that take place in that setting.
Sexual assaults and robberies account for an average of 6 percent, while
aggravated and simple assaults comprise about 94 percent.
One “fact” widely circulated is that homicide is the second-leading
cause of death among women in the workplace. Well, this certainly may
give one pause… along with a touch of paranoia. However, if one looks
more closely, a woman being killed on the job from any cause is a rare
event. Furthermore, most women who are victims of homicide are being
killed by people with whom they have been involved romantically, be it
a co-worker or non-co-worker. Or, they are victims of another type of
crime, such as a robbery or sexual assault, that results in an unplanned
murder. For the latter type of situation, improving security tends to be
the only solution. For the former, there is much that can be done.

The Cost of Workplace Violence

As indicated previously, homicides are a statistically low-occurring event
in the American workplace. However, when they do occur and coupled
with the other types of violence, it can be a costly event. The following
are some statistics describing the financial impact of business:
 Legal and Litigation Aspects  101

 September 1993: a National Safe Workplace Institute study revealed

$4.2 billion spent annually. The study estimated that in 1992,
111,000 violent incidents were committed in work environments,
resulting in 750 deaths.3
 1995: the Workplace Violence Research Institute reviewed five
categories of crime in the workplace: fatalities, rapes, aggravated
assaults, threats, or acts of harassment. The results of the research
project showed that workplace violence actually resulted in a $36
billion annual loss.4

Joanne Sammer wrote in an article, entitled “Combating Workplace

Violence” in Business Finance Mag.com, that an incident of workplace
violence affects a number of variables. She cites the Department of Justice
estimate that workplace violence cost companies $6.2 billion in 1992 in
lost wages, medical costs, and support costs. Furthermore, she goes on
to claim that “[t]he National Council on Compensation Insurance found
that companies paid out $126 million in workers’ compensation claims
for workplace violence in 1995.”5
As dramatic as these figures may be, they pale in comparison to the
legal costs. Sammer continues in her article that “[p]erhaps the biggest
potential financial drain on a company is the potential legal liability if the
victims of workplace violence or their families pursue civil litigation.
Awards in such lawsuits have reached into the millions of dollars in some
cases.”6 She also describes the following variables as contributing to the
cost of workplace violence:7

 Workers’ compensation claims for both the injured and any other
employees who witnessed or were traumatized by the violent
incident
 Increase in medical claims for stress-related illnesses, as well as
psychological counseling for all employees after a violent incident
 Management time taken up by managers’ involvement in dealing
with the press, meetings to help plan the company’s reaction to a
violent incident, meetings to help get the company back to normal,
and other activities tied to a violent incident
 Lost time and absenteeism following a violent incident
 Loss of productivity in the wake of a violent incident
 Litigation costs
 Lost sales, which can occur if a company must close its site for a
period of time after a violent incident and if customers cancel
orders or postpone purchases in the wake of bad publicity
 Negative publicity, which is difficult to quantify but can have a
residual effect on the company
102  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

 The company’s reactive mode (In the wake of a violent incident,

companies tend to go overboard when putting in programs to
prevent a recurrence of workplace violence, and these costs can
include consultants’ time, training programs, enhanced security,
and improved safety procedures.)

In summary, an incident of workplace violence has a far-reaching financial

impact on an organization when all the cost factors are considered, and
as such, should certainly be considered an organizational crisis to avoid.
Interestingly, some types of incidents that wind up costing an organi-
zation a large amount of expenditure of resources as well as money are
not often considered a violent act. What about destruction of property?
Or sabotage? Or civil suits as a result of sexual harassment, wrongful
termination, or discrimination?
As reported in an article written by Muarico Valasquez of the Diversity
Training Group,8 the cost of sexual harassment in the public sector
reported in 1980 for the previous two years was $189 million. As reported
in 1987 for the previous two years, it was $267 million; and in 1994 for
the prior two years, it was $327 million. In the private sector, it was
estimated that in 1988, some sexual harassment/discrimination claims
received more than $15 million per claim in settlement costs. “Today,
cumulative costs can come close to $1 billion… for pay-for-pay incongru-
ities, including failure to provide equal pay, offer equal opportunities for
promotion, or for not shielding women employees from harassment.”
So while all eyes may be on the disgruntled employee or the potential
terrorist, many other forms of violence and hostility can be viewed as
potential business disruption events.

“Preventing?” Workplace Violence

It is not possible to truly prevent acts of hostility and violence. However,
there is much that can be done to augment the degree of protection by
modifying the workplace expectations. This might include:

 Developing policies, procedures, and protocols. It is the opinion

of this author that most workplaces are over-policized… there are
practically no policies about how to write policies. However, the
major problem is that they often stay in a three-ring binder in the
HR department or else are jammed into the abundance of paper-
work as part of a new hire’s orientation. On occasion (usually
when deemed necessary to be in compliance with a federal or
state mandate), there may be a seminar for employees. Three
 Legal and Litigation Aspects  103

policies that this author believes are critical to the advancement

of positive behavior in the workplace include (1) a workplace
hostility policy; (2) a comprehensive job description policy; and
(3) a well-developed progress report policy. Table 7.4 provides a
sample of a Workplace Hostility Policy.
 Training first- and second-level supervisors regarding the imple-
mentation of these policies and their duties and responsibilities.
 Educating all employees.
 Building compliance with workplace policies into regular job
descriptions (see “Comprehensive Job Description”).

TABLE 7.4 A Sample of a Workplace Hostility Policy

It is the goal of the ABC Corporation to provide a physically and emotionally
safe work environment. It is imperative that all employees, customers,
contractors, and guests, at every level, be treated with the respect and
dignity afforded to all humans, regardless of race, nationality, religion,
gender, age, sexual preference, or position within the organization. To this
end, this policy is being implemented to assist in clarifying the behavioral
and procedural expectations.

Definition of Hostility and Violence: No employee shall engage in hostile and/or

violent behavior on company property or during any type of company-related
activity. Hostility refers to any nonphysical forms of harassment,
discrimination, and offensive behavior. Examples include but are not limited
to: ethnic/sexual/racial jokes; verbal threats or offensive gestures; yelling
and/or swearing at an individual; stalking or harassing phone calls, faxes, pager
messages. Violence is any behavior that results in unwanted physical contact
such as hitting, pushing, spitting, biting, or damage to property. Unwanted
sexual contact is certainly considered to be hostile and violent behavior. There
may be other behaviors that do not fall within these definitions, but also may
be considered inappropriate for the workplace.

Definition of Weapons: No employee may bring any firearm, knife, or other

form of armament to the workplace or any type of company-related activity.
This includes personal lockers, automobiles, etc. No employee may use any
object or equipment (e.g.., letter openers, ashtrays, chairs, tools, etc.) as a
“weapon” to threaten and/or to inflict bodily harm or damage to property.

Investigation Process: It is expected that any employee experiencing or

witnessing this type of behavior will make a report to (personnel, security,
human resources, etc.). The alleged incident will be evaluated and
investigated by (Safety, Personnel, Human Resources). Also, if a union
member is involved, the (union official, steward, etc.) will be notified
immediately of the incident and of the investigation. If required, local law
enforcement may be contacted. During or after the investigation, there can
be no retaliation against any party involved with the incident.
104  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

TABLE 7.4 A Sample of a Workplace Hostility Policy (continued)

Pending the results of the full investigation, the individual(s) involved may:
(1) be allowed to continue to work; (2) be placed on administrative leave;
(3) be referred for a medical/psychological evaluation; (4) be taken into the
custody of the law enforcement agency; (5) be transferred; or (6) be placed
on some other administrative status.

Confidentiality of Investigation: Every effort will be made to respect the

confidentiality of all involved parties; however, this may not always be
possible to guarantee, given the nature of the investigation. There may be
occasions when other employees/witnesses will be interviewed about the
alleged event or the alleged perpetrator’s behavior. Should a referral to the
EAP or a medical/psychological professional be indicated, a waiver of
confidentiality will be requested in order for the investigating party to
receive the results of the evaluation. It is understood that the evaluation is
not part of the disciplinary process, but is rather an effort to determine the
individual’s ability to return to work.

Disciplinary Action: Upon completion of the investigation, a decision will

be made regarding discipline. Hostile and/or violent behavior may result
in disciplinary action, up to and including termination of employment.

The goal of this policy is to prevent incidents from occurring and, those
that do, from escalating. Further, it is not the intent of this policy to infringe
on the rights of any employee, but rather to ensure courteous behavior.
Further, the goal is to do everything possible to ensure a safe work
environment for all personnel at all levels. It also should be noted that any
parties involved in an alleged incident have the right to seek legal counsel
at their own expense.

Please feel free to contact ______________________ should you have further

questions regarding this policy.

Displaced Domestic Violence

In the 1990s, it was estimated that as many as 20 percent of workplace
homicides and many of the assaults against women occurred as a result
of displaced domestic violence. The woman may have been living in
hiding, but the man knew where she worked and went to that place to
commit a crime against her… and perhaps other employees. Currently,
the numbers vary, but as stated before, many of the assaults and homicides
are still perpetrated by an estranged romantic interest. Given this, it is
recommended that organizations should include in their workplace vio-
lence policy an additional clause that deals with domestic violence and
restraining orders. Many women who are victims of violence will not
 Legal and Litigation Aspects  105

TABLE 7.5 Sample Language for a Generic Restraining Order Policy

The ABC Corporation makes every effort to maintain a safe work
environment. It is also understood that people may have experiences in
their personal lives that may place them in vulnerable circumstances. At
times, people seek assistance from the police and courts, and they issue a
restraining order against someone. Certainly, this is a personal matter and
the ABC Corporation has no desire to intrude on one’s privacy. However,
in an effort to maintain your safety as well as the safety of your co-workers,
the following is suggested protocol:

1. If you have a restraining order issued against an individual, please

inform (HR, security, etc.).
2. Please bring a copy of the restraining order, which will be kept in a
confidential file in case the police need to be called.
3. If possible, please bring a picture of the individual.
4. All efforts will be made to respect and protect your privacy, and only
essential personnel will be informed of your situation. Who specifically
will be notified will be discussed with you.
5. Please feel free to discuss with HR or your department manager any-
thing that can be done to facilitate your safety and welfare while at
work.
6. It is also strongly urged that you seek support services from the EAP
(phone number).
7. If your circumstances change and the status of the retraining order is
modified, please advise (HR, security).

Once again, it is understood that these may be difficult and private

situations. As much as is possible, our goal is to maintain a safe work
environment for you and your co-workers. We appreciate your
cooperation.

come forward, especially in the workplace. The sense of shame and

embarrassment, as well as fear, keeps many victims from disclosing the
abuse or seeking services. Including a policy in the Employee Handbook
may help those victims come forward, as it demonstrates that they are
not alone in their plight. Table 7.5 is a sample of generic language for a
restraining order policy.

A Comprehensive Job Description

As the director of an EAP, there have been many times when this author
has heard from a supervisor or department head that “You know, Joe is
a great worker, but he doesn’t get along with the guys in our department.”
106  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Or, “Sue does a great job when she works alone at her desk on her
computer, but she is always getting into conflicts with others in the office.”
Or, “When Steve is on, he is really on and gets more work done than
most. The problem is that half the time he is not on, calls in sick a lot,
takes too much time away from work, and, in general, is a pain in the
rear to work with.” When consulting with supervisors and department
heads, it seems that many do not understand that maintaining behavioral
expectations, which include cooperation, communication, and courtesy,
is of equal importance as any technical proficiencies.
As the workplace has moved from a manufacturing orientation to one
of service and information, it has become increasingly important for people
to be able to communicate effectively with both customers and co-workers.
However, as the workplace continues to put greater demands on its
employees through downsizings, reorganizations, mergers, and such,
oftentimes the pressure and stress manifest themselves in the form of
confusion and conflict around duties and responsibilities. It is common
for workers to become more isolated from each other as a result of the
work demand. Lunches in the cafeteria or lounge have been replaced
with grabbing a bite at one’s desk. Coffee breaks have gone the way of
the mythological water cooler as a forum for social “schmoozing” through
which workers got to know each other and develop some semblance of
a personal relationship. Temporary or contract workers have replaced
regular employees, resulting in an ever-shifting dynamic in workplace
collaboration. E-mail and voicemail, with their terse and concise format,
have replaced direct contact, which allowed for a few moments of social
interchange. In sum, as a result of the workplace grinding at an accelerated
pace, these and other dynamics have resulted in the social fabric becoming
threadbare.
Therefore, it is all the more essential to set up specific behavioral
expectations and guidelines to help employees understand that working
as a cooperative, communicative, and courteous employee remains a
significant component of any job description. So often, job descriptions
delineate the technical- and skill-based aspects of employment. So often,
organizations have a wide range of company policies and procedures by
which employees are expected to abide. (Usually, these policies are
communicated only through an employee handbook and/or during the
initial orientation.) So often, they are not discussed again unless an
individual has made a significant breach of one of them.
Currently, many organizations tolerate a wide range of behaviors that
may be considered unsuitable for the workplace. This usually is as a result
of it being considered separate and distinct from one’s job description
and occupational performance. Certainly, as the workplace becomes
 Legal and Litigation Aspects  107

TABLE 7.6 Sample Job Description

This position requires that the individual be able to abide by the behavioral
expectations (codes of conduct) as delineated in the Employee Handbook.
Examples of these behavioral expectations include but are not limited to
safety, drug and alcohol, sexual harassment, absenteeism, sick leave
policies, etc. [In addition, it is recommended that the job description also
include language to this effect:] This position requires that the individual
be able to comport him- or herself in an appropriate manner, maintaining
courteous and effective interactions and communication with other
employees and/or customers. Specifically, this includes but is not limited to:

 Speaking in a normal tone of voice (no yelling, raised volume, or

sarcasm)
 Refraining from using profane or vulgar language
 Maintaining respectful personal space and body language
 Working effectively with others to facilitate the completion of their
duties and responsibilities
 Maintaining suitable dress code and personal hygiene
 Abiding by company policies
 Maintaining care and cleanliness of his of her workspace and equipment

increasingly diverse as well as increasingly stressful, there is a need to

have very clear guidelines regarding behavioral expectations. Furthermore,
employees at all levels need to see that the ability to maintain a certain
code of conduct is an essential feature of any job. In addition, including
this expectation in a job description would necessitate that supervisors
discuss these matters with their supervisees as part of the regular review
process. That is, it keeps the “humanistic” qualifications of the job descrip-
tion on a par with the “technological” qualifications.
Presently, most job descriptions focus on technical skills, training, and
knowledge and are vaguely worded. Some include an equally indistinctly
formulated statement to the effect that the employee shall perform other
duties and responsibilities as delineated by his or her supervisor. This
common yet obscure wording of a job description can result in further
confusion and conflict. Rather, job descriptions should include as essential
duties and responsibilities definitive technical and professional skills as
well as components such as the ones in Table 7.6.
Some might ask, well if we include this as part of a job description, how
does it influence or impact the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA). The
ADA has become an increasingly complex issue since it was first imple-
mented. It is not the goal of this book — nor is there time or space — to
develop all of the intricacies, twists, and turns of the ADA policies. However,
it would seem that including behavioral expectations (or adherence to Codes
108  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

TABLE 7.7 The Ten Commandments for the Workplace

These apply to all employees at all levels.

1. Thou shalt speak in a normal tone of voice (no yelling, raised volume,
or sarcasm).
2. Thou shalt refrain from using profane or vulgar language.
3. Thou shalt maintain courteous personal space and body language.
4. Thou shalt work effectively with others to facilitate the completion of
their duties and responsibilities.
5. Thou shalt maintain a suitable dress code as designated by the depart-
ment head or manager. This may include clothing, make-up, jewelry,
tattoos, etc.
6. Thou shalt maintain good personal hygiene.
7. Thou shalt maintain care and cleanliness of the workspace and equip-
ment.
8. Thou shalt report to work on time and abide by a specific work sched-
ule.
9. Thou shalt abide by all company policies (i.e., smoking, sexual harass-
ment, drug and alcohol).
10. Thou shalt maintain courtesy and cooperation even in the face of
discourtesy.

of Conduct) as part of a job description would actually simplify matters

regarding what is and is not a “reasonable accommodation.” Further, regard-
less of disability or protected status, tolerance of the aforementioned
behavioral expectations would not be considered a “reasonable accom-
modation.” As an example, there may be an employee who is suffering
from bipolar disorder. Extreme moodiness, irritability, emotional hyper-
sensitivity, some paranoid ideation, and hyperactivity can characterize this
disorder. It is certainly not a reasonable accommodation to tolerate emo-
tional outbursts, hostile behavior, or disruptions in the workplace. In this
case, a reasonable accommodation might be to allow for flex time due
to side effects of medication or for therapy appointments, or, perhaps, to
change the location of a workspace so as to lessen stimulation and
distraction, etc.
In closing, professionalism should be defined as having both the
training, knowledge, skills, and experience to do the work, as well as the
capacity to maintain behavioral expectations relevant to the workplace.
When providing workshops, in an effort to be humorous and certainly
not to inflict any religious or political over- or undertone, this author
discusses the “Ten Commandments of the Workplace”; or the “Workplace
Bill of Rights” (right behavior for the workplace)” as presented in Table 7.7.
 Legal and Litigation Aspects  109

References
1. www.drj.com, Disaster Response Journal Web site.
2. G. Lewis, Psychopathology in the Workplace, J. Thomas and M. Hersen,
Eds., Brunner Routledge, New York, 2004, pp. 313–331.
3. www.noworkviolence.com/articles/cost_of_workplace_violence.htm.
4. www.noworkviolence.com/articles/cost_of_workplace_violence.htm.
5. www.businessfinancemag.com/channels/riskManagement/article.html?
articleID=4365.
6. www.businessfinancemag.com/channels/riskManagement/article.html?
articleID=4365.
7. www.businessfinancemag.com/channels/riskManagement/article.html?
articleID=4365.
8. www.diversitydtg.com.
Chapter 8

Key Roles Within and

Outside the Organization

By now there should be a clear sense that a myriad of incidents may

befall and disrupt a work organization and the individuals within that
organization. Further, there may be a variety of reactions from the different
individuals. Finally, there are stages (phases) as individuals, as well as the
organization, travel the journey to re(dis)covery. In any case, the goal is
to facilitate the most positive and productive formation of a self-concept
or new identity. The personality of the individual is about to change. The
culture of the community, country, or workplace is about to shift. How
can it be done in a way that does not cause further distress and more
pain and suffering? Perhaps, a new type of leadership is required.

