A Project

Stage-2
Report on

“OVER SPEED INDICATION AND ACCIDENT

AVOIDING SYSTEM”

Submitted By

1.Benake Rohan Dattatray B150510821

2.Gavasekar Bhushan Basavant B150510892
3.Halmare Pratik Devendra B150510911
4.Patil Dnyaneshwar Manohar B150511056

Guided by,
Prof. Kare R. N.

Department of Mechanical Engineering

IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
RESEARCH
2020-2021
 IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND
RESEARCH

CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that 1. Mr.Benake Rohan Dattatray

2. Mr.Gavasekar Bhushan Basavant

3. Mr.Halmare Pratik Devendra

4. Mr.Patil Dnyaneshwar Manohar

has successfully completed the Project Stage-2 entitled “OVER SPEED

INDICATION AND ACCIDENT AVOIDIND SYSTEM.” under my supervision, in

the partial fulfillment of Bachelor of Engineering – Mechanical Engineering,

by Savitribai Phule Pune University.

Date:

Place:

Guide Name External Examiner

Prof. Kare R.N.

HEAD Mechanical Dept. Principal

Prof. N.S. Biradar Dr. R.S. Deshpande
IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
AND RESEARCH AND RESEARCH
 CONTENT

Sr.No Topic Page No.

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Scope Of Project 1
2 Literature Review 2
2.1 Objectives 3
3 Methodology 5
3.1 Ultrasonic Transmitter 5
3.2 Ultrasonic Receiver 6
3.3 Braking Circuit 6
4 Construction 7
4.1 Safety Consideration In Cars 7
4.1.1 Strong Chassis 7
4.1.2 Dash Board Modification 7
4.1.3 Implementation Of Air Bags 7
4.1.4 Power Braking, Abs, Power Starring,Trc 8
4.2 Types Of Brake 8
4.2.1 Disk Brake 8
4.2.2 Drum Brakes 9
4.2.3 Power Brakes 9
4.2.4 Hydraulic Brakes 9
4.3 Brakecomponents 9
4.3.1 Brake Booster 9
4.3.2 Brake Pedal 9
4.3.3 Brake Cylinder 9
4.4 The Fundamental Of Sensor 10
4.4.1 The Fundamental Of Ultrasonic Sensor 11
4.4.2 Measurement Principle/Effective Use Of Ultrasonic Sensor 11
4.4.3 The Advantages Of Ultrasonic Sensor 11
4.4.4 The Disadvantages Of Ultrasonic Sensor 12
4.5 Relay Circuit 12
4.5.1 Defination 12
4.5.2 Relay Operation 12
4.6 Smps (Switch Mode Power Supply) 13
5 System Design 15
5.1 Fundamental Of Braking System 15
5.2 Bottlenecks Of Braking 16
5.2.1 Death Occurs During Impact 16
5.3 Factors Influencing The Effectiveness Of Braking 17
5.3.1 Distraction Driving 18
5.4 Effects Of Distraction 18
5.5 Dealing With Distraction 19
5.6 Method To Redesign The Traditional Braking 20
5.6.1 Traditional Braking 20
5.7 Instrument Used 24
5.8 Procedure 24
Sr.No Topic Page No.

6 Over Speed Indication and Accident Prevention 26

6.1 Working 27
6.2 Design and Fabrication 27
6.2.1 Design 27
6.2.2 Design of Belt Drive 27
6.2.3 Design of Input Shaft 28
6.2.4 Design of Governor 29
6.3 Advantages 30
6.4 Application 30
7 Conclusion 31
7.1 Future Scope 32
References 33
 LIST OF FIGURES

Sr.No Topic Page No.

