THERMODYNAMICS 1
Chapter 1: Introductory Concepts, Basic
Definitions & Units
Thermodynamics can be defined as the
science of energy. (Yunus Cengel)
It is the science that deals with heat and
work and those properties of substances
that bear a relation to heat and work.
The name thermodynamics stems from
the Greek words “therme“(means heat)
and “dynamis” (means power).
Figure 1.1: Some Areas of Application of
Thermodynamics.
Thermodynamic System or System refers to
a definite quantity of matter or region in space
chosen for study.
Surrounding or Environment is defined as
the mass or region outside the system or
everything external to the system.
Boundary is the real or imaginary surface that
separates the system from its surroundings.
Boundaries can be fixed or movable.
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
THERMODYNAMICS 1
Thermodynamic System Types: Extensive Properties are those whose values
depend on the size – or extent – of the system,
Open System (or a control volume) allows such as mass, volume, internal energy,
energy and mass to pass across the system enthalpy, and entropy.
boundary. Example: compressor, turbine or
nozzle Specific Properties are the extensive
properties per unit mass, such as specific
volume, specific internal energy, specific
entropy, and specific enthalpy.
Basic Definitions and their Units:
Mass (m) is the absolute quantity in a body.
Conversion: 1 slug = 32.174 lbm
1 kgm = 2.205 lbm
Closed System (or a control mass) allows
energy but not mass across its system Volume (V) is the amount of space occupied
boundary. Example: refrigeration system by the matter.
Conversion: 1 m3 = 1000 L
1 ft3 = 7.481 gal
1 gal = 3.7854 L
Density (ρ, Greek letter rho) is defined as the
mass per unit volume.
ρ=m/V
Constants:
ρw = 1000 kgm/m3
= 62.4 lbm/ft3 (water at its maximum density)
Isolated System (a special case) allows
neither mass nor energy to pass across the Specific Volume (ν, Greek letter nu) is
system boundary. Example: piston-cylinder defined as the volume per unit mass.
arrangement ν=V/m
=1/ρ
Weight Density or Specific Weight (γ, Greek
letter gamma) is the force exerted by gravity
per unit volume.
γ = W/V
= mgo/Vgc
= ρ (go/gc)
Relative Density (RD) or Specific Gravity
Properties of a System: (SG) is the ratio of the mass of a substance to
the mass of an equal volume of a substance
Intensive Properties are those that are taken as a standard. Solids and liquids are
independent of the size of a system, such as referred to water (at 4°C) as a standard.
temperature, pressure and density, melting RD or SG = ms/mw
point, boiling point. = ρs/ ρw
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
THERMODYNAMICS 1
Force (F) is defined as a push or pull. Pressure (p) is the normal force exerted by the
Newton’s second law of motion states that “the fluid per unit area of the surface. The
acceleration of a particular body is directly counterpart of pressure in solids is stress.
proportional to the resultant force acting on it
and inversely proportional to its mass.” p=F/A
a F/m
a = gc F/m Where: F = is the force
F = ma / gc A = is a cross sectional area
Where: gc = is a proportionality constant Pressure and Pressure Scales:
gc = 1 slug.ft/lbf.s2
= 1 kgm.m/N.s2 Figure 1.3: The pressure (p) of a fluid at rest
= 9.806 kgm.m/kgf.s2 increases with depth (as a result of added
= 32.174 lbm.ft/lbf.s2 weight).
Weight (W) is the force exerted by gravity on a
given mass.
W = mgo / gc
Where: go = is local acceleration of gravity;
if not specified, use go = 9.806 m/s2
= 32.174 ft/s2
Spring Work (for linear elastic spring)
Figure 1.2: Elongation of a spring under the
influence of a force.
p = patm + γ h
p – patm = γ h
Δp = γ h
p = F/A
Where: F = is the normal force exerted by the
fluid
A = is the area normal to the force
Units: 1 N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa)
F = kx 1 lbf/in2 = 1 psi
Where: F = is the force 1 lbf/ft2 = 1 psf
k = is the spring constant 1 kPa = 103 Pa
x = is the displacement
proportional to the applied Conversion: 1 bar = 100 kPa
force 1 MPa = 106 Pa
1 GPa = 109 Pa
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
THERMODYNAMICS 1
Figure 1.4: Graphical Representations of
Atmospheric or Barometric Pressure (patm) Various Pressure Scales
is the force per unit area exerted against a
surface by the weight of air above that surface
in the Earth's atmosphere. Barometer is the
instrument used to measure the absolute
pressure of the atmosphere.