The SAFE-T Team

As part of providing a proactive response to business disruption, time and
resources must be utilized to develop a team that can set policies,
procedures, and protocols. While many organizations already might have
an individual or a team, it is usually not sufficiently “wide or deep.”
Further, the focus is often on getting the business “back on line,” with
limited priority given to the social and emotional issues. Rather than call
it a crisis team, or business continuity team or disaster response team, all
of which can provoke anxiety and a reactive orientation, this author prefers

111
112  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

the acronym of SAFE-T team, which stands for: Security assessment,

Administrative pr epar edness, Facilitation of r esour ces, Employee
services, T raining. This team is composed of key personnel from within
the organization: Human Resources, Risk Management, Security, Employee
Assistance Program, Legal, representation from supervisors or department
heads, representation from labor unions, Information Technology, Main-
tenance, etc.
In addition, it is important to establish relationships with key organi-
zations outside the workplace that would respond to incidents, including:

 Media
 First responders (police, fire, EMT, hospitals)
 State emergency agencies
 Federal emergency agencies
 Insurance carriers
 Community services: local government, schools, clergy, shelters,
counseling centers, etc.

This chapter focuses on developing a team or expanding one that is

already in place. In his book, Blindsided: A Manager’s Guide to Cata-
strophic Incidents in the Workplace, Bruce Blythe provides a well-orga-
nized approach and justification to having what he calls a Crisis Planning
Committee (CPC).1 Whether you call it a CPC, a SAFE-T committee, or a
BCP committee, it makes no real difference. What does matter is that it
is a committee or group of people who meet together on a regular basis
to strategize responses.

Management and Leadership

What exactly do these two terms mean? Are they synonymous, or do they
represent two different functions? Do managers lead? Do leaders manage?
What does it really matter anyway… how does this all connect to orga-
nizational continuity and emergency management?
Henry Mintzberg suggests that since Henri Fayol first began to write
about the science of management, four activities describe the role of a
manager: (1) planning, (2) organizing, (3) coordinating, and (4) control-
ling.2 He continues on to suggest that these activities do not truly begin
to describe the role of a manager as much of their time is spent on
communicating, building relationships, liaising with outside resources,
dealing with inter-employee issues, etc. In other words, so often it is the
people issues rather than the professional or technical ones that weigh
heavily for a manager.
 Key Roles Within and Outside the Organization  113

Put another way, John Kotter writes that managing is about “coping
with complexity while leading is coping with change.”3 Put in this author’s
(Lewis) own terms, leading is looking at the big picture, while managing
is dealing with the details. Or, a more pleasant image (at least for this
author) is one of sailboat racing. In 1987, this author crewed on a sailboat
in the Massachusetts to Bermuda race. Prior to the race, the crew got
together many times before the race to talk, eat, practice, and get to know
each other and the boat. The goals were to stay safe, to sail hard, and
sail to win. The captain (and owner) of the boat worked with the navigator
in planning the best course (the big picture). My role was to be on for
four hours and then off for fours hours, around the clock. When on duty,
I was to “take care of the jib sail.” So while the captain led the crew and
established where we were going and how we would get there, I among
the others had to deal with trimming (managing) the sails. Certainly, as
a “trimmer” I would provide some input and information back to the
captain, as would the other crew members who were managing other
duties and responsibilities. Further, while there was a hierarchy, there was
constant communication on board as the conditions changed. I am sure
many are wondering how we fared. Well after almost five days, we arrived
in Bermuda, very wet, rather ripe, and in first place for our class. This is
a classic example of the relationship between leading and managing:

 There was an established relationship between the captain and the

crew.
 Each crew member knew his or her duties and responsibilities.
 The captain trusted the crew to do their work without microman-
aging it.
 The captain depended on the crew, as the boat could not go
without their efforts.
 The captain relied on the crew for input and information that he
may not have been aware of.
 The crew members worked with each other (as a cross-functional
team) to be sure that all duties were being performed.
 As conditions changed, the entire team provided feedback to both
each other and the captain in order to accommodate any
changes…maintain the course and complete the race.

There are other metaphors that apply the same logic. Unfortunately,
most of them involve sports. Once again, think of a football team that
has a captain and team members. The captain or quarterback may call a
play, but this is often based on feedback from the team members. The
team members then manage their duties depending upon their position.
Each position is considered vital and important to the team. After each
114  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

down, they huddle, provide feedback to each other about the “conditions,”
and then determine the next play.
Said in a more simplistic yet compelling way by Thomas Teal, “Man-
aging is not a set of mechanical tasks, but a set of human interactions.”4
Teal uses the words “management” and “leadership” interchangeably, and
goes on to say that management involves having integrity, which includes
taking responsibility, communicating well, keeping promises, and having
a good understanding of one’s self. Workers will tolerate a boss who may
not be technically skilled but who has a great ability to relate to others.
Heifitz and Laurie describe the work of a leader in another way. When
work organizations face a crisis of some type, it might be considered an
“adaptive challenge.” “Adaptive work is required when our deeply held
beliefs are challenged.” They go on to explain that adaptive work is
necessary when the values that were held before are forced to change or
become less relevant or irrelevant. The difficult part of adaptive changes
is that they “are systemic and have no ready answers.” At times that require
adaptive changes to respond to the situation, Heifitz and Laurie make
three other critical points: (1) “solutions to adaptive challenges reside not
in the executive suite, but in the collective intelligence of employees at
all levels, often across boundaries”; (2) “adaptive changes are distressing
for the people going through it… as new roles relationships, new values
and behaviors, and new approaches to work are required”; and (3) often
there can be competing perspectives that are all legitimate, yet result in
internal turmoil.5 Once again, think back to the issues of cultur e as
discussed in Chapter 1.
Once again, this is not new information for any of us who have been
through any kind of personal or professional crisis. As a country, we have
witnessed this since 9/11. We saw Rudy Guiliani respond to the tragedy
of New York in a way that catapulted him to “hero” status. (Some may
remember that just six months prior to 9/11, he was the subject of great
media and political scrutiny involving his marital situation.) However,
many believe that his early leadership of New York City as it went through
the initial stages of reaction to the event was truly worthy of attention.
And, in fact, he has gotten a great deal of that (attention) since then. A
consulting company, a book, and at this writing rumor has it that he is
being considered for some position in the Bush cabinet.
Fred Fiedler developed a contingency theory of leadership. Summa-
rized quite simply, Fiedler postulated that there were two types of lead-
ership styles: (1) “task oriented” and (2) “relationship oriented.” Fiedler
further suggested that these leadership orientations were inborn rather
than learned. Further, each style is better, depending on the “situational
variables.” At times of a crisis, he suggested that a take-charge, task-
oriented type of leadership is more viable than the relationship-oriented
 Key Roles Within and Outside the Organization  115

approach. A leader who can manage the big picture, focus on details,
and not worry too much about the feelings of the workers (or soldiers)
would get better performance from his or her group.
It is my opinion that during the early stages of a crisis or tragedy, this
task-oriented approach is critical. However, at later phases, a combination
of task-oriented and relationship-oriented leadership is more suitable.
Therefore, it is suggested that a team approach to crisis management is
best. Some of the team will focus on the operational details (task oriented),
while others prioritize the relational orientation.
Norman Bates of Liability Consultants, Inc., is an expert in the field of
security and liability issues in the workplace. He is an attorney who is
often asked to provide expert testimony for either the plaintiff or defendant
(work organization) in cases that involve workplace violence. (I would
recommend to the reader a visit to Bates’ Web site at www.liabilitycon-
sultants.com.) Bates and this author have worked together on several
cases. As part of the development of this author’s course for the online
certificate program in Emergency Management and Organizational Conti-
nuity, Bates and I have discussed a wide range of factors of which an
organization and its employees must be aware. The following are key
elements from our discussions.

Key Points
Investigations and Passive Trauma
With many workplace crises — most discernibly trauma and criminal
activities — there is usually a resulting investigation. At times, this may
include the organization’s security personnel, local and state police, per-
haps the FBI, and also the insurance carrier. If civil or criminal litigation
is to go forward, further investigation by attorneys might also be included.
All of the above may be spread out over months or years. Oftentimes,
people express that the crisis or trauma was not nearly as bad as the
investigation. Let us remember the concepts of active and passive trauma.
Once again, one way to help mitigate the impact of passive trauma
incurred by the investigative process is to do the following:

 Have policies and protocols in place that spell out the nature of
the investigation.
 Provide face-to-face information from a supportive resource prior
to the investigation to explain the process and expectations.
 Provide support for the individual who is going through the inves-
tigation. If not a possibility, then it would be very helpful to have
116  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

someone available to debrief the individual after his or her encoun-

ter.
 Utilize EAP as a support resource for people who are involved
with such investigations.

To Policize… or Not to Policize… That Is the Question

Another area that organizations must be aware of is to have up-to-date
policies and procedures. Furthermore, as discussed in other chapters in
this book, it is essential that these policies be “rolled out” with training
seminars so that all employees have an awareness of them and an
understanding of how and when they will be implemented. We discussed
at length what Bates refers to as the outdated strategy of “no policy is
the best policy.” Some lawyers will suggest to an organization that if that
organization has a workplace violence policy and there is an incident that
goes to litigation (be it civil or criminal), then having a policy can result
in the opposing counsel assessing whether (1) it was a comprehensive
policy and (2) every detail of the policy was implemented corr ectly.
Therefore, some feel that to have a policy can work against you. In a
word, this is nonsense. As long as the policy is reasonable and efforts to
implement it were reasonable, then it should not splash back on the
organization in a harmful way. However, it should be noted that to have
any policy that sits in a binder in the Human Resources Department
without adequate implementation and training is not a great idea.

Saying You Are Sorry Is Acknowledging Suffering… Not Guilt

Another topic that was discussed was the issue of apologies. There are
some lawyers who suggest that it is not a good idea to ever say, “I’m
sorry about the accident/injury/robbery/layoff/etc., in which you/your
husband/your co-worker was injured/killed/lost his job.” Some, from a
legal and security perspective, will advise that it is best not to utter these
words as they may be construed as an admission of guilt. Some go as far
as to suggest that senior management should not attend a funeral of an
employee who has died or been killed on the job. Even visiting an injured
employee in the hospital might appear too guilt-assuming. So their advice
is often to “stonewall,” to remain silent, to have no communication with
the family except through the lawyers, etc.
Several years ago, this author responded to a workplace trauma in
which a regular customer was killed at a sand and gravel company. He
had driven his pickup truck into the pit, climbed up on a mountain of
gravel, and began to shovel gravel into the bed of his truck. The gravel
 Key Roles Within and Outside the Organization  117

avalanched down and buried him. The workers ran to the scene and,
using their bare hands, tried to find, uncover, and resuscitate him — but
to no avail. Owners of the sand and gravel company attended the funeral
but were advised by legal counsel not to contact or to communicate
directly with the family. Although that regular customer was doing some-
thing that was against the rules of the workplace, the family brought a
suit against the company, a suit that was later settled out of court. Later,
this author did a follow-up on the situation, and was told an interesting
story by one of the company owners that is anecdotal and unverified, but
nonetheless very interesting. At the end of the settlement meeting, the
adult son of the killed customer approached one of the owners of the
sand and gravel company and said something akin to this: “We knew that
our father was wrong in what he did. If your company had paid a personal
condolence call or written a letter… or if there had been an apology as
an acknowledgment of the accident, this lawsuit would most likely not
have happened.”
In discussing this with Bates, we both agreed (legally and emotionally)
that apologies do not connote responsibility. Rather, apologizing on behalf
of a work organization signifies acknowledgment of a tragedy. It is no
different than if one were paying a condolence call to a family who has
lost a loved one; when you say something like, “I’m sorry for your loss,”
or “I’m sorry about the death of your father”; is acknowledging their
suffering and sorrow. While some readers might be saying, “I get it; this
is rather mundane and you shouldn’t be insulting my intelligence with
this,” it must be understood that the workplace must be able to practice
the same degree of acknowledgment and compassion and not have to
worry as much about being “LC” (legally correct). If there is an incident
in a workplace that results in death, injury, loss of a job, criminal victim-
ization, or any other type of physical or emotional injury, it is imperative
for the work organization to provide the same sense of acknowledgment.
Even in cases of large-scale layoffs, a personal letter or even a visit from
the president of the company, prior to the departure of the personnel,
might be a gallant effort toward mitigating some of the potential emotional
impact.
In the discussion with Bates, he too has had numerous situations where
this is the case. Expressing sympathy or condolences; sending letters,
cards, or donations; and attending funerals are an important component
of the healing process. In a workplace setting, it is essential for upper
management to be available and to communicate dir ectly with the
impacted employees. Teal describes in his chapter entitled “The Human
Side of Management” the example of William Peace of Westinghouse
where 15 employees were to be laid off. Instead of having his subordinates
deliver the message, he went before the 15 employees and listened to
118  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

their complaints, accusations, and upset. He attempted to answer questions

directly and understood their feelings. Teal summarizes by saying that by
the end of the meeting, the employees came to appreciate the necessity
of the decision… even if they did not appreciate being the victims of it.
The point of all of this is to drive home the message that in times of
crisis, people need leadership and management at all levels:

 There must be a preexisting relationship among the people.

 There must be established roles and goals for each position.
 The must be policies and protocols in place prior to a crisis.
 There must be practices or drills to see how the plans and protocols
work prior to the game or race.
 There must be a method of feedback and communication.
 There must be visibility and availability of leaders.
 Leadership does not mean that one has all the answers, but it does
mean that one will listen to the questions.
 Leadership does not necessarily mean that one is charismatic, but
a leader must be compassionate.
 Compassion, put very simply, is the ability to acknowledge
another’s pain.
 Oftentimes, people who rise to the level of leadership have strong
egos. However, once one gets there, it is time to back-shelf the
ego… a difficult task.
 Do not be afraid to face the victims and to acknowledge their
experience by saying you are sorry for what they have to go
through.

References
1. B.T. Blythe, Blindsided: A Manager’s Guide to Catastrophic Incidents in
the Workplace, Penguin Group, Toronto, 2002.
2. H. Mintzberg, The Manager’s Job: Folklore and Fact, Harvard Business
School Press, Boston, 1998.
3. J.P. Kotter, What Managers Really Do, Harvard Business Review on Lead-
ership, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1998, p. 37.
4. T. Teal, The Human Side of Management, Harvard Business Review on
Leadership, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1998, p. 150.
5. R. Heifiz and D. Laurie, The Work of Leadership, Harvard Business Review
on Leadership, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, 1998, p. 173.
Chapter 9

Employee Services
and Programs

By now the message(s) should be clear — but they will be stated once
again. An essential component of any BCP, DR, or EM plan is to be sure
that care for personnel is given every consideration as a high priority. It
should be expected that for some employees, their reactions and ability
to return to regular work duties might lag behind the operational aspects
of recovery. It will require a team effort to manage the immediate and
long-term repercussions. So what can an organization provide for its
employees in an effort to mitigate the impact and to ameliorate the
situation? Discussion of some of the strategies, concepts, policies, and
programs were woven into the content of the preceding chapters. How-
ever, at this point, the focus is specifically on services and programs.

Pre-incident Planning
Policies, Protocols, and Plans

1. Your Crisis or SAFE-T team should be sure that the following

policies are up-to-date:
a. Evacuation policies and plans
b. Workplace hostility policy

119
120  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

c. Domestic violence/restraining order policy

d. Sexual harassment policy
e. All other codes of conduct policies that depend on the nature
of the organization (e.g., federal, private, healthcare, educa-
tional, etc.)
f. Physical safety policies
g. Family shelter in place policy (for emergency management
personnel)
2. Once it is determined that all policies are up-to-date, schedule an
annual review.
3. Next, each policy should have an established protocol or proce-
dure; that is, how each policy should be implemented. For an
example, refer to the workplace violence policy described in an
earlier module. Note that within the policy, it also describes the
specific steps that are involved.
4. At another time, during training and education sessions, it is
important to describe how the procedure would actually take place
were an incident to occur.

Employee Data
One of the more complex and confusing issues to manage after a large-
scale incident in which people have been forced to evacuate an area is
how to maintain communication with them. Oftentimes, the information
that an organization has on its employees is outdated, as their addresses
and phone numbers may have changed since they originally were hired.
Further, Human Resources may have this information but the department
heads and managers may not. It was reported to this author that after an
incident such as the hurricanes in Florida, many organizations did not
know where their workers were, what their health status was, or when
they were going to be able to return to work. One anecdote reported by
the U.S. Postal Service was that they had to send out postal inspectors to
locate some employees whose houses had been seriously damaged.
In addition, employees need to find out the status of the work location.
Is it open? Are they to report to a different location? How do they let the
workplace know of their status? Immediately after a serious natural disaster,
the cell and land line phone utilities often do not work ef fectively.
However, within a day or two, these services are often reestablished. At
that time, there should be an “800 number” established by which people
can call in to receive information from the organization as well as leave
information as to where the employee is located and how to be in
 Employee Services and Programs  121

communication with them. This communication system should be estab-

lished and posted as a pre-incident strategy.

Emergency Wallet Cards

While training sessions, posters, and e-mails are helpful in establishing
pre-incident plans and strategies, oftentimes they are lost or forgotten at
times of serious calamity. It is recommended that the workplace print up
and distribute wallet cards to all employees. Pertinent information on
these cards might include (1) the “800” information hotline number; (2)
evacuation plans and locations; (3) outside support agencies such as state
emergency management agencies, Red Cross, EAP, etc.; and (4) any other
relevant information. Table 9.1 provides a sample wallet-sized emergency
card that is simple to produce and distribute to all employees.