1 Block Digram Of The System 5
2 Ultrasonic Sensor 11
3 Relay Circuit 12
4 Relay On 13
5 Relay Off 13
6 Smps (Switch Mode Power Supply) 14
7 Fundamental Of Braking System 15
8 Car Naturalistic Study 17
9 Traditional Braking 20
10 Wheel Cylinder 22
11 Vacuum Brake Booster 23
12 Analysis Of Road Accident In India 25
13 System Construction 26
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It’s my great pleasure to present project report entitled “Over Speed Indication And
Accident Avoiding System” This project is an outcome of various efforts by us in
collating and identifying the sources of information and knowledge. I use this occasion
to thank my guide with whose guidance this effort would not have borne fruits. I find no
words to express my gratitude to Prof. Kare R.N. who not only advised and guided me
during the report writing but also answered all my queries concerning collection of data,
proper structuringof the report, and its improvement. I would also thankful of my friends
which gave me a proper guide line about my subject. I am virtually indebted to the Head
of the Department Prof. N.S.Biradar from Imperial College of Engineering and
Research who have bestowed all their blessings in the form of guidance which was the
leading light to complete this seminar report. I would also like to thank our principal,
Dr. R.S. Deshpande who provided me valuable support in completion of seminar by
providing me different facilities in college and by giving permission for working out of
college.

1.Benake Rohan Dattatray B150510821

2.Gavasekar Bhushan Basavant B150510892
3.Halmare Pratik Devendra B150510911
4.Patil Dnyaneshwar Manohar B150511056
 ABSTRACT

The automobile as we know, it was not invented in a single day by a single inventor.
The history of the automobile reflects an evolution that took place worldwide. It is estimated
that over 100,000 patents created the modern automobile. However, we can point to the many
firsts that occurred along the way. Several Italians recorded designs for wind driven vehicles.
The first was Guido da Vigevano in 1335. Vaturio designed a similar vehicle, which was also
never built. Later Leonardo da Vinci designed clockwork driven tricycle with tiller steering
and a differential mechanism between the rear wheels. A Catholic priest named Father
Ferdinand Verbiest has been said to have built a steam powered vehicle for the Chinese
Empower Chien Lung in about 1678. Since James Watt didn't invent the steam engine until
1705 it is guessed that this was possibly a model vehicle powered by a mechanism like Hero's
steam engine, a spinning wheel with jets on the periphery.[1]
The first vehicle to move under its own power for which there is a record was
designed by Nicholas Joseph Cugnot and constructed by M. Brezin in 1769. A second unit
was built in 1770, which weighed 8000 pounds and had a top speed on 2 miles per hour and
on the cobble stone streets of Paris this was probably as fast as anyone wanted to go it. The
early steam powered vehicles were so heavy that they were only practical on a perfectly flat
surface as strong as iron. A road thus made out of iron rails became the norm for the next
hundred and twenty-five years. The vehicles got bigger and heavier and more powerful and
as such they were eventually capable of pulling a train of many cars filled with freight and
passengers. Many attempts were being made in England by the 1830's to develop a practical
vehicle that didn't need rails.[1] A series of accidents and propaganda from the established
railroads caused a flurry of restrictive legislation to be passed and the development of the
automobile bypassed England. Several commercial vehicles were built but they were more
like trains without tracks.
The development of the internal combustion engine had to wait until a fuel was
available to combust internally. Gunpowder was tried but didn't work out. Gunpowder
carburetors are still hard to find. The first gas really did use gas. They used coal gas
generated by heating coal in a pressure vessel or boiler. A Frenchman named Etienne Lenoir
patented the first practical gas engine in Paris in 1860 and drove a car based on the design
from Paris to Joinville in 1862. His one-half horsepower engine had a bore of 5 inches and a
24-inch stroke. It was big and heavy and turned 100 rpm. According to a survey of ASME
International (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), the automobile is the greatest
mechanical engineering achievement of the 20th century. The automobile, airplane, Apollo,
air conditioning and other technologies made major contributions to engineering progress and
economic and social development in the last 100 years. The automobile also spurred
transportation in the United States and provided a means of efficient and enjoyable travel for
the nation's middle class[2].