Standard Atmospheric Pressure (at sea
level):
1 atm = 101.325 kPaa
= 14.696 psia
= 760 mmHg abs
= 760 torr abs Temperature (t or T) is used to indicate the
= 29.92 in.Hg abs amount of energy within the molecules of the
= 1.0332 kgf/cm2 abs substance. It measures the hotness and
= 33.90 ft.H2O abs coldness of the substance.
Gage Pressure (pgage or pg) is the intensity of Arbitrary Scale (t):
pressure measured above or below Celsius or Centigrade °C = 5/9 (°F – 32)
atmospheric. Pressure Gages are instruments Fahrenheit °F = 9/5 °C + 32
used to measure fluid (gaseous or liquid)
pressure in a closed vessel and these Absolute Value (T):
instruments register a zero reading when open Kelvin K = °C + 273
to the atmosphere. Example: manometer and Rankine °R = °F + 460
bourdon tube
The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics states
Note: that when two bodies have equality of
If a gage pressure is below atmospheric, temperature with a third body, they in turn have
this represents a vacuum and its gage equality of temperature with each other.
value is negative.
Figure 1.4: Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
Absolute Pressure (pabs) is the intensity of
pressure measured above the absolute zero
pressure line.
pabs = patm + pgage (a)
pabs = patm – pgage (b)
Note:
A very low absolute pressure is
designated as a high vacuum, while a
perfect vacuum corresponds to an
absolute zero pressure.
This law states that if object A is in thermal
equilibrium with object B, and object B is in
thermal equilibrium with object C, then object C
is also in thermal equilibrium with object A.
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
THERMODYNAMICS 1
Table 1.1: Fundamental Dimensions and pressure (gage) at the oil-water interface?
their Units Answer: 883 Pa
Eng’g MKS SI Units 5. The vertical, frictionless piston-cylinder
Units shown contains a gas at 105 kPa. The
Mass (m) slug or kgm kgm piston has a mass of 25 kg and diameter of
lbm 55 cm. What downward force must the
Volume (V) ft3 or gal m3 or L m3 or L spring exert to keep the piston in
Density (ρ) lbm/ft3 kgm/m3 kgm/m3 equilibrium? Go = 9.8 m/s2. Answer: 943 N
Specific ft3/lbm m3/kgm m3/kgm 6. Two liquids of different densities (ρ1 = 1350
Volume (ν) kgm/m3; ρ2 = 500 kgm/m3) are poured
Specific lbf/ft3 kgf/m3 N/m3 together into a 1000-L tank, filling it. If the
Weight (γ) resulting density of the mixture is 700
Force (F) lbf kgf N kgm/m3, find (a) the respective amounts of
Weight (W) lbf kgf N liquids used; (b) the weight of the mixture;
Pressure (p) lbf/in2 kgf/cm2 N/m2 (Pa) local g = 9.81 m/s2. Answer: (a) 317.65 kgm
(psi) and 382.0 kgm; (b) 6867 N
Chapter 1: Introductory Concepts, Basic 7. When an object of mass 5 kg is suspended
Definitions & Units from a spring is observed to stretch by 8
cm. The deflection of the spring is related
Sample Problems: linearly to the weight of the suspended
1. A ton of marble is shipped from mass. What is the proportionality constant,
Marinduque, where go = 9.80 m/s2 to in Newton per cm, if go = 9.81 m/s2?