TABLE 9.1 Emergency Card

Work numbers: ___________________________________

Police: ___________________________________
Fire: ___________________________________
Red Cross: ___________________________________
Children’s numbers: ___________________________________

Sig. Other: ___________________________________

Other: ___________________________________

Other information: ___________________________________

Evacuation plan
When requested to do so, please evacuate the building as
quickly as possible using stairway X. Proceed to your
department meeting area, located at: _______________________

Be sure to check in with your coordinator: __________________

Additional information:

Other responsibilities:
122  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Family Crisis Plans (FCPs)

What has also been learned through experience is that crises often occur
unannounced and unplanned. In the case of natural disasters or infra-
structure disruptions (power outages, etc.), people might be “trapped” or
sheltered at work and unable to get home by usual methods. People
might need medications or personal hygiene products. It is recommended
that employees put together a small “go kit” that could include these
articles as well as any others that may be of benefit. At one training
program that this author was conducting, the “go kit” was described and
a woman raised her hand and said that she already had a go kit… it was
called a “purse.”
Families should develop and discuss their own “family continuity plan”
(FCP) — what to do in the case of an emergency situation. The following
should be included. If parents are not to be home on time, how do they
notify each other and the children? What about pets? Carpools? Daycare?
What has also been learned is that long-distance phone lines often work
better than local lines at times of infrastructure disruption. Therefore, it
is suggested that the family designate a family information coordinator
who lives in another state. Each member can try to reach this person with
their status and messages to one another.
As a personal example of how this would have or could have been
helpful, on September 11, 2001, this author was in Alabama (having flown
out of Boston on September 10th) conducting a training program; my
sister worked in New York City; and my son was living and working in
Arlington, Virginia. It took us several days until we were able to come in
contact with each other and to determine that all was well.
While it is important to talk about this with children, it is also important
to do so in a manner that does not heighten their fear and anxiety.
Depending on the age and family circumstances, parents should approach
this with some care.

Supervisory Training and Employee Education

This author differentiates between training and education not in terms
of the content of the material presented, but rather that supervisors are
expected to implement the policies while employees need only be aware
of and abide by them. Often I am asked, “Should we have separate
sessions for supervisors and employees?” I suggest, “No, it is important
for the employees to hear that the supervisors are now charged with
implementing these new policies. In addition, some of these employees
may be promoted to supervisors before the next training program.”
 Employee Services and Programs  123

It is the opinion of this author that first- and second-level supervisors

have one of the most difficult jobs. Often, they are promoted from within
and frequently wind up supervising workers who were their colleagues
just a short while ago. Furthermore, most supervisors receive little to no
training as to how to supervise — yet now they are responsible for doing
their work as well overseeing that of others. One time, when this author
was conducting a supervisory training program and asked what kind of
orientation or training they received before they started their new job,
one gentlemen said: “On Friday, I was told to wear a tie when I came
to work on Monday.” Oftentimes, a supervisor is in the position of having
little authority but a great deal of responsibility as orders and directives
come down from on high. A classic example of this was the supervisor
who was told that there was to be a layoff. VP-level administrators had
already determined who in the supervisor’s department were being let
go. The supervisor had to be the one to tell the designated employees.
Even during an ordinary workday, it is a tough spot in which to be.
At times of a significant crisis or tragedy, the role of the supervisor becomes
even more critical. Even after there may be statements from senior man-
agement or services offered by EAP and other departments, it is the
supervisor who must manage the day-in-and-day-out tension, turmoil, and
toxicity that often develops. It is the supervisor who must interface with
employees who are affected by an incident. As described in a previous
chapter, as many as 10 to 15 percent of employees may be suffering from
some type of emotional condition. After a significant workplace crisis, it
could and should be expected that these numbers may rise. Frequently,
these problems can manifest themselves as work performance difficulties.
Supervisors need specific and specialized training with respect to how
to deal with the aftermath of an organizational continuity problem and
its impact on their employees. Specifically:

 How to recognize the troubled employee

 How to communicate with disgruntled employees
 How to improve morale among the workers
 How to be a cheerleader for the team
 How to access other resources to help them (e.g., EAP, HR, other
supervisors, etc.)

Evacuation Drills
As discussed in a previous chapter, drills should be practiced on a regular
basis and be taken seriously. Specific directions should be posted in hallways
as well as on the aforementioned individual emergency wallet cards.
124  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Efforts should be made to prearrange for special populations of per-

sonnel, such as the physically handicapped, elderly, foreign speaking, and
intellectually or mentally disabled. They may need to have someone
assigned to them during a time of evacuation and crisis.

Employee Services and Interventions

Comprehensive Employee Assistance Program (EAP)
As we enter the twenty-first century, the majority of companies in the
United States now have an employee assistance program (EAP). However,
these programs are still not well understood by many within the work-
place. Furthermore, many EAPs are not providing the full complement of
services that they advertise; or, many companies are not availing them-
selves of these services if they are provided.
The establishment of EAPs first began in the 1970s. By then, many
American workers were bringing their 1960s-era recreational drug and
alcohol use into adult life and adult work. Prior to this time, there were
two primary methods of dealing with an employee who had a substance
abuse problem: ignore them or fire them. It was also the era of the “three
martini lunch” and a wide range of other behaviors that were fairly well
tolerated. As the late 1970s came into focus, it became more evident that
alcohol was becoming a growing problem in the workplace that could
no longer be denied. In addition, the cost connected with either the
strategy of ignoring or firing wound up costing the employer on many
levels. The informal grass-roots efforts of getting people into rehab or
treatment or to Alcoholics Anonymous meetings became more formalized.
During the 1980s and 1990s, precipitated by transportation accidents such
as the Exxon Valdez, workplaces began developing drug and alcohol
policies, drug testing, and supervisory training. EAPs became a mainstay
as a resource for evaluations and referral of employees. For some com-
panies, this is where the EAP began and ended. For most, the programs
developed a “broadbrush” orientation to assisting employees with a variety
of difficulties ranging from alcohol to anxiety, from drugs to depression.
They began to serve not only the employee, but also his or her family
members, as it was recognized that an impaired family member could be
a significant source of stress to an employee.
As time went on, the EAP became an educational resource for a myriad
of health issues, providing training programs on stress management,
smoking cessation, healthy eating, and other “wellness programs.” Yet,
even then (i.e., the mid-1990s), they were still seen as primarily a “clinical”
service rather than a consultative one.
 Employee Services and Programs  125

Another service that came to reside under the domain of the EAP was
critical incident stress debriefings (CSIDs). While this topic is discussed in
greater detail later in this chapter, CISDs (or, more appropriately labeled,
psychological debriefings) rapidly became a service that the EAP would
provide to an organization that had experienced some significant traumatic
event in the workplace, such as the death of or injury to employees. Still,
the EAP was seen as providing a “clinical” service.
It has been and remains the opinion of this author that clinical services
are just one component of a comprehensive EAP. EAPs should be viewed
as a consultation resource that can be extremely useful in the development
of policies and protocols. Working with the Human Resources, Legal,
Security, Risk Management, Occupational Health departments, the EAP
should be part of any SAFE-T or Crisis Team.

Be Sure That Your EAP Is a Right Fit for Your Company

Many managed care and disability insurance carriers began to offer EAPs
in the 1990s. These were often national programs that had a list of
providers and would outsource the employee to a provider in their
network. While this may serve to be useful for the individual employee,
there is often little in the way of direct contact between the EAP and the
client organization. Often, this author receives requests from an EAP to
do some training or to respond to a critical incident. So imagine, if one
will, walking into a workplace with no preexisting relationship and pro-
viding a canned presentation that was designed by someone in the EAP’s
training department. With respect to consultation, it can often be handled
in the same manner. The call goes out to the EAP and then the EAP finds
someone nearby to provide the consultation service. From this author’s
perspective, this is not the best dynamic to gain a relationship with the
client organization or to provide the best quality of service. However,
many EAPs do “outsource” their crisis intervention work. This may be a
suitable methodology because these crisis networks at least make an effort
to be sure that the individual who is responding to the incident has had
suitable training and experience.
On the other side, a company might have an “internal EAP.” This is a
program in which the EAP provider is an employee of the company and
provides EAP services on-site and primarily to its own organization.
It is strongly recommended that the EAP should fit the company. If
you are a local work organization, get a local EAP; regional, get a regional
EAP; national, go national. If you are a small local company and contract
with a national provider because it can deliver a lower cost, do not expect
a great level of utilization or service.
126  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Be it an internal or external program, there are several features that

should be available to a client organization for it to be considered a
comprehensive program, including:

 Confidential clinical assessment and referral

 Education and training seminars
 Supervisory training
 Psychological debriefings
 Consultation to administrative departments
 Managing fitness for duty evaluations

When teaching my course on The Social and Psychological Impact of

Workplace Disruption, one of the assignments is to interview the EAP to
determine what services it is prepared to provide in times of crisis. The
feedback has varied from, “I didn’t know that we had an EAP,” to “The
EAP was an 800 number and only does telephonic counseling,” to “My
EAP had a wide variety of services that they could offer.” It is strongly
recommended that readers “check out” if their company has an EAP and,
if so, what it can do.

Information Is the Lifeblood during a Crisis

One of the primary needs during any type of crisis is that people require
information. As discussed in previous chapters, if one thinks of a work
organization as a living system, then information is the blood that circulates
within the departments (organ systems), providing the necessary nutrients
to keep the system functioning. As is the case during and after surgery,
a patient may need multiple transfusions to survive. The same holds true
for a work organization; it is better to have too much information rather
than a lack thereof. However, because information is fluid, it may be
inaccurate. This can be as damaging as giving a patient a transfusion with
the wrong blood type. Therefore, there is a need to have the information
vetted and regularly updated as conditions and circumstances modify. This
author has seen and suggests the following:

 An administrative person should be designated as the information

coordinator. Depending on the situation, this role could switch
from HR to Legal to Security, etc.; however, the individual(s) should
be someone who is facile dealing with distraught and emotional
workers and family members.
 During the initial phase, the aforementioned “one-dial” system of
sending messages should be utilized on a regular basis to keep
people updated.
 Employee Services and Programs  127

 As discussed, an “800” number with a prerecorded message should

be set up (prior to an incident) and be posted for all employees. It
should be updated every one to two hours with a time acknowledg-
ment: “This report is issued at 10 a.m. on Wednesday the 15th of
2004….” As was also described, this number should include a capacity
for employees to leave information about their individual situations.
 The same information should be posted on the company Web site.
 A FAQ (frequently asked questions) sheet should be posted on the
Web site.
 Teleconferences, videotaped messages, and informational meetings
should be conducted on a regular basis as people need face-to-
face contact with administration.
 Often, the tendency is for supervisory personnel to isolate, and
this must be countered with an increase in visibility and availabil-
ity…walking around making contact with employees.
 All employees should receive a wallet-sized card (see Table 9.1)
that includes the following information:
– In the case of an evacuation, a reminder to return to their desk
to retrieve their personal belongings (if possible)
– The evacuation path and outside meeting destination
– What to do once they are outside
– The 800 information hotline
– Outside support agencies: state emergency management, Red
Cross, EAP, etc.
– Company Web site and where information is posted

Information systems must have consistency, redundancy, frequency,

circularity, and continuity:

 Consistency. The information passed along must be consistent from

source to source. This requires interdepartment and centralized
communication.
 Redundancy. There should be a variety of sources by which people
are able to access information. E-mails, Web site postings, “800”
numbers with a recorded message, face-to-face informal informa-
tion sessions, newsletters, etc., are all methods to disseminate
information.
 Frequency. During crises, information becomes outdated rather
quickly. Therefore, it is important to keep the outgoing information
updated and sent out regularly.
 Circularity. The passing along of information cannot be done in a
vacuum or based on guessing what the workers might want to know.
There must be a method by which the concerns and questions can
come in and then consistent information be given out.
128  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

 Continuity. Oftentimes, there is a flurry of outgoing information

early on during a crisis. Then, it often drops off rather rapidly. As
discussed previously, crises tend to roll on for a while and people
may need different types of information from stage to stage and
over an extended period of time.

It is essential to remember to include communications with each of

the following groups and to assume that it will find its way to the media:

 Employees
 Customers
 Government and community leaders
 Families of employees
 Insurance companies and lawyers
 Media (press releases)

While each group may have the message customized to the specific group,
they should all have about same consistency.

Media Management
“Media management” seems like an oxymoron. The media is often a mixed
blessing in times of distress and destruction. They usually arrive like a
swarm of locusts, covering anything in their path, intrusively filming the
event, and even interviewing victims at the height of their emotional
distress. In recent years, news coverage has moved into a 24/7 format
and this author has serious concerns with respect to the potential exploi-
tation of victims and the validity of reporting. Be that as it may, it is
suggested that efforts be made to see the media as a viable and valuable
resource to facilitate the recovery process. By designating someone in the
workplace as the media liaison, that individual can form relationships with
the print and electronic media prior to an incident. Then, if an unfortunate
incident were to befall the workplace, there is already an established
protocol for generating press releases and informational articles. Often,
the media may be looking for some follow-up articles that may be of
interest to the general public. This author has been asked to provide
background information to the media about topics such as emotional
reactions to crises, how to handle children after a parent has been laid
off, the impact of workplace violence, etc.
While freedom of speech and freedom of the press are two of the
basic tenets of this country, it is the recommendation of this author that
a company develop a media policy that suggests to employees that they
 Employee Services and Programs  129

TABLE 9.2 Recommended Media Policy Language

While the ABC Corporation understands that any employee has the right
to speak to the media, the following recommendations are made with
respect to incidents involving company matters.
Certainly, any operational and business matters deserve the utmost
confidentiality and privacy and therefore no one should divulge any
company information to the media including their opinions or
speculations.
Unfortunately, there may be times when a workplace is faced with an
incident such as an accident, fire, robbery or other criminal activity, natural
disaster, layoff, or other type of crisis, and the media may respond and want
information or reactions from employees. While it is understood that any
employee has the right to talk to the media, it is strongly recommended
that all inquiries (either on-site or if they call your home) be directed to
our media liaison, Ms. Smith.
Please understand that these policies and protocols are suggested in an
effort to protect you as well as the company from information (or
misinformation) falling into the wrong hands or being used in an
inappropriate manner.
If you have any further questions regarding these policies, please feel free
to contact our media liaison directly.
Thank you for your cooperation.

not speak directly to the media, but rather that they refer inquiries to the
media liaison. Table 9.2 provides a sample media management policy.
People who are upset or in a heightened emotional state might
inadvertently discuss or disclose information that they otherwise would
not. They might respond with anger or fear that could be used or misused
in some provocative manner. This is not suggesting a gag order, but rather
a recommendation that is designed to protect the employees as well as
the workplace and to maintain an appropriate boundary for the media.
This is recommended to avoid the situation where a reporter shoves a
microphone into an employee’s face and generates an out-of-context
sound bite that might wind up on the news that evening. The next day,
the employee might be in the uncomfortable position of having to explain
why he said what he said. A media liaison who has received training can
do a better and more consistent job of managing the information that is
given to the public after an incident. If they have a preexisting relationship
with the media, then expectations and guidelines will have been deter-
mined prior to the incident.
If there is an incident to which the media will respond, it is of critical
importance to meet first with the police and fire departments to determine
130  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Police line

Public Safety Apparatus

Employee
Evacuation
area with Building
specific Media area
designated
departmental
locations
Family
area

FIGURE 9.1 Evacuation plan setup.

where they need to have access. If anyone has been to a serious incident,
it usually seems like chaos prevails. Police feel that the fire apparatus is
in the way, and vice versa. The media is often monitoring the emergency
communications and also shows up. A crisis team should have a large
map that delineates where the media should be directed. It is recom-
mended that the media be placed away from where the employees are
gathering if there is an evacuation. Further, as the reports from the media
go out over the local news, family members often will respond by going
to the scene. Usually, there is a police line and the family members are
kept outside because it is considered a crime scene. It is strongly recom-
mended that there be a family liaison person who responds to the family
area to be available to them as they arrive at the scene.
Refer to Figure 9.1, a schematic of a simple evacuation plan that
includes areas for family and media personnel. This should be taken in
the manner in which it is meant — a simple plan. Yet, many organizations
do not even include something as simple as this in their evacuation
policies. These schematics should be posted throughout the workplace.

Crisis Intervention
Intuitively and anecdotally, it is well established that the practice of
providing crisis intervention to people who have experienced a trauma
or tragedy can be of great benefit. After the Coconut Grove fire in Boston
in 1940, Eric Lindemann wrote his oft-cited work on crisis intervention,
extolling the need for an immediate response, an allowance for the
expression of grief, and a here-and-now problem-solving focus.1 Kardiner
and Spiegel worked with combatants of World War II and developed the
 Employee Services and Programs  131

“PIE” model, where soldiers with “shell shock” were treated within close
Proximity of the battle, Immediately, and with the Expectation that they
would return to battle readiness and to the front line. Later they added
Brevity, suggesting that treatment should be for no longer than ten days.2
Since these early works, the fields of psychiatry and psychology have
embraced the concept that the provision of a brief, problem-oriented,
“normalizing” treatment strategy is of great efficacy with victims of trauma.
More recently, the methodology has taken on a multi-modal approach
that embraces talking, medication, body work (massage, yoga, Reiki, etc.),
and spirituality.