Keywords:-
ABS-Antilock Braking System. ASME- American Society of Mechanical Engineers,
 SAVITRIBAI PHULE PUNE UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
Driving is a compulsory activity for most people. People use their car to move from one
place to other place. The number of vehicle is increasing day by day. It is produced tacked
tightly and risk to accident. Nowadays, the numbers of accident is so high and uncertainly.
Accident will occurs every time and every where and cause worst damage, serious injury and
dead. These accidents are mostly cause by delay of the driver to hit the brake.
This project is designed to develop a new system that can solve this problem where
drivers may not brake manually but the vehicles can stop automatically due to obstacles. This
project is about a system that can control braking system for safety. Using ultrasonic as a
ranging sensor, its function based on ultrasonic wave. After transmit by transmitter, the wave
can reflect when obstacle detected and receive by receiver.
The main target for this project is, car cans automatically braking due to obstacles when
the sensor senses the obstacles. The braking circuit function is to brake the car automatically
after received signal from the sensor.

1.2 SCOPE OF PROJECT

i. To develop an ultrasonic sensor to detect the obstacle.
ii. To process the output from the ultrasonic sensor to drive the the Pneumatic cylinder as an
actuator.

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CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
1.Prof. V.V.khadakkar et.al. The object of this paper is to detect the speed of the vehicle and
cut off the fuel if it exceeds set speed .this project designed with micro controller proximity
sensor as a speed and driver circuit with relay and keypad. In this project we are using
proximity sensor as a speed detector .a proximity sensor can detect object without physical
contact .A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or beam and look for changes
in the field .the object being sensed is often refer to as the proximity sensor target .here is an
inductive proximity sensor, requires a metal target. This system is used to monitor speed of the
vehicle and to avoid the accident by using the proximity sensors. This over speed indication and
automatic accident avoiding system senses the opposite vehicle by the proximity detector and
stops both engines and applies auto braking thus preventing the accident this system is used to
read and control the data from the vehicle .and then process it by using microcontroller .the
LCD module displays the rpm and the speed of the vehicle .for over speed the alarm raises and
alerts the driver. This contains, Accident sensing module and RPM monitoring system

2.Umar Zakir Abdul Hamid et.al The progression of vehicle active safety research and its
implementation have brought a lot of reduction in the number of road fatalities globally. It
enables the vehicle to aid the driver in the risky scenarios. One of the examples is Autonomous
Emergency Braking System (AEB). It yields the required braking torques intervention in the
hazardous events to mitigate collision risks. However, statistics show that a large number of
road accidents remain, including the case of nearmiss incidents. In this work, to aid the
reduction of the nearmiss accident, and assist the AEB to maintain the safe-distance with the
frontal obstacle, AEB is integrated with the Potential Field (PF) risk assessment strategy. When
the PF threshold of the frontal obstacle’s risk is violated, AEB provides the active braking
intervention. The proposed design was tested and validated using a test vehicle, where it
mitigates the collision risk with a static obstacle in a medium-speed scenario. The work is part
of the continuous effort to develop the autonomous vehicle and reduce the high number of road
accidents in Malaysia. Results show the integration of AEB and PF successfully aid the vehicle
to mitigate the collision as well as maintaining the safe distance with the frontal obstacle.

3.Hong Tan et.al The automatic emergency braking (AEB) system is an effective intelligent
vehicle active safety system for avoiding certain types of collisions. This study develops a
national-level safety impact evaluation model for this intelligent vehicle function, including the

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potential maximum impact and realistic impact. The evaluation model was firstly applied in
China to provide insights into Chinese policymaking. Road traffic fatality and severe injury
trends, the proportion of different collision types, the effectiveness of collision avoidance, and
the AEB market penetration rates are considered in the potential maximum impact scenario.
Furthermore, the AEB activation rate and the technology’s technical limitations, including its
effectiveness in different weather, light, and speed conditions, are discussed in the realistic
scenario. With a 100% market penetration rate, fatalities could be reduced by 13.2%, and
injuries could be reduced by 9.1%. Based on China’s policy, the market penetration rate of
intelligent vehicles with AEB is predicted to be 34.0% in 2025 and 60.3% in 2030. With this
large market penetration rate increase of AEB, the reductions in fatalities and severe injuries are
903–2309 and 2025–5055 in 2025; and 1483–3789 and 3895–7835 in 2030, respectively.
Considering AEB’s activation rate and its three main limitations, the adjusted realistic result is
approximately 2/5 of the potential maximum result.