Baguio, where go = 9.86 m/s2. (a) What is Answer: 6.131 N/cm
its mass in Baguio? (b) What is its weight in
Marinduque? In Baguio? Answer: (a) 1000 8. The open manometer shown is connected
kgm; (b) 9800 N & 9860 N into a flow line containing water. Determine
the pressure at points A and B if the gage
2. A 1-m diameter and 1.5-m height cylindrical fluid is mercury. RD (mercury) = 13.57.
drum is filled with a fluid whose density is Answer: pA = 151.75 kPa & pB = 159.75
850 kg/m3. Determine (a) the total volume kPa
open
of the fluid; (b) its total mass; (c) its specific
volume; (d) its specific weight if go = 9.81 1.4 m
m/s2; and (e) specify which of the foregoing
properties are extensive, intensive and Hg
Water
specific. Answer: (a) 1.1781 m3; (b) 1001.4
kgm; (c) 0.0012 m3/kgm; (d) 8.34 kN/m3; A 1.0 m
and (e) Volume & mass are extensive
properties; specific volume & specific
weight are specific properties
B 0.2 m
3. If the °F is twice the °C scale, what is the
reading in Fahrenheit scale? Answer: 320°F
9. The composite piston P is held in
4. A barrel contains a 150 mm layer of oil equilibrium by the pressure of the gas pC
floating on water that is 300 mm deep. If the flowing in the pipe. If the pressure pA = 700
density of oil is 600 kg/m3, what is the
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
THERMODYNAMICS 1
kPa and the pressure pB = 150 kPa, find pC. (a) 90 cm.Hg (gage)
Piston mass is 20 kgm. Answer:317.5 kPa (b) 40 cm.Hg (vac)
A
(c) 100 psig
(d) 8 in.Hg (vac)
8 cm
(e) 76 in.Hg (gage)
Answer: (a) 221.31 kPaa
(b) 48 kPaa
B B
(c) 790.63 kPaa
15 cm (d) 74.23 kPaa
(e) 358.7 kPaa
C
10. Water flows through a Venturi meter, as
shown below. The pressure of the water in
the pipe supports columns of water that
differ in height by 30 cm. Determine the
difference in pressure between points a and
b, in MPa. Does the pressure increase or
decrease in the direction of flow? The
atmospheric pressure is 1 bar, the specific
volume of water is 10-3 m3/kg and
acceleration of gravity is 9.81 m/s2. Answer:
2.943 kPag (decreases)
11. It is estimated that the earth has a mean
radius of 6.37 x 106 m, and the air
comprising the atmosphere above it is 8.05
x 104 m high. Atmospheric air is generally
composed of Nitrogen, Oxygen and Argon
with volumetric proportions of 78, 21 and 1
percent; and densities of 1.165, 1.33 and
1.783 kgm/m3, respectively. Determine (a)
the density of atmospheric air; (b) its total
mass. Answer: (a)1.2058 kgm/m3 (b) 5x1019
kgm
12. Convert the following readings of pressure
to kPaa, assuming that the barometer reads
760 mmHg:
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
THERMODYNAMICS 1
pabs = 358.7 kPa
ρ = 850 kg/m3
Fspring Fg
Given: patm = 760 mm. Hg = 101.325 kPa
Using Equations:
pabs = patm + pg
pabs = patm – pg
Note: pvac = -pg
Solution:
(a) pg = 90 cm.Hg x (10 mm.Hg / 1 cm.Hg)
pg = 900 mm.Hg
pabs = (760 + 900) mm.Hg x (101.325 kPa/760 mm.Hg)
pabs = 221.31 kPa
(b) pg = -40 cm.Hg x (10 mm.Hg / 1 cm.Hg)
pg = -400 mm.Hg
pabs = (760 - 400) mm.Hg x (101.325 kPa/760 mm.Hg)
pabs = 48 kPa
(c) pg = 100 psi x (101.325 kPa / 14.7 psi)
pg = 689.3 kPa
pabs = 101.325 kPa + 689.3 kPa
pabs = 790.63 kPa
(d) pg = -8 in.Hg x (101.325 kPa/29.92 in.Hg)
pg = -27.09 kPa
pabs = 101.325 kPa – 27.09 kPa
pabs = 74.23 kPa
(e) pg = 76 in.Hg x (101.325 kPa / 29.92 in.Hg)
pg = 257.4 kPa
pabs = 101.325 kPa + 257.4 kPa
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
THERMODYNAMICS 1
Given: m = 1 Ton of Marble
Find: (a) Mass in Baguio, and
(b) Weight in Marinduque & in Baguio
go = 9.80 m/s2 (Marinduque)
go = 9.86 m/s2 (Baguio)
Solution:
(a) m = 1 Ton x (1,000 kg / 1 Ton)
m = 1000 kg (mass in Baguio)
(b) WM = m x (go/gc)
WM = 1,000 kg x [(9.80 m/s2) / (1 kgm-m/N-s2)]
WM = 9,800 N (Weight in Marinduque)
WB = m x (go/gc)
WB = 1,000 kg x [(9.86 m/s2) / (1 kgm-m/N-s2)]
WB = 9,860 N (Weight in Baguio)
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
THERMODYNAMICS 1
Given: Cylindrical drum filled with a fluid.