Group Psychological Debriefings

Historical Event Reconstruction Debriefing (HERD)
Brigadier General S.L.A. Marshall was the chief U.S. Army historian in
World War II, Korea, and Viet Nam. He developed the method of con-
ducting interviews with the surviving members of small units in the field
soon after the battles.3 While these group sessions were primarily for the
purpose of gathering historical facts, he found that these historical debrief-
ings, when properly conducted, were also very beneficial to the units
themselves. The process repaired and strengthened unit cohesion and
readiness to return to battle. Marshall described the HERD protocol as
having the following characteristics:

 Clearly stated outline of aim of the discussion

 Respect for individual’s experience
 Suspension of judgment
 Suspension of rank
 Tolerance for different perspectives as to what occurred
 Sequential exposition of the event
 Emotional response was accommodated but not emphasized
 Confidentiality could not be guaranteed
 There was no time limit and often these groups would meet for
several days

Psychological Debriefings
In the 1980s, Mitchell took notice of what was known but unspoken:
people in public safety jobs dealt with a unique type of stress. He coined
the phrase “critical incident,” referring to the types of situations that police
and firefighters respond to in which people are hurt, maimed, killed,
132  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

assaulted, vandalized, etc.3 He described the impact of working in these

careers and experiencing the exposure to the victimized as “critical incident
stress.” He developed a structured group intervention that he labeled a
“critical incident stress debriefing” (CISD), where the affected public safety
personnel would meet and describe the event and their reactions to it.
The goals of the intervention were to acknowledge the experiences of
each member, to allow for the expression of emotions, and to be sup-
portive and nonjudgmental of each other. In general, these meetings were
facilitated by other police officers and firefighters who had received
training in leading CISDs. Special attention was devoted to being sure that
they remained confidential.
Within a decade, public safety embraced the concept and many were
trained in implementing debriefings. The concept spread beyond public
safety, and debriefings were offered in public and private work settings
when incidents occurred. (In 1994, this author’s first book, Critical Incident
Stress and Trauma in the Workplace, was published.4) In recent years,
there has been some controversy surrounding the efficacy of debriefings.
Vignette 9.1 is the original of an article that was published in the Journal
of Employee Assistance (Vol. 32, No. 1, first quarter 2004) covering the
major points of the controversy.

9.1 Thoughts on the Psychological

Debriefing Controversy
Source: Journal of Employee Assistance, 32(1), first quarter 2004.

Over the past several years, there has been growing debate over the
efficacy of psychological debriefings. This author addressed some of the
pertinent issues in an article published in Behavioral Health Manage-
ment, July 2002.1 While controversy and examination are good and often
generate useful discussion and an exercise in “lessons learned,” the
recent trashing of debriefings as a viable service seems to be a bit
reactionary, unjustified, and founded on inadequate and poorly
designed research.
Part of the problem is that somewhere along the line, someone may
have said or inferred that debriefings prevent PTSD. That is certainly a
naïve notion. Most mental health professionals understand that if an
individual sustains an experience resulting in a bona fide diagnosis of
PTSD, a single intervention of any type is not enough to manage the
disorder. Usually, a multimodal approach of talk therapy in combination
with medication and other interventions such as EMDR, hypnosis, cog-
nitive behavioral therapy, exercise, support groups, etc., is required to
deal with the disorder over an extended period of time.
 Employee Services and Programs  133

Some “experts” have made remarkable assertions that debriefings

may, in fact, cause PTSD. As reported in the Crisis Management Quarterly
(Summer 2003): “Possibly because CISDs focus on re-hashing and re-
telling upsetting events, a diagnosis of PTSD could be more likely. As a
result, a negative outcome, supported by the growing body of reputable
research, could provide the basis for lawsuits alleging negligence in an
organization’s crisis response.”2 There is little question that a debriefing
must be more than “rehashing and retelling upsetting events,” or it is of
limited benefit. Yet, more and more institutions are dismissing the inter-
ventions based on faulty studies and a naïve misconception. “The Amer-
ican Red Cross and the American Psychological Association have stated
in a draft conclusion that post-trauma debriefings have not been shown
to prevent later difficulties and may even cause problems to become
entrenched or more severe over time.” An equally valid hypothesis may
be that (since debriefings are voluntary) only those who were truly upset
about the incident may have chosen to attend the debriefing and may
have developed PTSD regardless of their participation in the debriefing.
Further, there may have been a greater number of “upset” people who
went on to develop PTSD had they not attended the intervention. Or,
perhaps, some people were able to recognize the symptoms of PTSD as
a result of being at the debriefing and availing themselves of further
services. We will never know, because anyone who understands research
design is aware of the impact of self-selection bias on statistical results.
Other studies make reference to the negative findings of the Cochrane
Review and hold it as the benchmark research.3 The Cochrane Review
looked at a diverse range of studies of individuals from many different
facilities that “received individual crisis intervention bearing little resem-
blance to psychological debriefing and at times applied to situations
where major stress reactions are not expected.”4 Further, these interven-
tions were provided by a diverse group of practitioners without the benefit
of a specific model. Comparing the Cochrane Review to debriefings is an
“apples with oranges” proposition. The problems with the Cochrane
Review are not limited to this one report. As stated in “Psychological
Debriefing” by the British Psychological Society, “There are serious flaws
in many of the studies that evaluate debriefing. Several fail to define
debriefing, describe the protocol used or the training of the debriefers.”5
Once again, there must be a valid research design before we decimate an
intervention that (at least) has a fair amount of anecdotal support.
Another possible reason why there may be controversy about
debriefings is that some prescribe a rather rigid intervention structure.
While having a theoretical framework or intervention model is impor-
tant, it is impossible to have a one-size-fits-all approach to psychological
debriefings. As examples, this author has always felt that “CISD” applies
only to those crisis care professionals who are in the forefront of crisis,
trauma, and disaster response, or who deal directly with the victims of
such incidents: police, fire, EMTs, crisis workers, clergy, mental health,
Red Cross, etc. It is part of their career… for which they are trained,
134  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

equipped, and respond as a team. When a tragedy befalls a regular

workplace, this is not a critical incident, nor does one provide a CISD.
Rather, this is trauma in the workplace, with far more dramatic impact
on those involved because: (a) it involves a co-worker with whom they
may have had a personal relationship; (b) the true “first responders” are
co-workers; (c) they have little to no formal training; (d) they had no
warning; (e) they must go back to work and revisit the scene; (f) they
have not developed the “emotional calluses” or defense structure that
professional crisis care providers have developed over the years of doing
the job. Therefore, one cannot compare services delivered to crisis care
professionals (CISM) with those of workplace trauma victims. Thus, the
possibility of a more dramatic impact, a higher incidence of PTSD and a
need for more robust intervention should be expected and understood.6
Further, there are many occasions where this author has been called to
provide services to a workplace after the death of an employee that has
taken place outside of work and therefore not witnessed/experienced
by employees. This, too, is not a CISD, nor a workplace trauma debrief-
ing. This is designated as meeting to talk about the death of ___. This
could apply to suicides, sudden tragic deaths, succumbing to a long-
term illness. One may imagine that the psychological agendas of the
participants of each type of incident would be very different. Therefore,
the facilitators would need to orient the discussion to meet the specific
character of the situation, as well as the demographics of the partici-
pants. In fact, when not working with paramilitary organizations such as
police, fire, hospitals, etc., this author has moved away from the term
“debriefing” and, instead, describes the intervention in regular layper-
son’s terms such as “meeting,” “discussion,” “get together to talk about
the…,” etc. Certainly, the term “CISD” should not apply to any type of
intervention around an administrative crisis such as a downsizing/layoff,
relocation, removal of CEO, etc. And finally, it is difficult to know exactly
what the participants have been told about the upcoming meeting. This
author has discovered that by now, most police, fire, and hospital pro-
fessionals have an understanding of CISM and debriefings. However, in
a workplace trauma, many come to the debriefing/meeting with little to
no true understanding of what it is about. Therefore, this may lead to a
less than positive experience for some. In order to get all on the same
playing field and to mitigate some of the inconsistency in communica-
tion about the meeting, this author drafts up a statement and
faxes/emails it to the workplace liaison so it can be utilized as part of
the “invitation” to potential participants. Further, there are handout
materials for the participants to take with them that are pertinent to the
situation, be it a trauma in the workplace, suicide at home, layoff, etc.
Most importantly, this material indicates that the debriefing is only one
of many techniques or services to help if the reactions persist.
Another reason why the efficacy of debriefings may be called into
question is that after a debriefing, the administrative personnel may
 Employee Services and Programs  135

expect that “all is well”… “people should be back on track.” Or, query
a week later, “How come people are still upset? They had a debriefing,
didn’t they?” When called to a workplace to provide an intervention, we
must be careful not to collude with their denial or lack of understanding.
This means that, in addition to a debriefing, one must provide good
consultation to the workplace and help management appreciate that
their employees might require more than a single meeting.
We must stop using 9/11 as the yardstick by which to measure the
efficacy of any interventions. 9/11 was “so over the top” of our experi-
ence that to draw any inference regarding psychological services is only
speculation. Certainly, it is understandable that for an event of that
magnitude, a single debriefing of the police, fire, survivors, etc., may
serve as little more than a well-intentioned “spit in the bucket.” For many
people who experience a dramatic trauma, a single intervention of any
type may not be enough to mitigate their symptoms and alleviate their
suffering. However, the question is not whether the debriefing is useless,
but rather what other services should be available? The goal of trauma
support is to have a “trauma toolbox” that is both wide and deep (and
utilized by experienced practitioners). Further, that as an initial proactive
intervention, the debriefing may serve to facilitate the access to further
services for those in need.
Let us now talk about training. As a psychologist for more than 25
years and doing this work for more than 17, this author believes that
working with groups of people who have experienced a major trauma
should be considered an expertise that requires training, experience,
consultation, staying current with the literature, etc. A one- or two-day
workshop is a good start, but not sufficient for people who are serious
about becoming or remaining proficient in this specific field. And finally,
while the “peer support” model may be sufficient for police, fire, hos-
pital, etc. employees, it is not the recommendation that they be the ones
to provide services to other types of employment settings.
There are many issues that must be taken into account, such as type
of incident, demographics of the victims, demographics of the partici-
pants, training and supervision of facilitators, documentation, manage-
ment consultation, post-debriefing follow-up, etc. Then, perhaps, a well-
founded research design that takes into account controlling incident
demographics, utilizing a specific model, random assignment of partic-
ipants to treatment and non-treatment groups, pre-morbid history and
personal variables of the participants, training and experience of facili-
tators and long-term follow-up with a consistent method, would provide
viable data. Since humans are not mice in a lab, any qualified research
that measures the benefit of mental health interventions is always
fraught with some design limitations. Therefore, one must be careful
not to rely too heavily on the “latest research.” In the words of Albert
Einstein, “Not everything that counts can be counted. Not everything
that can be counted counts.”
136  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

References
For a comprehensive review of the literature on the wide range of issues related to
psychological debriefings, “Psychological Debriefing,” by the British Psychological
Society (www.bps.org.uk/documents/Rep12.pdf) is strongly recommended by this
author.
1. G. Lewis, Post-Crisis Stress Debriefings: More Harm than Good?, Behavioral
Health Management, 22(4), 22–25, August 2002.
2. A. Tennyson, When Doing the Right Thing Might Be Wrong, Crisis Management
Quarterly, V, 32, Summer 2003.
3. S. Wessely, S. Rose, and J. Bisson, A systemic review of brief psychological
interventions (debriefing) for treatment of immediate trauma related symptoms
and the prevention of post-traumatic stress disorder. The Cochrane Library —
1998, Issue 4, 1998 and 2001.
4. British Psychological Society, Psychological Debriefing, May 2002, www.bps.org.
uk/documents/Rep12.pdf.5.British Psychological Society, Psychological Debrief-
ing, May 2002, www.bps.org.uk/documents/Rep12.pdf.
5. Ibid.
6. G. Lewis, Critical Incident Stress and Trauma in the Workplace, Accelerated
Development, Taylor & Francis, Philadelphia, PA, 1994.

While sufficient objective research has not been conducted, the anec-
dotal feedback from people participating in psychological debriefings is
generally quite positive. Over the years, this author has conducted more
than 300 debriefings for a wide range of incidents to an equally diverse
group of organizations. The model that this author developed has some
significant differences from the “Mitchell model” that was originally
designed for public safety personnel. While these differences are not
discussed in this book, it is important to understand if the providers of
these services have received specific training and, if so, with what model.
Further, it is important to know of the level of experience of the facilita-
tor(s). However, the provision of group and individual debriefings should
be a highly utilized component of any crisis or disaster response during
the support phase. In addition, it should be understood that debriefings
are generally utilized during the initial post-incident phases (survival and
support) and should not be viewed as a stand-alone intervention. Rather,
they should be seen as an integral component of a compr ehensive
intervention strategy and that other services will be of benefit at later
phases. As indicated previously, acknowledgment and information are
such critical components to recovery after a disruptive incident. Debrief-
ings may serve several benefits, including (1) a coming together as a
group to acknowledge the incident; (2) acknowledgment from manage-
ment; (3) a “normalizing” process (discovering that many people may be
having the same reactions as you); and (4) the receipt of information.
Vignettes 9.2 through 9.4 are samples of printouts that this author gives
 Employee Services and Programs  137

9.2 An Introduction to
Psychological Debriefings
In recent years there has been much focus on the effects of traumatic
events on individuals. Oftentimes, people have dramatic reactions to
these extraordinary events that may leave them feeling overwhelmed
and upset. When a significant crisis occurs, the individuals involved may
benefit from an opportunity to talk about the experience as a group. For
that reason, “critical incident debriefings,” “trauma debriefings,” and
“psychological first-aid services” have been promoted as a method to
help healing and resolution.
A debriefing is a meeting that generally includes only the affected
individuals and a facilitator whose responsibility is to provide a structure
and organization to the meeting. This meeting is not group therapy, but
rather is described as a “psycho-educational” experience. The discussion
focuses primarily on the traumatic event and its effects on the individ-
uals, not on personal relationships, personality problems, or profes-
sional conflicts. Most importantly, it is neither a critique or investigation
of what occurred, nor is it a courtroom to determine guilt or innocence.
The following are some guidelines about today’s meeting:

1. Although you may be encouraged to participate, no one will be

forced to talk.
2. I will maintain confidentiality about the meeting. Often, an organi-
zation wishes to receive some general feedback about the session.
If this is the case, I will discuss this with all of you.
3. Talking about the event that you have been through is an important
part of the recovery process. Preferably, you should talk to family
members or “significant others” about the debriefing. If you do so,
please protect the privacy of the other participants.
4. Feel free to move around freely to get food and beverages or to go
to the bathroom. If you do leave the room, please let me know if
you will not be returning.
5. The debriefing goes through certain phases. After going over these
guidelines, we will start by asking the participants to “paint the
picture” by describing the event from their perspective. Usually, we
try to go in sequence or chronological order as to how the event
transpired. I may ask you questions and you may go into as much
or as little detail as you wish.
6. After that, I will ask you to describe your reactions at the time of
the event and since then. You may want to refer to the other hand-
out to see the “menu” of common reactions to traumatic events.
7. Throughout the debriefing, feel free to ask questions, and I will
attempt to answer them as best as I can.
8. Usually, these types of meetings last between one and two hours.
138  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

9. There will be follow-up telephone contact with each of you a week

or two after this meeting.
Not everyone experiences the same reactions to difficult situations.
The recovery process takes time.

to the participants of psychological debriefings. Each participant will

receive two of the handouts. One of the differences of this model of
conducting debriefings is that this author differentiates between interven-
tions with safety personnel (police, fire, rescue, hospitals, etc.), referring
to them as critical incident debriefings. These professionals are providing
services as part of their jobs and may have a dif ferent psychological
agenda to a “bad” incident. The rescue professionals receive the handouts
in Vignettes 9.2 and 9.3. Regular employees who have experienced a
tragedy and may have witnessed traumatic injuries, etc., to colleagues and
friends, will respond to this differently (and usually more dramatically)
than rescue personnel. If the victims are regular employees of a work
setting that has experienced a significant tragedy or crisis, they receive
the material in Vignettes 9.2 and 9.4. While the materials in Vignettes 9.3
and 9.4 are similar in scope, one can see that there is a different orientation
to each. These printed handouts also serve to provide information and
support to family members as well as employees who may not have
attended the debriefing.
Another form that is often utilized is a brief, confidential evaluation
form through which the participants can provide feedback (see Table 9.3).
The results of this form can be summarized and given to management
while retaining the confidentiality of the individual participants.

Family Services
After a dramatic workplace crisis, there is a ripple effect with respect to the
impact — certainly, the workplace and its customers, then the workers’
families, then collateral work organizations. For now we only focus on family
concerns. A workplace facing a BC problem must consider the impact on
them. Usually, what is required is information and EAP services. At one
national EAP conference, this author was talking to a colleague who hap-
pened to be an internal provider at a large company in the midwestern part
of the United States. He described that during a large flood that damaged
many workers’ personal properties, in addition to providing individual coun-
seling and group debriefings, the EAP helped people complete homeowner
insurance claim forms as part of their services. In another example, arrange-
ments were made for insurance companies to be available at the workplace
to help employees complete the forms.
 Employee Services and Programs  139

TABLE 9.3 Debriefing Evaluation Form

Please respond to the following statement using a 1–10 rating scale, where
1 indicates a negative response and 10 a positive response.
___ I was looking forward to the debriefing.
___ I felt that the debriefing was a worthwhile experience.
___ I felt free to express my thoughts/feelings.
___ I trusted the privacy___ and confidentiality___. (two ratings)
___ The facilitator(s) did a good job of organizing the meeting and keeping
it going and relatively comfortable.
___ I think we should have these types of meetings when there are other
incidents such as this one.
___ This meeting was helpful to me in dealing with this difficult event and
understanding my and others’ reactions.
Please feel free to write any other comments regarding the psychological
debriefing.
While your individual responses to this evaluation will remain confidential,
the total responses may be calculated and reported back to management
personnel.