4.Gopal P. Gawande et.al The main objective of this paper to design speed control & automatic
braking system in the vehicle. The speed control & automatic braking system will involve the
electronic circuits such as sensor, relay, control system, microcontroller, signal transmitter and
signal receiver, Peripheral Interface Circuit (PIC). In this project we will apply the skill and
knowledge in designing electronic circuit for the speed control & automatic braking system. We
will use the software Proteus to design the circuit. The concept in designing the speed control &
automatic braking system is strategic control of an accident being vehicles. We will use
ultrasonic sensor for detection the obstacle & IR sensor for automatic braking system purpose.
The system will be design to prevent the driver and passenger inside the vehicle from accident.

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OBJECTIVES
The objectives of this project are;
1) To develop a safety car braking system using ultrasonic photoelectric retro reflective
sensors.
2) To design a vehicle with less human attention to the driving
3) We have the objective to minimize the road accidents. In our project we proposed few
concept to minimize the accidents due to violating rules & carelessness.
4) The aim of the project to minimize the road accidents which causes the loss of invaluable
human life & other valuable goods
5) Study on automatic accident avoiding system on the basis of safety, performance , economy,
& application.
6)Design & construct a working model of over speed indicator & accident avoiding system.

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CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY

Fig. 1 Block Digram of the System

3.1. ULTRASONIC TRANSMITTER

Before transmit the ultrasonic wave, there is a part which is ultrasonic wave generator
that function to generate ultrasonic wave. In that part, there is timing instruction means for
generating an instruction signal for intermittently providing ultrasonic waves. This signal will
send to an ultrasonic wave generator for generating ultrasonic waves based on the instruction
signal from said timing instruction means (transform electrical energy into sound wave). After
ultrasonic wave was produced, ultrasonic transmitter transmits the ultrasonic waves toward a
road surface to find out the obstacle. The range that obstacle detected is depends on the range of
ultrasonic sensors that used.

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3.2 ULTRASONIC RECEIVER

If the ultrasonic wave detect the obstacle, its will produce a reflected wave. An
ultrasonic receiver is used for receiving the ultrasonic waves reflected from the road surface to
generate a reception signal. There is ultrasonic transducer that will transform back the sound
wave to electrical energy. This signal amplified by an amplifier. The amplified signal is
compared with reference signal to detect components in the amplified signal due to obstacles on
the road surface. The magnitude of the reference signal or the amplification factor of the
amplifier is controlled to maintain a constant ratio between the average of the reference signal
and the average of the amplified signal.

3.3 BRAKING CIRCUIT

The processed signal will be send to the braking circuit. At the braking circuit, there is a
relay circuit which combine of two relay one for the each sensor in the the line, the relay circuit
will on and off the hooter and alarm first when sensore detect any object in front ,the second
relay will be on if that obstacle closing rapidly which lead to trigger the relay thus transmission
of brake take place throw the pnumatic cylinder which is attached to the Brake paddle.

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CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION
This chapter reviews some of the work related to the study of the ultrasonic car braking system.
The main reviews are about sensor, ultrasonic sensor, Relays ,Pneumatic Cylinder
and safety consideration in Cars.

4.1 SAFETY CONSIDERATION IN CARS.

There are various safety consideration involve to make passenger comfortable while
traveling, and it has been modified as generation of automobile goes by. Here are some area the
modification has been take place.[2]
 Strong Chassis.
 Dash Board Modification.
 Implementation of Airbags.
 Power Braking, ABS, Power starring,TRC.
 Seat Belt design.

4.1.1 STRONG CHASSIS:-

In old days the chassis are made of wooden floor and not good enough to sustain the
load but now days the chassis is made of alloy of light weight aluminum and strong cast iron
to give chassis immense strength such that it withstand load and sustain in accident.