h = 1.5 m, d = 1 m Given:
ρ = 850 kg/m3 patm = 100 kPa
go = 9.81 m/s2 pg = 105 kPa
mp = 25 kg
Find: dp = 55 cm = 0.55 m
(a) Volume (V) go = 9.8 m/s2
(b) Mass (m)
(c) Specific Volume (v) Find: FS = Force of the spring, N
(c) Specific Weight (γ)
(d) Properties Solution:
Fatm = patm x Aatm
Solution: Fatm = patm x (Π/4) x (datm)2
(a) V = A x h Fatm = (100 kN/m2) x (Π/4) x (0.55)2m2
V = (Π/4) d2 x h Fatm = 23.75 kN or 23,750 N
V = (Π/4) x (1.0)2 m2 x 1.5m
V = 1.1781 m3 Fg = pg x Ag
Fg = pg x (Π/4) x (dg)2
(b) ρ = m / V Fg = 105 kN/m2 x (Π/4) x (0.55)2m2
m=ρxV Fg = 24.9375 kN or 24,937.5 N
m = 850 kg/m3 x 1.1781 m3
m = 1,001.4 kgm Wp = mp x (go/gc)
Wp = 25 kg x [(9.8 m/s2)/(1 kgm – m/N-s2)]
(c) v = 1 / ρ Wp = 245 N
v = 1 / 850 kg/m3
v = 0.0012 m3/kg + Fy = 0
Fg – Wp – Fs – Fatm = 0
(d) γ = W / V Fs = Fg – Wp – Fatm
γ = ρ x (go/gc) Fs = 24,937.5 – 245 – 23,750
γ = (850 kg/m3) x [(9.81 m/s2)/(1 kgm–m/N–s2)] Fs = 942.5 N or 943 N
γ = 8,338.5 N/m3 or 8.34 kN/m3
(e) Volume and mass are extensive properties. If the °F scale is twice the °C scale, what is the reading
Specific volume and specific weight are in Fahrenheit scale? Answer: 320°F
specific properties.
Solution:
°F = 2°C - Equation 1
°C = 5/9 (°F – 32) – Equation 2
Substituting Equation 1 to Equation 2:
(°F/2) = 5/9 (°F – 32)
(°F/2) = (5°F – 160) / 9
160/9 = (5°F/9) – (°F/2)
160/9 = (10°F – 9°F) / 18
160/9 = °F / 18
°F = 320
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
THERMODYNAMICS 1
A barrel contains a 150 mm layer of oil floating on water
that is 300 mm deep. If the density of the oil is 600
kg/m3, what is the pressure (gage) at the oil-water
interface? Answer: 883 Pa
Given: ρ = 600 kg/m3
hoil = 150 mm = 0.15 m
go = 9.806 m/s2
Find: p = Pressure at the oil-water interface, Pa (gage)
Solution:
p = γoil x hoil
p = [ρoil x (go/gc)] x hoil
p = 600 kg/m3 x [(9.806 m/s2)/(1kgm – m/N-s2)] x 0.15m
p = 882.54 Pa or 883 Pa (gage)
“And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him,
who have been called according to his purpose.” - Romans 8:2 (NIV)