9.3 Introduction to Critical Incident

Stress Management (CISM)
In recent years, an increasing amount of research has been devoted to
the impact on professionals who respond and provide services to the
victims of trauma and crisis. Dr. Jeff Mitchell initially described a “critical
incident” as an event that can be considered extraordinary and, there-
fore, may produce significant reactions in the intervening personnel.
Critical incident reactions (CIRs) often are a common reaction of an
average person to an extremely stressful situation. A CIR can manifest
itself as a physical, cognitive, or emotional response that may be expe-
rienced almost immediately or may be delayed days, weeks, or months.
The following is a brief summary of (1) the types of situations that
may result in CIRs; (2) the signs and symptoms of CIRs; and (3) the
strategies and interventions that are helpful to individuals with CIRs.
Most professionals manage the stress of their career quite well on
their own. However, it is understood that people who understand the
effects of CIR, and have a process by which to discuss the events and
their reactions, often speed up the recovery process, stay healthier,
remain more productive on the job, and have less disruption in their
personal lives.
140  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Types of Situations That Might Result in CIR

Multi-casualty/High Intensity/
Single Victim Incident(s) Long Duration
Line-of-duty death of fellow- Catastrophic natural event
professional (earthquake, hurricane, etc.)
Death of a child Transportation accidents
Serious injury of a child Fires
Death of adult Hostage taking
Threat of violence or injury to ESP Terrorist actions
Inability to intervene or perform duties Rescue operations
Injury to fellow professional Long duration incidents
Suicide

Signs and Symptoms of CIR

Physical Cognitive Emotional
Fatigue Memory impairment Anxiety Grief
Nausea Anomia (word loss) Fear Frustration
Muscle tremors Difficulty with Irritability Hopelessness
decision making
Sweating/chills Mental confusion Guilt Dizziness
Startle responses Intrusive thoughts/ Feeling remote and numb
visions
Sleep disturbance/
nightmares
Intrusive thoughts/visions

Strategies and Interventions to Help with CIR

Critical Incidents should be considered “emotional haz mat.”
 Education about CISM as part of training
 Availability of CIS debriefings
 Regular exercise, good diet
 Open attitude within the department or agency to discuss reactions
 Maintain good social network
 Limit alcohol and other controlled substances
 Try to eat regularly even if appetite is disturbed
 If sleep is disturbed, do not toss and turn in bed. Read, watch TV, etc.
 Do not try to drink away feelings, thoughts, or visions … they will
diminish in time
 Employee Services and Programs  141

 Talk to peer support, EAP, clergy, spouse, friends, family, etc.

 Remain active and try to maintain regular schedule and activities

9.4 Reactions to Traumatic Events, Tragedies,

and Significant Transitions
There may be times when we experience traumatic events, personal
tragedies, or significant transitions. Examples of these types of incidents
include injuries, illnesses, assaults, robberies, fires, transportation acci-
dents, natural disasters (hurricanes, earthquakes, tornadoes), death of
close friend(s) or loved one(s) due to unusual circumstances, and orga-
nizational (layoffs, relocations, etc.) as well as personal transitions
(divorce, etc.).
In recent years, a great deal of research has developed around the
reactions that people have to these experiences. It has been found that
surviving such an event or just witnessing the event may leave the indi-
vidual with some very strong reactions. The following are some of the
common reactions that may develop as a result of these types of expe-
riences.

Physical Emotional Cognitive

Sleep problems Anxiety Memory problems
Eating problems Fear Confusion
Minor physical Guilt Difficulty with decisions
symptoms
Startle responses Feeling irritable Intrusive thoughts/visions
Sweating/chills Feeling remote/numb
Fatigue Sadness
Intrusive
thoughts/visions

These are the usual and common reactions to what may be a very
difficult and dramatic event in one’s life. Not everyone will experience
any or all of these reactions; however, if you do, it is important to remem-
ber that, for most people, these reactions will diminish over a few days
to a few weeks. If not, please seek out additional services.
The following are some hints and strategies that may help you if you
have any of these reactions:
142  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

 Try to talk to others about your experience.

 Sometimes it is difficult to talk to family or close friends, as it may
be upsetting to them. Therefore, use other resources such as staff,
colleagues, clergy, and medical and behavioral health professionals.
 Maintain usual social contacts…staying connected to others is
important.
 Remain active and try to keep your regular schedule/activities.
 Limit alcohol and other controlled substances.
 If sleep is disturbed, do not toss and turn in bed. Read, watch
television, etc.
 Do not think away thoughts, feelings, flashbacks…they will dimin-
ish in time.
 Try to increase your level of physical activity and exercise.
 If appetite is disturbed, try to eat small amounts of healthy food.
 Use any other outlets that are of personal value to you as an indi-
vidual: religion, art, reading, movies, games, yoga, massage, pets,
hobbies.
 Do not be afraid to ask for support from others.

On-Site Wellness and Stress Management Programs

Many companies have a variety of stress management and wellness
programs available to employees. During tough financial times, these
programs are often the first to be cut in an effort to curtail costs. An article
by Bette Ann Stead in Business Horizons, entitled “Worksite Health
Programs: A Significant Cost-Cutting Approach,” cites many studies that
indicate a significant cost savings derived from employee fitness and
wellness programs. This author (Lewis) would strongly urge readers to
visit the Web site to review this article and the cost-saving benefits of
these programs.6 As discussed in a previous chapter, workplace toxicity
is a constant and efforts to mitigate it must be maintained. When a crisis
or tragedy hits a work organization, it can cause a dramatic increase in
the toxicity in the workplace and the stress on its employees. Therefore,
these programs are an essential component to maintaining a healthy
workforce… in good times and in times of crisis. The workplace culture
must maintain the attitude that utilization of the programs and facilities is
a value that is promoted.
More anecdotal articles and research studies are reporting the benefits
of naps or time-out for workers.7,8 Summarized succinctly by James Maas,
author of Power Sleep: The Revolutionary Program that Prepares Your Mind
for Peak Performance, “Businesses who ignore the financial and health
 Employee Services and Programs  143

benefits of napping at work are asleep at the switch.”9 This author (Lewis)
would suggest that for several months after a workplace crisis, people
might experience sleep disruption, fatigue, and difficulties with concen-
tration. Having scheduled time-outs or rest breaks would certainly be a
benefit. The often-expressed concern that people would use them inap-
propriately or unnecessarily is usually a myth. In fact, one might predict
that there would be less sick days and perhaps increased productivity
during the adjustment phase after a significant crisis in the workplace.

External Resources and Alternative Health Services

In addition to an EAP and on-site wellness programs, it would be important
to know what other resources are available in the local professional
community. If one has an EAP, ask them about the referral network within
the company’s insurance carrier. Are alternative forms of healthcare avail-
able, such as chiropractic care, physical therapy, massage, etc.? If not, and
people wish to avail themselves of these services on their own, does the
EAP know of providers?

Employee Feedback
As described, information must have consistency, redundancy, frequency,
continuity, and circularity. Information must flow back and forth from
management to employees. Oftentimes, management is left in the position
of trying to guess at what information the employees want to know rather
than going directly to the employees themselves. This author has seen a
number of methods by which companies can get useful infor mation.
Surveys and focus groups are two relatively easy and not too time-
consuming methods of receiving information. However, these methods
require someone who is skilled at facilitating these services, otherwise
they can turn into a venting free-for-all. This author has seen focus groups
used very effectively after a serious incident in which a building was
closed down for an extended period of time. Prior to re-entry, focus
groups were formed to determine what concerns the returning employees
would have, what services they wanted in place to facilitate the transition,
etc. For managers, there was another group that looked specifically at
their needs. Other focus groups were held over three to six months to
determine what the needs were as time progressed. Surveys can be used
in much the same manner and then summarized and fed back to the
employees. Both of these methods also let the employees know that their
feedback and reactions have some value.
144  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Administrative Visibility
As indicated throughout this book, there is nothing quite as valuable as
having “face time” with upper management. This author suggests to upper
management that they get out of their offices, walk around, and spend
informal time with employees. Having coffee, lunch breaks, and drop-in
sessions where employees can talk directly with senior staff is strongly urged.
If for any reason a building has been evacuated or damaged or
rehabbed, it is important to be sure to repopulate the building from the
top down. This would also apply in situations where there has been some
criminal activity, such as a bank robbery or a violent event. That is, be
sure to bring the employees back by first having administrative personnel
return, then department heads, then supervisors, and then regular employ-
ees. As each level comes back on line, they may benefit from some
consultation and debriefing services. Each level should acclimate to the
situation and then be available to facilitate the reentry of the next group.

Keep Your Head above Water (I Mean “de Nile”)

Take the Time
There is an interesting saying that this author picked up somewhere along
the way during consulting: “The higher up the feeding chain your position,
the less you really know about what is going on.” Or, put another way,
“The closer to the head, the less you see and hear.” Often, the higher-
ups make it clear as to what messages they want to hear from their reports.
As if it is a reflection upon them (and it may be) in response to a question
from a boss: “How’s it going with your department, Smith?” The answer
“Fine, boss” may not be totally accurate, yet the subordinate does not feel
that he can tell the truth that would be more akin to: “Well, to tell you
the truth, the morale is pretty low since the layoff. People are grumbling
about the workload and absenteeism has increased in the past month.
People are bickering with each other, and some folks have put in for
transfers to another department. Other than that… all is great.” Many work
organizations respond to workplace crises with a “don’t ask, don’t tell”
approach. Or, there may be an initial response, but then the message
goes out… “all should be OK, now.”
As clearly pointed out throughout this book, crises take time to resolve.
Often it is not until two to three months after an incident that the
organization may begin to see the true impact of an event. Response plans
should be phased in over an extended period of time, depending on the
nature and severity of the incident and the assessed impact on employees.
Keep eyes, ears, and hearts open.
 Employee Services and Programs  145

The Utilization of Consultants

In recent years, emergency management and organizational continuity has
spawned a cottage industry of consultants. The focus is diverse, ranging
over a myriad of areas such as building security, information technology,
“preventing” workplace violence, legal issues, setting up data recovery
centers, and employee issues, to name only a few. There are consultants
that specialize in certain types of industries or work settings, be it financial,
healthcare, education, or manufacturing. Attendance at any of the national
business continuity or disaster management conferences will provide a
bevy of vendors plying their services.
It is the opinion of this author that, as this is a relatively new and
rapidly developing field, no one person or even a small group can cover
all the bases. Therefore, availing one’s organization of consultation services
is at worst a necessary evil and at its best can be a value-added service that
can enhance a plan as well as provide support for the BCP team. Oftentimes,
a consultant can suggest or say things that internal employees may not feel
comfortable to say to “higher-ups.” Or, having experience from working with
other organizations, the consultant may save valuable time for the BCP team
by them not having to “reinvent the wheel.” Further, a consultant should be
aware of the latest technology as well as compliance issues.
Another valuable aspect of working with a consultant is that (hopefully)
the consultant might provide a sense of reassurance when there is an
incident. It is strongly recommended by this author that most consultation
relationships should have a “retainer” component. Even if there is a specific
project or goal to the consultation, there should be availability by the
consultant to provide ongoing services should a real incident occur. There
have been numerous times after this author has provided consultation or
training that an organization will call just to “walk through” their response
to the situation. Usually, they have provided a comprehensive response
to the incident; however, the feedback received is that “it is nice knowing
that there is someone outside the system that can provide an objective
paradigm.” Do not forget that the people on the crisis response team are
also vulnerable to the same reactions as any of the other employees. In
fact, they may even be more reactive, as it is their plan and their
responsibility that is center stage. Therefore, they may have their own
reactions to the event as well as having to provide crisis management
services and also be subject to judgment regarding the organization’s
response. This provides a triple layer of stress. Hence, an outside con-
sultant can act as a “debriefer” to the team to facilitate their recovery.
Never forget that crisis planners are people too.
Vignette 9.5 is a brief commentary on the utilization of consultants
written by an individual who has served in the role of a BCP planner as
well as a consultant to others.
146  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

9.5 Utilization of Consultants

By Angela Devlen
Engaging consultants is particularly valuable if it is for the purpose of
leveraging expertise in a specific area rather than for fulfilling resource
gaps. In the areas of emergency management, homeland security, crisis
management, business continuity, and disaster medicine, it is important
to select the appropriate consultant(s) that have experience extending
beyond those who have emerged in the post 9/11 era. Depending on
the industry and the specific needs of the organization, more than one
consultant may be needed for reasons that include the scope of work,
type of industry (e.g., healthcare, financial services, and the public sector
all have unique challenges) and the type of engagement. Experts in the
field may fill specific niches such as natural hazard mitigation, weapons
of mass destruction, mass casualty incident planning, planning for disas-
ter drills, psychological elements of disasters, or business continuity for
a specific industry. In addition, every organization should design the
contract with consultants to provide a sustainable program and offer
knowledge transfer that allows them to manage future incidents.
Another important consideration is to retain the consultant to provide
services during times of emergency. When considering which consult-
ant(s) will best suit your needs, credentials such as those offered by the
Disaster Recovery Institute International (CBCP or MBCP) or the Inter-
national Association of Emergency Managers (CEM) are important.
Knowledge of industry standards and regulations is critical. (NFPA 1600,
DRII, Incident Command System, OSHA, SEC, Sarbanes-Oxley, etc.).
They must have a clear understanding of operational, financial, human,
and technological elements and how they are all part of comprehensive
emergency management planning. Access to resources and additional
experts in specific areas that serve the needs of the organization are also
critical. Choosing consultants may be a difficult process; however, those
that (1) have spoken at national and international conferences, (2) have
been published and interviewed in industry magazines, (3) contribute
to or are authors of white papers, (4) serve on the board of industry-
specific agencies and organizations, and (5) are supporting the advance-
ment of the field through research and academic program development
should be considered leaders in this developing field.
Pioneers in the industry are developing areas that have long since
been overlooked, particularly human/psychological factors and pri-
vate–public sector collaboration. Few consultants have the background
or education to deploy programs that include these essential elements
of any emergency management program. Without these elements, no
plan is complete. No organization is a silo unto itself and during an
emergency is dependent on other companies and agencies. Without
 Employee Services and Programs  147

people, no organization can respond to and recover from an emergency

situation. When selecting a consultant, consideration of all of these
factors is important to ensure that an organization is truly getting the
expertise required to implement such a critical and complex effort. To
begin the search to retain a qualified consultant, contact professional
organizations or consortia such as DRIE, NEDRIX, and All-Hands for
recommendations. Other sources include industry magazines such as
DRJ and Continuity Insights, as these magazines publish articles written
by experts in the field. If considering engaging a large firm rather than
an independent consultant, request resumes of the members of the
team who will be supporting your project and critique them against the
criteria laid out above. The success of such a program is not only critical
to your organization, but to the safety and welfare of your employees —
your most important resource.
The following Web sites may be of assistance:

 Disaster Recovery Institute International: http://www.drii.org/

 International Association of Emergency Managers:
http://www.iaem.com/
 Disaster Recovery Information Exchange–Canada:
http://www.drie.org/index.asp
 New England Disaster Recovery Information X-Change:
http://www.nedrix.com
 Disaster Recovery Journal: http://www.drj.com/
 Continuity Insights: http://www.continuityinsights.com/
 CPM Group: http://www.contingencyplanning.com/
 All-Hands Consortium: http://allhandsconsulting.com/;
http://www.all-hands.net/pn/index.php

Angela Devlen is a business continuity and emergency management

consultant. Previously, she led Corporate Disaster Recovery Planning at
Partners HealthCare System where she was responsible for leading
disaster recovery planning efforts across information systems, establish-
ing a business continuity program, and supporting emergency prepared-
ness efforts for hospitals within Partners. During her 15-year career, she
has developed business continuity and emergency management plans
for clients in the finance, healthcare, insurance industries and the public
sector. She is currently working with Boston University’s Metropolitan
College and School of Public Health to develop and market programs
in business continuity and disaster management. Angela is a speaker at
industry conferences and is regularly published and interviewed on the
subject of business continuity. Angela is a member of the International
Association of Emergency Managers and the New England Disaster
Recovery Information Exchange.
148  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

In closing, there are probably other services and interventions that

could be supplied and utilized to facilitate the recovery of human tech-
nology. Each industry and type of work setting must devote time and
attention to the specific culture, demographics, and dynamics of their
workplace and workforce. While it is impossible to derive a formula for
each venue, hopefully this book has generated a thinking process by
which to approach the task.

References
1. E. Lindemann, Symptomatology and Management of Acute Grief, American
Journal of Psychiatry, 101, 141–148, 1944.
2. A. Kardiner and H. Spiegel, War Stress and Neurotic Illness, Hoeber, New
York, 1947.
3. http://www.vnh.org/CombatStress/B5HERDebrief.html.
4. J.T. Mitchell and G.S. Everly, Critical Incident Stress Debriefing, Chevron
Publishing, Ellicott City, MD, 1996.
5. G. Lewis, Critical Incident Stress and Trauma in the Workplace, Accelerated
Development, 1994.
6. http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1038/is_n6_v37/ai_15911074.
7. N. Turner, Are You Slacking if You’re Napping… Maybe Not, http://www.
truestarhealth.com/members/cm_archives13ML3P1A10.html.
8. L. Lamberg, When Napping at Work Is Good for You, http://www.psych.
org/pnews/00-09-01/napping.html.
9. J. Maas, Power Sleep: The Revolutionary Program that Prepares Your Mind
for Peak Performance, Random House and Harper Collins, 1999.
Appendix A

Workbook

As stated, one of the goals of this book is to help readers think through
the management and mitigation of potential crises that may befall their
workplace. Appendix A presents three scenarios through which the reader
can apply “hands-on” knowledge. The first two take place in a hospital
setting, the third with a small community bank. While these may not be
similar to the reader’s work organization, they should still provide the
necessary thoughtfulness required to address the human impact of crisis
management.
Appendix B allows the reader to assess his or her organization’s
business continuity plan relative to workforce recovery.
As stated, crisis management should be thought of as a “team sport”
that works best when it utilizes input from various people with different
roles within an organization. Therefore, these exercises should and can
be worked on as a group effort to enhance the business continuity/disaster
management planning team.

Scenario 1: The ABC Hospital

ABC Hospital is a community hospital in a suburban area located in a
seacoast town in New England. It has about 200 beds. There are six
medical-surgical units, a psychiatric unit, a twelve-bed intensive care
unit, and an active emergency room. It is a primary care setting; however,
serious cases are transported to larger trauma centers located in urban
settings.

149
150  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

ABC Hospital is staffed with RNs and LPNs. In addition, there are 30
professional/technical personnel, approximately 25 clerical staff, 15
maintenance workers. Security is outsourced to a private security firm.
The medical staff (MDs) consists of 50+ physicians. The administrative
staff is made up of a CEO, CFO, COO, MIS Director, Director of HR,
Director of Nursing, medical staff officer, Risk Management, and part-
time legal consultant.
The make-up of the RN staff is predominantly white female, ranging
in age from 20 to 65 years. The LPN staff is more diverse, with about 5
percent African American, 5 percent Latino, and 5 percent Asian descent.
Of the RN and LPN staff, approximately 60 percent are regular employees
while the remaining are per-diem/contract from a staffing agency. There
is a strong nursing and clerical staff union; however, the per-diem staff
are not members of it. The major portion of the personnel live within a
25-mile radius and commute by car to the hospital.