4.1.2 DASH BOARD MODIFICATION:-

The Dash board is modified and simplified in recent days such that it can be user
friendly. Ergonomics (the relation between man &machine ) of dash board include varius
sensors and meters to make it comfortable.

4.1.3 IMPLEMENTATION OF AIR BAGS:-

Airbags (passive restraints) have saved many lives and reduced injuries in vehicle
crashes, there are accidents where they have been the cause of injury and/or death. Knowledge
of the history of airbag systems and how they work is important in understanding if they are a
factor in an occupant’s injury or death. An overview of these subjects is presented in this paper.
In addition, potential airbag defects are defined[2].

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4.1.4 POWER BRAKING, ABS, POWER STARRING,TRC:-

From drum brakes to power-assisted brakes, braking systems have been critical to automobiles
and have continuously evolved with them. Today many path braking technologies and brake
components such as brake boosters, brake cylinders, brake hydraulic valve, brake lines, etc.,
lend a braking system high efficacy. They are also the key behind advanced braking systems
such as the anti-lock braking system. The following are some braking systems and their
components.

4.2 TYPES OF BRAKE.

4.2.1 DISK BRAKE
Disc brakes make use of friction generated between the disc attached to a wheel and the
wheel itself, to slow or stop an automobile. Disc brakes comprise brake pads that serve as
friction material and are fixed onto a device called a brake caliper. When the brake pedal is
pushed by a driver the brake pads are mechanically, hydraulically, pneumatically or
electromagnetically forced against both sides of the disc mounted on the wheels, thus regulating
the speed.

4.2.2 DRUM BRAKES

Louis Renault is credited for inventing the modern drum brakes in 1902. Drum brakes
regulate speed by causing friction between the wheels and a set of shoes or pads that push
against the inside surface of a rotating drum. The drum is attached to the rotating wheels.
Typically, drum brakes are classified as either leading/trailing or twin leading. Out of the two
types, the twin leading drum brakes are more effective.

4.2.3 HAND BRAKES

Hand brakes are latching brakes and are normally used to keep an automobile stationary,
when not being driven. Also known as e-brake, emergency brake, park brake, parking brake or
slide stick, the brakes are often configured on the floor and between front passenger and the
driver. However, they can even be configured as a lever at the bottom of the dashboard, or as a
foot-operated pedal. The brake comprises a cable that connects the braking system at one end
and a lever on the other. The driver operates the hand-lever (or a pedal) to actuate or release the
brake.

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4.2.4 POWER BRAKES

A braking system employing power braking uses the engine's power and/or the power of
batteries to assist the driver in braking. Although conventional brakes generate enough force to
regulate the speed of an automobile, power brakes further enhance this power by supplementing
it from other sources (i.e. engine/batteries), thus causing highly efficient braking. Some
common types of power brakes are: air suspended brakes, vacuum suspended brakes, hydraulic
booster and electro-hydraulic booster brakes.

4.2.5 HYDRAULIC BRAKES

Hydraulic brakes consists of a braking mechanism that uses brake fluid, to apply the braking
force from the controlling unit (viz. brake pedal) to the actual brake mechanism. Hydraulic
brakes are based on a multiple piston system, wherein the brake pedal when pushed, produces
an equivalent force on each of the output pistons, thus multiplying the force and cause efficient
braking.

4.3 BRAKECOMPONENTS
4.3.1 BRAKE BOOSTER
A brake booster is a useful braking system component that enhances braking
performance by applied when a brake pedal is pushed. When the engine is running it produces
vacuum, a brake booster collects this vacuum through a rubber hose and uses it to amplify
braking power. So even when the brake pedal is pushed only lightly it causes more braking
action, thus making the brakes more sensitive.

4.3.2 BRAKE PEDAL

A brake pedal is a foot operated pedal, that when pushed by the drivers, moves a piston
in the master brake cylinder to regulate the speed of an automobile.