Organizational Culture Assessment

Assess the culture, toxicity, dynamics, etc., what other information do you
require? Please list other critical questions or information that you may
need to determine the organizational culture and its dynamics before
proceeding to the next section.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

Now that you have listed some of the crucial questions, you can turn to
the next page, which will provide you with some pertinent information
about the workplace culture of this hospital. Perhaps some of your
questions will be answered.
 Workbook  151

Relevant Information to Help Assess the

Organizational Culture of the ABC Hospital
Due to changes with the managed care/insurance reimbursement system,
the hospital has had to close a unit (15 beds) a year ago. In addition, they
laid off about 10 percent of the nursing and 5 percent of clerical staffs. Since
then, through attrition, another 5 percent of nurses have left and have not
been replaced. Instead, contract staff have been utilized on an as-needed
basis. This has resulted in a “two-class system” between the “regular” staff
and the “contract” staff. Most of the regular staff are “townies” who have lived
in the area for some time. The contract staff is composed of mainly “out-of-
towners” who have little connection to the immediate area. The nursing con-
tract does not apply to the contract staff who work different shift hours and
receive more money per hour, but with no benefits or regular schedule.
Benefits have been decreased: (1) cannot carry over vacation; (2) increase
in employee contribution to health insurance; (3) no more sponsorship of
Christmas party; and (4) units are staffed with less RNs.
Fewer people are using the hospital because they are choosing to go to
larger hospitals in a nearby city. The length of hospitalizations has been cut
due to insurance limitations, and this has resulted in more acute cases that
require greater care, but with less staff available.
The MDs are less available as they are admitting fewer patients due to
insurance restrictions and are spending more time in their private offices treat-
ing more patients on an out-patient basis. This is not their choice, but rather
the mandate from the managed care/insurance carriers. There are no in-house
attending physicians (MDs salaried by the hospital to cover patients).
The hospital is actively seeking partnership with or possibly being pur-
chased by several larger institutions. Were this to happen, there is concern
that the current staff would lose their seniority to the partnering or purchas-
ing institution.
Nurses as well as clerical staff are in contract negotiations with the
hospital, which have not been going well. There is some rumored talk of
“working to rule” or “sick-outs” to demonstrate their dissatisfaction with
the lack of movement in the contract negotiations. Approximately 20 percent
of nursing and clerical staff are “single mothers.”
The demographics of the surrounding area have changed significantly
in the past 10 to 15 years. Whereas it used to be more of a small-town farming
area, it is now becoming more “suburbanized,” with new housing develop-
ments that cater to upper-middle-class expansion of professional families.
More demand has been placed on the hospital to provide higher levels of
diagnostic and treatment services, while it is faced with mounting fiscal
pressures. As a result, the reputation of the hospital has taken a bit of a hit
in the last couple of years and there has been a recent increase in medical
malpractice suits against the physicians and the hospital.
Also, there is an ongoing sexual harassment suit between one of the
nurses and a physician that has received a fair amount of media coverage.
152  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

With this information available, think about the cultural issues as well as
the toxic factors in this workplace. Describe several critical aspects of this
culture that might impact emergency management and organizational
continuity planning.

1)

2)

3)

4)

As part of any organizational continuity plan, one of the first steps is to

perform a Risk Assessment or BIA (Business Impact Analysis). What types
of disruptions might one expect at a hospital such as this? Please list up
to ten types of incidents that you might assume could happen to this
hospital.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)

9)

10)

Chose two or three of the incidents that you believe would have a
significant impact on operations of the hospital as well as personnel. Using
the questions from Steven Fink’s assessment model described in Chapter
3, derive a Crisis Impact Value (CIV) for these incidents. Remember: to
derive the CIV, assign a value of 1 to 10 to each one of these questions
below:
 Workbook  153

1. Is the incident likelihood of escalation? ____

2. Is there media, government, regulatory scrutiny? ____
3. Does the incident cause interference with normal operations? ____
4. Is there or could there be a negative impact on public image? ____
5. Could the incident cause damage to organization’s bottom line? ____
Total ____
Then divide the total by 5 to derive the CIV. /5
CIV ____

CIV PF Quadrant
Event (1–10) (%) (Hi/Hi, Lo/Lo)
1
2
3

Now, using Fink’s Crisis Plotting Grid, plot the likelihood of the three
events occurring (see Figure A.1). Once again, remember that this is just

High Impact/ 10 High Impact/

Low Probability High Probability
9

6
PFS
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100

2
Low Impact/ Low Impact/
Low Probability 1 High Probability

CIV

FIGURE A.1 Fink’s crisis plotting grid.

154  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

a guess, not necessarily an accurate assessment. Plot the incidents on the

graph below to determine in which quadrant they would be placed.
Using the Human Factor Assessment tool of the author, first assign the
incident to one of the five types of incidents. Then derive a score to
determine the potential impact on personnel for the two chosen events.
Each factor is assigned a 1 to 10 rating. Remember, scores greater than
50 are considered a high impact.

Incident 1: ______________________________________________________

Man- Man-
made made Natural Organizational Infrastructure
Incident 1 I II Disaster Transition Disruption
Locus of impact
Timing
Duration
Impact on operations
I/D premises
I/D personnel
I/D reputation
I/D residences
I/D social structure
Concurrent stressors
Total score

Notes:

Locus of impact:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Timing:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 Workbook  155

Duration:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Impact on operations:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D premises:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D personnel:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D reputation:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D residences:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D social structure:

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Concurrent stressors:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Do the same for Incident 2.

156  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Incident 2: ______________________________________________________

Man- Man-
made made Natural Organizational Infrastructure
Incident 1 I II Disaster Transition Disruption
Locus of impact
Timing
Duration
Impact on operations
I/D premises
I/D personnel
I/D reputation
I/D residences
I/D social structure
Concurrent stressors
Total score

Notes:

Locus of impact:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Timing:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Duration:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 Workbook  157

Impact on operations:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
I/D premises:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D personnel:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D reputation:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D residences:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D social structure:

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Concurrent stressors:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Do the same for Incident 3.

Incident 3: ______________________________________________________
158  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Man- Man-
made made Natural Organizational Infrastructure
Incident 1 I II Disaster Transition Disruption
Locus of impact
Timing
Duration
Impact on operations
I/D premises
I/D personnel
I/D reputation
I/D residences
I/D social structure
Concurrent stressors
Total score

Notes:

Locus of impact:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Timing:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Duration:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Impact on operations:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
 Workbook  159

I/D premises:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D personnel:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D reputation:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D residences:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

I/D social structure:

_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Concurrent stressors:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Human Factor Impact

Now that you have conducted an assessment on these three incidents and
you have estimated the areas of impact on personnel, think about how
these events could affect the staff (and patients, for that matter). Once
again, assess the immediate as well as the long-term potential impact on
staff. Perhaps by utilizing the stages/phases paradigm as described in
Chapter 5, map out some of the potential repercussions and reactions that
can be expected from staff.

Incident 1: _____________________________________________________
160  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Survival phase (0–48 hours):

Support phase (days 2–10):

Adjustment (weeks 2–16):

Resolution (months 6–18):

Re(dis)covery (2 years+):

Incident 2: _____________________________________________________

Survival phase (0–48 hours):

Support phase (days 2–10):

Adjustment (weeks 2–16):

Resolution (months 6–18):

Re(dis)covery (2 years+):

Incident 3: _____________________________________________________
 Workbook  161

Survival phase (0–48 hours):

Support phase (days 2–10):

Adjustment (weeks 2–16):

Resolution (months 6–18):

Re(dis)covery (2 years+):

Now that you have assessed the potential impact over some time frame,
determine what types of services and interventions should and could be
in place to mitigate the impact on personnel. Consider pre-incident, short-
term, and long-term strategies.

Incident 1:

Pre-incident preparedness:

Post-incident:
Short term:

Long term:

Incident 2:

Pre-incident preparedness:
162  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Post-incident:
Short term:

Long term:

Incident 3:

Pre-incident preparedness:

Post-incident:
Short term:

Long term:

Scenario 2: The ABC Hospital,

Different Scenario
It is mid-December and there is a “nor’ easter” predicted to hit the coast
within 12 hours and is being touted as the “storm of the century.” The
coastal areas are being evacuated (voluntary) and emergency manage-
ment, National Guard, and the Red Cross have activated their command
centers in response to a potential natural disaster. Strong winds, high
tides, and snow are predicted to produce a storm surge that will flood
many communities. Schools have closed and announcements have been
made for people to stay off the roads as much as possible.
The hospital is preparing for a busy time in the Emergency Room.
They have activated the hospital crisis plan, whereby “essential” person-
nel must remain at or report to work, and “nonessential” personnel are
released. The medical staff (MDs) are either coming in to briefly assess
their patients or are calling in orders to the nursing staff. Primarily “reg-
ular” nursing staff are working as it is part of their contract. Per-
diem/contract staff are not considered on the “essential” list or under
contract and therefore do not need to report to work.
 Workbook  163

With the contract negotiations still bogged down, there is resentment

among regular staff. Some of the single-parent staff are complaining
about not having care for their young children at home. Other staff have
elderly parents about whom they are worried. Many are worried about
their own personal residences, automobiles, and property as they recall
the blizzard of 1978.
Think through how this type of an event might impact the hospital.
Once again, look at a business impact analysis (BIA) that encompasses
the operational as well as the human impact on this organization.

What are the top three immediate operational issues or concerns that
must be addressed to keep the hospital functioning?

1)

2)

3)

What are the top three staff/workforce concerns or issues?

1)

2)

3)

Once again, speculate as to what would be some immediate strategies to

lessen the staff issues/concerns generated from this incident.

Pre-incident preparedness:

Post-incident — short term:

Post-incident — long term:

164  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Scenario 3: The ABC Bank

The ABC Bank is a community banking system with 15 branches located
within a three-state region. The bank employs approximately 425 full-
and part-time people, most of whom are young female tellers and branch
managers. In addition, there are about 55 administrative personnel, rang-
ing from department heads in a wide variety of services such as
loans/mortgages, business development, human resource, maintenance,
security, information technology, etc., as well as their clerical staff.
Many of the employees grew up and reside in the area, know the
customers, and remain working at the bank for many years. For a sizeable
portion, it was their first job and they have remained there and worked
their way up into administrative positions. The workforce is rather homo-
geneous, dominated by Caucasian and Catholic demographics. The
female tellers and branch managers often get married, take a short-term
pregnancy leave, and then return to work, often in part-time positions.
The men either move up through the ranks or leave to take higher
positions with other banks. While there is a gender bias, this is under-
stood and accepted. The women feel that the bank will work with them
to bring them back in some capacity. Also, there is an unwritten/unspo-
ken leniency with respect to the women being able to take time off for
sick children, doctor’s appointments, etc.
The bank has been in business for more than 75 years and initially
was a community bank located in the center of the town catering to the
local population. For the past 25 years, the local area has changed with
new upper-middle-class housing developments, a large mall, and other
commercial development. The bank has made a significant effort to
expand geographically as well as in terms of offered services. These
efforts were initially generated as some of the “big banks” began to set
up branches in the area and created a competitive market for the first
time. While this expansion was taking place, the bank has been able to
maintain its user-friendly attitude with its customers.
Business has been good and the expansion has gone quite well.
There have been no layoffs or any significant fiscal struggles. In fact, the
bank has grown from under 200 employees to its current level in the
past 15 years. Even with this change, there is a significant social culture
among the employees, and many see each other outside the workplace.
Further, the bank sponsors a variety of local events, such as a charity
golf tournament, a Christmas party, a charity food and toy drive, and
sponsorship of Little League teams. The president of the bank, a local
man, is also the president of the local Chamber of Commerce as well as
a member of the school board and other business boards of directors.
During the past five years, the bank added an EAP as a benefit for
employees and their families. During this same time frame, three
 Workbook  165

branches had experienced note-pass robberies with no injuries or sig-

nificant disruptions. In addition, the bank has added an online capacity
that required a huge amount of time and resources, causing much stress,
but finally is in place with limited problems. This accomplishment was
experienced by all as a significant event as it signaled that the little bank
is now “playing with the big banks.”
Up until about ten years ago, the IT and security departments were
rather small, with limited roles and duties. Since then, these two depart-
ments have expanded their roles as well as the number of employees
and have developed into two of the major players within the institution.
As a result, these two departments head up the disaster manage-
ment/business continuity planning. Also, they are seen as the depart-
ments that have the ear of the Senior Administration, and receive monies
whenever needed as they can justify it for security issues. There is a
growing disparity between what these departments (especially IT) pay
starting employees as compared to other departments.
Once again, think about the culture of this workplace. Clearly, it is
an organization in transition. Originally shaped with a small-town,
“mom-and-pop” orientation serving the local community, it has recently
been undergoing a transmutation as a result of changes in the banking
industry, the local and national economies, and concerns regarding
security.

Brief Business Impact Analysis

List the three top events that could significantly impact the work organi-
zation. Rate the Crisis Impact Value (CIV) as well as a guess as to the
Probability Factor of these events. If you prefer, you can use another
assessment methodology. (Please note that this is not a complete BIA,
but will serve for the purposes of this exercise.)

CIV PF Quadrant
Event (1–10) (%) (Hi/Hi, Lo/Lo)
1
2
3
166  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

On Friday morning, the bank president meets with Senior Administrative

staff and department heads and announces that the bank will be pur-
chased by another bank. This purchase will take effect in three months’
time. While many of the tellers and branch managers, custodial and
maintenance staff will be maintained, the middle and upper manage-
ment positions, security, as well as much of the clerical staff will expe-
rience the greatest losses as many of the duties of these positions will
be transferred to the new bank administration. Actual numbers and
positions will not be known for about four to six weeks.
It is also known that this banking chain has been purchasing a large
number of smaller, successful banks over the past ten years. They have
expanded rapidly, quadrupling the number of branches, personnel, and
services. The orientation of the acquiring bank is quite different than
that of ABC Bank. There is no “warm and fuzzy feel” to the organization;
in fact, it has a reputation of being more cutthroat, competitive, and
callous toward employees. The turnover rate is rather high, especially
for employees of former acquisitions. The demand is much higher to
provide services, and generate loans and other business.

How would you recommend that the bank handle informing the employ-
ees about the upcoming acquisition?

How do you imagine that the workforce will respond to this information?

The president has indicated that he will be retiring as a result of this

transition. Many of the Senior Administrative staff as well as department
heads will not have positions in the new bank. Yet, this information is
vague and the specifics are not known. However, the president has
requested that the group meet to develop a “transition plan” (he does
not like to call it a crisis plan as it sounds too dramatic).

Describe below some of the short- and long-ter m interventions and

strategies that the team should suggest.
Appendix B

Assessment of
Organization and
Organizational
Continuity Plan

Having taken the time to go through the simulation exercises in Appendix

A, now take an assessment of your own work organization and its
Organizational Continuity Plan.

1. Assess Your Organization’s Continuity

Planning Committee
What is your committee called?
Who are the members of your Business Continuity Planning Committee,
Crisis Planning Committee, Disaster Response Committee?
__ IT
__ HR
__ Security
__ Risk management
__ COO

167
168  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

__ Legal
__ EAP
__ Labor
__ Public relations
__ Outside consultant
__ Other: _______________________________________________________

Who is the “head” of the team/committee? __________________________

How was this person chosen for this role? Experience and knowledge?
Seniority? Title/position?
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

How often does this committee/team meet?

___ 1 × per year ___ 2 × per year ___ 4 × per year ___ More often

How much money is budgeted annually for your BCP, DM, CM planning
activities? ________

How is this money utilized? Training for committee members? Simulations?

Other uses?

Where is your plan “kept”?

How has the plan been communicated to supervisors and employees?

Is your plan “tested” or “walked through”? Are there drills?

How often?

Briefly describe the auditing procedure(s) for your plan.

Assessment of Organization and Organizational Continuity Plan  169

Does the audit in any way look at the impact on personnel, or is it

primarily oriented toward operations and IT?

Notes:

2. Assess Your Workplace Culture

How long has your company been in business (in its current form)? _______

What type of environment?

__ Factory
__ Manufacturing
__ Office setting
__ Healthcare institution
__ Educational institution
__ Governmental/municipal
__ Financial/insurance
__ IT/software development
__ Sales
__ Other: _______________________________________________________

Geographic factors:
__ Local
__ Regional
__ National
__ International

Briefly describe:
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________

Bargaining units/labor unions/associations: ____ Yes ____ No

Publicly held (stock): ____ Yes ____ No

170  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Number of employees:
_____ Full-time ____ Male ____ Female
_____ Part-time ____ Male ____ Female

Ethnicity/race: (feel free to estimate)

African/American ____ % Male ____ % Female

Latino ____ % Male ____ % Female
Caucasian ____ % Male ____ % Female
Asian ____ % Male ____ % Female
Other ____ % Male ____ % Female

Education level:
___ % High school
___ % College
___ % Graduate training

Age groups:
___ % 20-something
___ % 30-something
___ % 40-something
___ % 50-something
___ % 60-something

Average length of employment with this organization:

___ % 0 to 3 years ___ % 3 to 5 years ___ % 6 to 8 years ___ % 8+ years

During the past three years, please check off which of these toxicity-
producing incidents or events have occurred in the workplace:
__ Layoff(s)
__ Merger
__ Acquisition of another company
__ Acquired by another company
__ Decrease in benefits
__ Mandatory overtime
__ Relocation of significant portion of workforce (more than 15 miles)
__ Personnel change in upper management
__ Significant change in demographics of a portion of the workforce (e.g.,
ethnic, gender, age, etc.)
__ Work that was once done by “inside” employees has been outsourced
__ Lawsuits against the organization or any of its employees
Assessment of Organization and Organizational Continuity Plan  171

__ Violent incidents
__ Other criminal or civil activities (sexual harassment, sabotage, embez-
zlement, etc.)
__ Strikes/work action, etc.
__ Damage to reputation
__ Significant number of terminations of employees for cause
__ If labor unions are involved, has there been an increase in grievances?

Now take a look at any positive factors that might improve morale. Does
your workplace offer any of the following:
__ EAP/wellness programs
__ Time-out rooms
__ Daycare
__ Health club
__ Sports teams
__ Informal social activities
__ Organization-sponsored social events
__ Bonuses
__ Merit increases
__ Cost-of-living increases
__ Organization-sponsored charity events
__ Other: _______________________________________________________
__ Other: _______________________________________________________

Take a moment to describe the social milieu of your organization by

answering these questions:
Is it “cliquey”?

Do people eat together in a cafeteria or in isolation at their workstations?

Does management have an “open-door” attitude, or is it by appointment

only?

Do people feel comfortable going to Human Resources?

Do groups of people socialize outside of work?

Is there rapid turnover of staff?

Are people promoted from within and therefore rise up through the
ranks of the organization, or must they leave to gain further professional
status?
172  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Is there interdepartmental communication and cooperation? Or, is it

more of a “siloed” or “smoke stacked” workplace where each depart-
ment tends to work alone?

Is there any type of holiday season festivities sponsored by the work-

place? Is it well attended?

Does your workplace have a favorite charity or fund that it likes to

support?

Are there any other events or demonstrations of the sort that benefits
the morale of the workers?

Now, with this data available, spend some time to briefly (and objectively)
describe the social and cultural milieu of your workplace. Consider
whether it is a highly stressful environment with much toxicity; or, although
it may be very busy and hard working with long hours, is there is a
cooperative attitude among the workers? Describe the co-worker–to–co-
worker relationships. How about interdepartmental communication? Is
management respected by non-management (and vice versa)?

3. Assessment of Pre-impact Preparedness

Does your workplace have any of the following policies?
__ Sexual harassment
__ Workplace violence with restraining order
__ Drug and alcohol
__ Evacuation
__ Shelter in place
__ IT Security
__ Other: _______________________________________________________

How are these policies displayed, distributed, posted, and made available
to employees?

Does your workplace provide training for supervisors and education of

employees around the aforementioned policies and protocols?

If so, how often?

If not, why not?

Assessment of Organization and Organizational Continuity Plan  173

Does your organization have practice evacuation and shelter-at-work drills?

If so, how often?

If not, why not?

If your workplace has “essential” personnel that must be immediately

available at times of crisis or emergency, are there policies, protocols, or
plans in place to help them with their personal and familial needs? If so,
please describe:

What type of communication system is in place to provide employees

with immediate information regarding an acute organizational continuity
incident?

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

What type(s) of communication system is available to provide employees

with ongoing information regarding the resolution of an organizational
continuity incident?

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)
174  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Does your organization utilize the services of outside consultants? If so,

please describe the nature of their consultation. Are they available to
provide services at times of real disruption?

4. Brief Business Impact Analysis

List the five top events that could significantly impact your work organi-
zation. Rate the Crisis Impact Value (CIV) as well as a guess as to the
Probability Factor of these events. If you prefer, you can use another
assessment methodology. (Please note that this is not a complete BIA,
but will serve for the purposes of this exercise.)

CIV PF Quadrant
Event (1–10) (%) (Hi/Hi, Lo/Lo)
1
2
3
4
5

5. Human Factor Assessment

Using the Human Factor Assessment tool developed by this author,
appraise the potential impact on the workforce by rating each of these
factors with a 1 to 10 rating. Remember that a score greater than 50 is
considered significant.
Assessment of Organization and Organizational Continuity Plan  175

Man- Man-
made made Natural Organizational Infrastructure
Incident 1 I II Disaster Transition Disruption
Locus of impact
Timing
Duration
Impact on operations
I/D premises
I/D personnel
I/D reputation
I/D residences
I/D social structure
Concurrent stressors
Total score

Notes:

Man- Man-
made made Natural Organizational Infrastructure
Incident 2 I II Disaster Transition Disruption
Locus of impact
Timing
Duration
Impact on operations
I/D premises
I/D personnel
I/D reputation
I/D residences
I/D social structure
Concurrent stressors
Total score

Notes:
176  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Man- Man-
made made Natural Organizational Infrastructure
Incident 3 I II Disaster Transition Disruption
Locus of impact
Timing
Duration
Impact on operations
I/D premises
I/D personnel
I/D reputation
I/D residences
I/D social structure
Concurrent stressors
Total score

Notes:

Man- Man-
made made Natural Organizational Infrastructure
Incident 4 I II Disaster Transition Disruption
Locus of impact
Timing
Duration
Impact on operations
I/D premises
I/D personnel
I/D reputation
I/D residences
I/D social structure
Concurrent stressors
Total score

Notes:
Assessment of Organization and Organizational Continuity Plan  177

Man- Man-
made made Natural Organizational Infrastructure
Incident 5 I II Disaster Transition Disruption
Locus of impact
Timing
Duration
Impact on operations
I/D premises
I/D personnel
I/D reputation
I/D residences
I/D social structure
Concurrent stressors
Total score

Notes:

6. Interventions
Now, if any of these have been assessed with scores higher than 50,
please set up strategies and responses to mitigate the impact on the
workforce and their families.

Once again, consider pre-impact preparedness, and post-impact short-

and long-term approaches.

Pre-impact preparedness:

Post-impact — short term:

Post-impact — long term:

178  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Summary:

Please describe future goals or areas of development for your organiza-

tion’s crisis management plan.

1)

2)

3)

4)

5)

6)

7)

8)
Index

A American Red Cross

ABC Hospital scenario, 162
ABC Bank scenario, 164–165
escalating situations, 43
ABC Hospital scenario, 149–151, 162–163
personal property, 45
Acceptance, psychological stage, 77
psychological debriefing, 133
Acknowledgment, 39, 116–118
Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 107
Active trauma
Amygdala dysfunction, 69
layoffs, 37
A Nation at Work, 1
organizations, 16–17
Andrew, see Hurricanes
post-traumatic stress disorder, 70
Anger, psychological stage, 77
Acute stress disorder, 62, see also Post-
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Anthrax, 89–90, see also U.S. Postal Service
ADA, see Americans with Disabilities Act (USPS)
(ADA) Anxiety and anxiety disorder, 42–43, 60–62
Adjustment, 79–81, 135 Apologies, 116–118
Adjustment disorder, 62, see also Post- Appreciation, organizational recovery, 39
traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) Arousal, symptoms, 65
Administrative preparedness, 112, see also Assault, 94–96
SAFE-T team Assessment, see also Incident assessment
Administrative visibility, 144, see also brief business impact analysis, 174
Management continuity planning committee, 167–169
Adrenal axis abnormalities, 68 human factors, 174–177
AdvancedPCS, 60 interventions, 177–178
Afternoon naps, 142–143 pre-impact preparedness, 172–174
Alcohol, 172, see also Substance abuse workplace culture, 169–172
Alessandra, Hunsaker and, studies, 5 At-risk workplace, 17, 17
All-Hands, 147 AT&T, layoff manner, 36
All Quiet On the Western Front, 63 Attitude, 39, 70, see also Support
Alternative health services, 143 Availability, organizational recovery, 39, see
Alternative work sites, 87–88 also Administrative visibility
American City Business Journals, Inc., 60 Avoidance, symptoms, 65
American Psychological Association, 133 Awareness, 39, 144

179
180  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

B Categorization of events, 27–28, 32

CDC, 97
Baby boomer employee, 2–3, 6
Change, stress impact, 58
Banks, 80–81, 164–165
Charlie, see Hurricanes
Bargaining, psychological stage, 77
Children, 16, 37, 63
Bartlein, Barbara, 60
The Christian Science Monitor, 57
Bates, Norman, 115–117
Chronic stress reaction, 68
Battered child syndrome, 63
Circularity, 127
BCP, see Business continuity planner (BCP);
Clinton Administration Secretary of Labor, 37
Business continuity program (BCP)
Coast Guard, see U.S. Coast Guard
Behavioral model, 11
Cochrane Review, 133
Behaviorists, 11
Coconut Grove fire (Boston), 130
Benson, Herbert, 58
Coding note, 65
Bereavement, see Grief/bereavement
Combat fatigue, 63
Betrayal, 10–11, 15–16
“Combating Workplace Violence,” 101
BIA, see Business impact analysis (BIA)
Combat neurosis, 63
Bio-psycho-social trap, 69
Bioterrorism, 26, 93 Co-morbidity, 70–71, 74
Blanchard studies, 5 Complex post-traumatic stress disorder,
Blindsided: A Manager’s Guide to 65–67
Catastrophic Incidents in the Computer hacking, 20, 29
Workplace, 112 Computer software firm, 24–25
Blythe, Bruce, 112 Concurrent stressors, 46, 51, 53
Boston (Coconut Grove fire), 130 Confidentiality, investigations, 104
Boston University’s Metropolitan College Consistency, 127
and School of Public Health, 147 Consultants, 145–148
Breslau studies, 66 Contained duration, 43–44
British Psychological Society, 133 Contingency Planning and Management, 28
Building, part of, 41 Continuity, 128, 167–178
Bully Online organization, 71 Continuity Insights, 147
Bureau of Labor Statistics, 34, 98 Continuity planning committee assessment,
Business continuity planner (BCP), 17, 145 167–169
Business continuity program (BCP), 27 Controversy, psychological debriefings,
Business Finance Magazine, 101 132–135
Business Finance Mag.com, 101 Cooperation, lack of, 20
Business Horizons, 142 Coping resources, 15–16
Business impact analysis (BIA) Corticotrophin releasing factor (CRF), 68
ABC Bank scenario, 164–165 Costs, violence, 101–102
ABC Hospital scenario, 163, 165–166 Covey studies, 5
basics, 27, 44 CRF, see Corticotrophin releasing factor
organizational assessment, 174 (CRF)
Business interruption, 26–28, 29, 95 Criminal activity, 93–94
Crisis, 27
Crisis Impact Value (CIV)
C business impact analysis, 165, 174
“Calling out” agencies, see Emergency organizational cultural assessment,
management 152–153
Call-in number, 89, see also Toll-free Crisis intervention, 130–131
telephone number Crisis lifespan
Cancer patients, 37, 80, see also Surgery adjustment, 79–81
Capra, Frank, 25 basics, 77–78
Catastrophe, 28 groups of people, 83
 Index  181

psychological debriefings, 135 “Depressed Workers Cost Bosses Billions,”

re(dis)covery, 81–82 60
resolution, 81 Depression
support, 79 family reactions, 74
survival phase, 78 premorbid conditions, 20
Crisis Management: Planning for the psychological stage, 77
Inevitable, 31 reactions, 60, 61
Crisis management plan, assessment, toxic workplace, 19
167–178 Destruction of property, 20, 102
Crisis Management Quarterly, 133 Devlen, Angela, 146–147
Crisis plotting grid, 31, 32, 153 Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Fourth
Critical incident stress, 74–75 Edition (DSM-IV), 60, 62
Critical Incident Stress and Trauma in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual, Third
Workplace, 27, 74, 132 Edition (DSM-III), 63–64
Critical incident stress debriefings (CSIDs), Disaster, 27
132–134 Disaster Recovery Institute International, 146
Critical incident stress management, Disaster Response Journal, 26, 95
139–141, 140 Disciplinary action, 104
CSIDs, see Critical incident stress debriefings Discrimination, 37, 98, 102, 103
(CSIDs) Displaced domestic violence, 104–105, 105
Culture, organizational, see also Workplaces Dissociation, 63
after layoffs, 40 Diversity Training Group, 102
assessment, 150–159, 169–172 Divorce, 77, 82
basics, 6–10 Domestic violence, displaced, 104–105, 105
changes, ix–x Door in the Floor, 74
hypocrisy, 10–11 Downsizing, see Layoffs
layoff effects, 40 DRIE, 147
OCM relationship, 23–28 DRII, 146
Curfews, 43 Drinking, see Substance abuse
DRJ magazine, 147
D Drugs, 172, see also Substance abuse
DSM-III, see Diagnostic and Statistical
DaCosta, Jacob, 63 Manual, Third Edition (DSM-III)
Damages, incident assessment, 44–47, 49, DSM-IV, see Diagnostic and Statistical
51, 53, 55 Manual, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV)
Davidson, Solomon and, studies, 66 Duration
Davidson studies, 66 basics, 43–44
Davies, Thomas and, studies, 40 hurricane, 55
Death power outage, 53
adjustment, 79 September 11, 2001, 47
event categories, 27–28 shooting incident, 51
lifepsan, grief, 77 stressful events, 58
personnel, 45 Dysthymic disorder, 60–61, see also
“return to normal,” 82 Depression
September 11, 2001, 51
Debriefings, x, 139, see also Group
E
psychological debriefings
De Geus, Arie, 25 EAP, see Employee assistance program (EAP)
Deming studies, 5 Earthquakes
Denial, psychological stage, 77 duration, 44
Department of Justice, 98, 101 event category, 28
Department of Labor, 37–38 legal and security issues, 93
182  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

residence damage, 88 media management, 128–130, 129–130

“return to normal,” 44 on-site wellness and stress management
survival phase, 78 programs, 142–143
timing, 43 plans, policies, and protocols, 119–120
Education, 122–123 pre-incident planning, 119–121
800 telephone number, see Toll-free psychological debriefings, 131–138, 139
telephone number reactions, 141–142
Einstein, Albert, 135 SAFE-T team, 112
Elayoubi, Nelly, 60 training, 122–123
Embezzlement, 94, 171 Endogenous opiates, 68
Emergency management, 42–43, 162, see Escalating situations, 42–43
also Administrative visibility Evacuation, 86, 123–124, 130, 172
Emergency wallet cards, 121, 121, 123, 127 Event categorization, 27–28, 32
Emotions, vehement, 63 Explosion, 24, 72–73
Employee assistance program (EAP) External resources, 143
adjustment stage, 81 Extreme stress, 59–60
alternative health services, 143 Exxon Valdez, 124
basics, 124–126
comprehensive job description, 105 F
external resources, 143
Facilitation of resources, 112, see also SAFE-
family services, 138
T team
training and education, 123
Facility, total, 41–42
Employees, see also Individuals
Factory explosion, 24, 72–73
changes, 1–3
Family
historical developments, 4
coping resource, 15–16
morale and motivation, 4
group psychological debriefings,
pre-incident planning, 120–121
138–142
Employee services and programs reactions, 74
administrative visibility, 144 Family crisis plans (FCPs), 122
alternative health services, 143 FAQ, see Frequently Asked Questions
awareness, 144 (FAQs) sheet
basics, xiv, 119 Father Knows Best (television show), 2
consultants, 145–148 Fayol, Henri, 5, 10, 112
crisis intervention, 130–131 FCPs, see Family crisis plans (FCPs)
critical incident stress management, Fearless, 74
139–141 Feedback, employee, 143
education, 122–123 Fiedler, Fred, 114
emergency wallet cards, 121, 121 Fink, Stephen, 31–32, 152–153
employee assistance program, 124–126 Fink’s crisis plotting grid, 31, 32, 153
employee data, 120–121 Fires
evacuation drills, 123–124 drill, layoff method, 36
external resources, 143 event categorization, 27
family crisis plans, 122 legal and security issues, 93
family services, 138–242 locus of impact, 40
feedback, employee, 143 media policy language, 129
group psychological debriefings, organizational crisis management, 24
131–143 passive and active trauma, 17
historical event reconstruction premise damages, 45
debriefing, 131 reactions, 141
information systems, 126–128 short-term relocation, 87
interventions, 124–125 total facility, 41
 Index  183

Five A’s (attitude, awareness, acknowledge, G

availability, appreciation), 39
Galileo (Galilei), 7
Five R’s (remain, retain, release,
Gangs, 15–16
relocate/reassign, return)
Gershaw, David, 39
basics, xiii–xiv, 85
“Gipper” motivation, 15
evacuation plan, 86
Great Lakes Consulting Group, 60
instant communication, 87 Grief/bereavement, 28
long-term reassignment, 88–89 Grievances, 20, 96, 171
non-return, 88–89 Ground Zero
real-life learning, 91–92 critical incident stress, 74
reassignment, 87–89 human impact assessment tool, 47, 49
release, 85–87 real-life learning, 91
relocation, 86–88 Group psychological debriefings
retaining, 89–91 alternative health services, 143
return, 85–86 basics, 137–138
short-term release, 85–86 controversy, 132–135
short-term relocation, 86–88 critical incident stress management,
Flanagan, Leo, 92 139–141, 140
Floods external resources, 143
ABC Hospital scenario, 162 family services, 138–142
historical event reconstruction
active trauma, 17
debriefing, 131
adjustment, 79
on-site wellness and stress management
damage to premises, 45
programs, 142–143
duration, 44, 55
psychological debriefings, 131–138, 139
event category, 28 reactions, 141, 141–142
family services, 138 Groups (people), stages and phases, 83
legal and security issues, 93 Guiliani, Rudy, 87, 114
lifespan, 77 Guilt, 116–118, see also Shame
locus of impact, 40
organizational impact, 24
H
reputation damage, 45
residence damage, 88, 138 Harlow, Harry, 24
“return to normal,” 82 Healing The Wounds, 35, 83
timing, 43 Heifitz and Laurie studies, 114
Florida Hospital-Ormond Memorial, 96 Helzer studies, 66
Fluid cultural systems, 7–8 HERD, see Historical event reconstruction
debriefing (HERD)
Foa and Rothman studies, 66
Heroes, 7
Focus groups, 143
Hersen, Thomas and, studies, 97–98
Fortune, 2
HIAT, see Human impact assessment tool
Frances, see Hurricanes (HIAT)
Freedoms, of the press and of speech, The Hidden Connections, 25
128–129 Hippocampal volume, 69
Frequency, 127 Historical event reconstruction debriefing
Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) sheet, (HERD), 131
127 Holmes and Raye studies, 58
Freudian model, 11 Holocaust survivors, 66
Freud studies, 5, 63 Homicide, 93, 99, 99–100
Frew, Jon, 5 Hostility, workplace, 97–100, 99–100,
The Future of Success, 37 103–104
184  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Hotel scenario, 94–96 social structure damage, 46, 49, 51, 53, 55
How to Avoid Litigation from Layoffs, 37 suddenness, 43
Human Factor Assessment tool, 154–159, timing, 43, 47, 51, 53
174–177 total facility, 41–42
Human factor impact, 159–165 warning, 43
Human impact assessment tool (HIAT), 47, Incident Command System, 146
48, 49 Individuals, see also Employees
“The Human Side of Management,” 117 morale and motivation, 15
Hunsaker and Alessandra studies, 5 personal vs. professional priorities, 42
Hurricanes victim/perpetrator relationship, 99
duration, 43–44 violent characteristics, 98–99, 99
incident assessment, 53, 54, 55 Information systems, 126–128
legal and security issues, 93 Injury, 27–28, 44–47, 49
locus of impact, 42 Injury/damage, personal property
personal property, 45–46 basics, 45–46
reputation damage, 45 hurricane, 55
timing, 43 power outages, 53
Hypocrisy, 10–11 September 11, 2001, 49
Hypothalamic abnormalities, 68
Injury/damage, personnel
basics, 45
I
hurricane, 55
I Don’t Want to Talk about It, 16, 37, 70 power outage, 53
Importance, stressful events, 58 September 11, 2001, 49
Incident assessment, see also Assessment Injury/damage, premises
basics, xiii, 31–32, 32
basics, 45
building, part of, 41
hurricane, 55
concurrent stressors, 46, 51, 53
power outage, 53
contained duration, 43–44
September 11, 2001, 47
damages, 44–47, 49, 51, 53, 55
shooting incident, 51
death, personnel, 45, 51
Injury/damage, reputation
duration, 43–44, 47, 51, 53, 55
basics, 45
facility, total, 41–42
power outage, 53
HIAT, 47, 48, 49
hurricane, major, 53, 54, 55 September 11, 2001, 49
injury, 44–47, 49 shooting incident, 51
layoffs, 34–39 Injury/damage, social structure
local/regional area, 42 basics, 46
locus of impact, 40–42, 47, 51, 53, 55 hurricane, 55
man-made II (organized group), 33–34 power outage, 53
man-made I (single-perpetrator), 32–33 September 11, 2001, 49
ongoing duration, 43–44 shooting incident, 51
operational impact, 44, 47, 51, 53, 55 Instant communication, 87
organizational transition, 34–40 International Association of Emergency
organized groups (man-made II), 33–34 Managers, 146–147
part of building, 41 Internet Security Software company, 36
personal property, 45–46, 49, 53, 55 Interventions, 124–125, 177–178
personnel damage, 45, 49, 53, 55 Intimidation, 20
power outage, 51, 52, 53 Investigations, 103–104, 115–116
premise damage, 45, 47, 51, 53, 55 Irritable heart, 63
reputation damage, 45, 49, 51, 53 IT security, 172
shooting incident, 49, 50, 51 Ivan, see Hurricanes
single-perpetrators (man-made I), 32–33 Ivancevich and Matteson studies, 8
 Index  185

J Lindemann, Eric, 130

Janet studies, 63 Living Company, 25
Jesus (Biblical), 7 Local/regional area, 42
Locus of impact, 40–42, 47, 51, 53, 55
Job description, 105–108, 107–108
Long-term reassignment, 88–89
Journal of Employee Assistance, 132–132
Lord of the Flies, 9–10, 26
Journal of the American Medical
Los Angeles Lakers, 15, 18
Association, 57
Lost (television show), 9–10
Jung studies, 5

M
K
Maas, James, 142
Kardiner and Spiegel studies, 130
Management, 87, 112–115, see also
King, Martin Luther, 7
Administrative visibility
Kotter, John, 113
Managerial historical development, 4–6
Kubler-Ross, Elizabeth, 77–78
Man-made I (single-perpetrator) incidents,
Kulka studies, 66
32–33
Man-made II (organized group) incidents,
L 33–34
Laurie, Heifitz and, studies, 114 Marshall, Brigadier General S.L.A., 131
Layoffs Maslow’s (Abraham) Hierarchy of Needs
adjustment, 79 adjustment stage, 81
legal and security issues, 93 basics, 11–12, 12–13
re(dis)covery stage, 82
lifespan, 77
resolution, 81
passive and active trauma, 16–17
survival stage, 78
reputation damage, 45
workplace application, 12–16, 14
“return to normal,” 82
Massachusetts Continuing Legal Education
workplace hostility, 34–39
Association, 62
Leadership, 112–115, see also Administrative
Massachusetts-to-Bermuda race, 113
visibility
Matteson, Ivancevich and, studies, 8
Leave It to Beaver (television show), 2
McDonald, Truax and, studies, 19
Legal and litigation aspects Media, 43, 128–130, 129–130
basics, xiv, 93 Mentoring, 19
costs of violence, 101–102 Metropolitan College and School of Public
displaced domestic violence, 104–105, Health (Boston University), 147
105 Middle temporal cortex, 69
hostility and violence, 97–100, 99–100, Military boot camps, 15
103–104 Mind-Body Departments, 58
job description, 105–108, 107–108 Mintzberg, Henry, 112
prevention/protection, 102–103, Mitchell, Jeffrey, 74, 131, 136, 139
103–104 Mom-and-pop culture, 24–25
Lewis studies, 113, 142–143 Morale
Liability Consultants, Inc., 115 basics, 10–12, 12–13
Lifespan of crisis motivation relationship, 15–16
adjustment, 79–81 toxic workplace, 18, 19
basics, xiii, 77–78 Moses (Biblical), 7
groups (people), 83 Motivation
psychological debriefings, 135 basics, 10–12, 12–13
re(dis)covery, 81–82 morale relationship, 15
resolution, 81 toxic workplace, 18–19, 19
support, 79 Murrah Building, 27, 34
survival phase, 78 My Three Sons (television show), 2
186  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

N Organizational crisis management (OCM),

xiii, 23–28, 29
Naps, 142–143 Organizational culture, see also Workplaces
National Council on Compensation after layoffs, 40
Insurance, 101 assessment, 150–159, 169–172
National Guard, 43, 45, 162 basics, 6–10
National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH), changes, ix–x
62 hypocrisy, 10–11
National Institute of Occupational Safety and layoff effects, 40
Health (NIOSH), 97 OCM relationship, 23–28
National Mental Health Association (NMHA), “Organizational Man,” 2–3
59–60 Organizational transition, 34–40
National Safe Workplace Institute, 101 Organizations
NEDRIX, see New England Disaster active trauma, 16–17
Response Information Exchange basics, xiii, 1–3
(NEDRIX) coping resource, 15–16
Neuroendocrinological abnormalities, 68 culture, 6–10
Neuroimaging, 69 employee historical developments, 4
New England Disaster Response Information managerial historical development, 4–6
Exchange (NEDRIX), 89–90, 147 Maslow’s theory application, 12, 12–16,
New England Patriots, 15, 18 14
The New York Times, 58–59 morale, 10–12, 12–13
NFPA 1600, 146 motivation, 10–12, 12–13
NIMH, see National Institute of Mental passive trauma, 16–17
Health (NIMH) premorbid conditions, 20–21
9/11, see September 11, 2001 technology, 3
NIOSH, see National Institute of toxic workplace, 17–20, 17–20
Occupational Safety and Health traumatized cultures, 9–10
(NIOSH) Organized group (man-made II) incidents,
NMHA, see National Mental Health 33–34
Association (NMHA) OSHA, see Occupational Safety and Health
Noer, David, 35, 83 Administration (OSHA)
Nonadrenergic system, 68
Non-return, 88–89 P
Numbing, symptoms, 65 Panic disorders, 61–62, see also Anxiety and
Nurturance, see Support anxiety disorder
Partners HealthCare System, 147
O Part of building, 41
Passive trauma
Occupational Safety and Health layoffs, 37
Administration (OSHA), 98, 146 organizations, 16–17
OCM, see Organizational crisis management post-traumatic stress disorder, 70
(OCM) roles, 115–116
Old self (state-of-being), 81–82, 135 Peace, William, 117–118
On Death and Dying, 77 Performance, 19
Ongoing duration, 43–44, see also Duration Personal property, injury/damage
On-site wellness and stress management basics, 45–46
programs, 142–143 hurricane, 55
Operational impact, 44, 47, 51, 53, 55 power outages, 53
Organizational behavior, 4–6 September 11, 2001, 49
Organizational continuity planner, x Personal vs. professional priorities, 42
 Index  187

Personnel, injury/death Rape trauma syndrome, 63

basics, 45 Raye, Holmes and, studies, 58
hurricane, 55 Reactions
power outage, 53 anxiety, 61–62
September 11, 2001, 49 basics, xiii, 57
Personnel reduction, see Layoffs critical incident stress, 74–75
PIE model, 131 depression, 60, 61
Pituitary abnormalities, 68 extreme stress, 59–60
Policies and procedures, 116, 119–120 family reactions, 74
Politicians, escalating situations, 43, see also group psychological debriefings, 141,
Guiliani, Rudy 141–142
Post-impact preparedness, 177 panic disorders, 61–62
Post Office, see U.S. Postal Service (USPS) post-traumatic stress disorder, 62–73
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) stress, 57–59
human impact assessment tool, 49 substance abuse, 73–74
psychological debriefing controversy, Real, Terrance, 16, 37, 70
132–133 Real-life learning, 91–92
reactions, 62–73 Reassignment, 87–89
Power outages Red Badge of Courage, 62–63
active trauma, 17 Re(dis)covery, 81–82
basics, 51, 52, 53 Reduction in force, 37, see also Layoffs
legal and security issues, 93 Redundancy, 127
locus of impact, 40 Re-experiencing
Power Sleep: The Revolutionary Program family reactions, 74
that Prepares Your Mind for Peak post-traumatic stress disorder, 70, 72–73
Performance, 142 psychological debriefing controversy,
Pre-impact preparedness, 172–174, 177 133
Pre-incident planning, 119–121 symptoms, 65
Premise injury/damage Reich, Robert, 37
basics, 45 The Relaxation Response, 58
hurricane, 55 Release, 85–87
power outage, 53 Religious leaders and organizations, 10,
September 11, 2001, 47 15–16
shooting incident, 51 Relocation, 86–88
Premorbid conditions, 20–21 Reputation damage
Prevention/protection, 102–103, 103–104 basics, 45
Professional vs. personal priorities, 42 power outage, 53
Profiling, 37 September 11, 2001, 49
Property destruction, 20, 102 shooting incident, 51
Protocols, 119–120 Residences, injury/damage
“Psychological Debriefing,” 133 basics, 45–46
Psychological debriefings, see Group family services, 138
psychological debriefings hurricane, 55
Psychopathology in the Workplace, 40, 97–98 power outages, 53
PTSD, see Post-traumatic stress disorder September 11, 2001, 49
(PTSD) Resolution, 81
Rest breaks, see Naps
Restraining order policy, 105, 120, 172
R
Retaining, 89–91
Rape, hotel scenario, 94–96, see also Sexual Return, 85–86
harassment Return to self/return to normal, 81–83, 135
188  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

Rhode Island, see Station Club fire (Rhode survival phase, 78

Island) toxic workplace, 19
Rigid cultural systems, 7 Serotonergic system, 68
Rituals, 7 Sexual harassment, see also Assault; Rape,
Robbery, 93 hotel scenario
Rogel-Fuchs, Shalve and, studies, 69 ABC Hospital organizational culture, 151
Roles job description, 107
acknowledging suffering, 116–118 legal issues, 102
apologies, 116–118 post-traumatic stress disorder, 71
basics, xiv, 111 pre-impact preparedness, 172
investigations, 115–116 pre-incident planning, 120
leadership, 112–115 protection and causes, 98
management, 112–115 Ten Commandments for the Workplace,
passive trauma, 115–116 108
policies and procedures, 116 workplace culture assessment, 171
SAFE-T team, 111–112 workplace hostility, 20
Rothbaum studies, 66 Shalve and Rogel-Fuchs studies, 69
Rothman, Foa and, studies, 66 Shame, see also Guilt
family reactions, 74
S layoff method, 35, 37
post-traumatic stress disorder, 70, 73
Sabotage
re(dis)covery, 82
layoffs, 40
re-experiencing, 73
legal issues, 94, 102
Shell shock, 63, 78, 131
workplace culture assessment, 171
Shelter in place, 85, 120, 172
workplace hostility, 20
Shock, psychological stage, 77
SAFE-T team, 111–112
Shooting incident, 49, 50, 51
Sailboat race, 113
Sammer, Joanne, 101 Short-term release, 85–86
Sarbanes-Oxley, 146 Short-term relocation, 86–88
Schaffner, H. and C. Van Horn, 1 “Show-them-the-door” termination method,
Schwartz studies, 58–59 35–36
SEC, 146 Sick leave, 20
Secretary of Labor, Clinton Administration, “Sick of Work,” 58–59
37 Simple post-traumatic stress disorder, 65–67
Security assessment, 112, see also SAFE-T Single-perpetrator (man-made I) incidents,
team 32–33
Selye, Hans, 57 Slowdown, work, 20
Senge, Peter, 25 The Social and Psychological Impact of
September 11, 2001 Workplace Disruption, 126
business response plans, 26 Social Readjustment Rating Scale, 58
cultural changes since, 27, 85 Social structure, injury/damage
cultural impact, 26 basics, 46
family continuity plan, 122 hurricane, 55
Guiliani, calming influence of, 87 power outage, 53
human impact assessment tool, 49 September 11, 2001, 49
lifespan, 77 shooting incident, 51
Lord of the Flies correlation, 9 Soldier’s heart, 63
man-made events, 34 Solomon and Davidson studies, 66
measuring intervention efficacy, Spiegel, Kardiner and, studies, 130
135 State-of-being, 81–83, 135
short-term relocation, 87 States of emergency, 42–43
 Index  189

Station Club fire (Rhode Island), 44, 46 The Wall Street Journal, 57
Stead, Bette Ann, 142 Thomas and Davies studies, 40
Stonewalling, 116–118 Thomas and Hersen studies, 97–98
Storms, see Floods Thyroid function, 68
Stress, 57–59 Time-outs, see Naps
“Stress, Working Condition and Work-Life Timing, 43, 47, 51, 53
Events,” 40 Toll-free telephone number, see also Call-in
Stress management programs, on-site, number
142–143 emergency wallet cards, 121
Stressors, concurrent, 46 employee data, 120
Strikes, 20 prerecorded message, 127
Substance abuse, 73–74 release and short-term relocation, 87
Suddenness, 43 Total facility, 41–42
Support Toxicity, 17–20, 17–20, 23–24
ability to cope, 24 Training, 112, 122–123, see also SAFE-T team
adjustment phase, 79 Trauma, 27
coping resource, 15–16 Traumatized cultures, 9–10
crisis lifespan, 79
Truax and McDonald studies, 19
morale, 15–16
Trust, loss of, 10–11
personal vs. professional priorities, 42
post-traumatic stress disorder, 70
Surgery U
active and passive trauma, 16 UMASS Medical Center, 58
adjustment, 79–80
Uncertainty, stressful events, 58
lifecyle, 77
U.S. Civil War, 63
shame, 70
U.S. Coast Guard, 45
Surveys, 143
U.S. Postal Service (USPS), 41, 88, 120
Survival phase, 78
USPS, see U.S. Postal Service (USPS)
“Surviving a Layoff,” 39
Survivor (television show), 9
Survivor-victims, layoffs, 35, 83 V
Symbols, 7
Valasquez, Muarico, 102
Valdez, see Exxon Valdez
T Values, 7–8
Taylor, Frederick, 5, 10 Van Horn, C., Schaffner, H. and, 1
Teal, Thomas, 114, 117–118 Vehement emotions, 63
Technology, 3 Videotaped messages, 89, 127
Teleconferences, 127 Viet Nam veterans, see also Warfare, lifespan
Telephone number, see Toll-free telephone betrayal, 10
number passive and active trauma, 16, 37
“Ten Commandments of the Workplace,” post-traumatic stress disorder, 66, 70
108, 108 re-experiencing, 72
The Christian Science Monitor, 57 Vignettes
Theft, 20 consultant utilization, 146–147
The Future of Success, 37 critical incident stress management,
The Hidden Connections, 25 139–141, 140
“The Human Side of Management,” 117 introduction, psychological debriefings,
The New York Times, 58–59 137–138
The Relaxation Response, 58 layoffs, workplace hostility, 34–39
The Social and Psychological Impact of post-traumatic stress disorder, 62–71
Workplace Disruption (course), 126 protection and causes, 97–98
190  Organizational Crisis Management: The Human Factor

psychological debriefing controversy, Wharton, Joseph, 5, 10

132–135 Whyte, William, 2
reactions, 141, 141–142 “Win one for the Gipper” motivation, 15
workplace violence, 97–98 Workbook
Violence, workplace, 17, 97–102, 99–100, ABC Hospital, 149–151, 162–163
103–104 basics, xiv, 149
Virtual tours (videos), 89 brief business impact analysis, 165–166
culture assessment, 150–159
W human factor impact, 159–165
Workers Adjustment and Retraining
Waco, Texas, 34
Notification (WARN) Act, 37
Wallet cards, 121, 121, 123, 127
“Workplace Bill of Rights,” 108
The Wall Street Journal, 57
“Workplace Health Programs: A Significant
Warfare, lifespan, 77, see also Viet Nam
Cost-Cutting Approach,” 142
veterans
Workplace Hostility: Myth and Reality, 17
WARN, see Workers Adjustment and
Workplace Psychopathology, 5
Retraining Notification (WARN) Act
Workplaces, see also Organizational culture
Warning, 43
Washington, George, 7 business disruption types, 29
Weapons, 80, 99, 103 changes, 1–3
Weapons of mass destruction, ix, 20, 93, 103, coping resource, 15–16
146 hostility, 20, 103–104
Web sites incident types, 29
Bully Online, 71 post-traumatic stress disorder, 71
Business Finance Magazine, 101 premorbid conditions, 21
Chealth, 60 toxic, 17–20, 17–20
CIO, 36 “Workplace Violence: Protection and
consultants utilization, 147 Causes,” 97
Contingency Planning and Management, Workplace Violence Research Institute, 101
28 Work sites, alternative, 87–88
Disaster Response Journal, 26, 95 Work slowdown, 20
National Institute of Mental Health, 62 Wrongful termination, 36, 71, 96, 102
posting information on, 127
Wellness and stress management programs,
Y
on-site, 142–143
Westinghouse, 117–118 Y2K, 27