4.3.3 BRAKE CYLINDER

An automobile's brake cylinder or a wheel cylinder is a component found in drum brake
systems. Installed at each of the wheels, its function is to exert pressure onto the shoes so as to
enable a contact between the shoes and the drum, thus actuating a braking action.

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4.3.4 OTHER BRAKE COMPONENTS

Other essential brake components include, Brake Hydraulic Valve, Brake Lines, Brake
Pedal, Brake Pumps, Brake Roll and Wheel Studs.

4.4 THE FUNDAMENTAL OF SENSOR

Sensor is an electrical device that maps an environmental attribute to a quantitative
measurement. It is created to collect information about the world. Each sensor is based on a
transduction principle which is conversion of energy from one form to another form. [1]

4.4.1 THE FUNDAMENTAL OF ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Ultrasonic ranging and detecting devices use high-frequency sound waves to detect the
presence of an object and its range. The systems either measure the echo reflection of the sound
from objects or detect the interruption of the sound beam as the objects pass between the
transmitter and receiver.
An ultrasonic sensor typically utilizes a transducer that produces an electrical output in
response to received ultrasonic energy. The normal frequency range for human hearing is
roughly 20 to 20,000 hertz. Ultrasonic sound waves are sound waves that are above the range of
human hearing and, thus, have a frequency above about 20,000 hertz. Any frequency above
20,000 hertz may be considered ultrasonic. Most industrial processes, including almost all
source of friction, create some ultrasonic noise. The ultrasonic transducer produces ultrasonic
signals. These signals are propagated through a sensing medium and the same transducer can be
used to detect returning signals.
Ultrasonic sensors typically have a piezoelectric ceramic transducer that converts an
excitation electrical signal into ultrasonic energy bursts. The energy bursts travel from the
ultrasonic sensor, bounce off objects, and are returned toward the sensor as echoes. Transducers
are devices that convert electrical energy to mechanical energy, or vice versa. The transducer
converts received echoes into analog electrical signals that are output from the transducer.
The piezoelectric effect refers to the voltage produced between surfaces of a solid dielectric
(nonconducting substance) when a mechanical stress is applied to it. Conversely when a
voltage is applied across certain surfaces of a solid that exhibits the piezoelectric effect, the
solid undergoes a mechanical distortion.
Such solids typically resonate within narrow frequency ranges. Piezoelectric materials
are used in transducers, e.g., phonograph cartridges, microphones, and strain gauges that
produce an electrical output from a mechanical input. They are also used in earphones and

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ultrasonic transmitters that produce a mechanical output from an electrical input. Ultrasonic
transducers operate to radiate ultrasonic waves through a medium such as air. Transducers
generally create ultrasonic vibrations through the use of piezoelectric materials such as certain
forms of crystal or ceramic polymers. [2]

4.4.2 MEASUREMENT PRINCIPLE/EFFECTIVE USE OF ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Ultrasonic sensor transmits ultrasonic waves from its sensor head and again receives the
ultrasonic waves reflected from an object. By measuring the length of time from the
transmission to reception of the sonic wave, it detects the position of the object.

Fig. 2 Ultrasonic Sensor

4.4.3 THE ADVANTAGES OF ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Ultrasonic have a lot of advantages for using in real application. The advantages of
ultrasonic sensor are:
i. Discrete distances to moving objects can be detected and measured.
ii. Less affected by target materials and surfaces, and not affected by color.
Solid-state units have virtually unlimited, maintenance free life. Ultrasonic
can detect small objects over long operating distances.

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4.4.4 THE DISADVANTAGES OF ULTRASONIC SENSOR

Some disadvantages of ultrasonic sensor are:
i. Overheating of a wave emitter precludes the energy of ultrasonic waves emitted there from
being enhanced to a practical level.
ii. Interference between the projected waves and the reflected waves takes place, and
development of standing waves provides adverse effects.
iii. It is impossible to discern between reflected waves from the road surface and reflected
waves from other places or objects.

4.5 RELAY CIRCUIT

4.5.1 DEFINATION.
Relays are remote control electrical switches that are controlled by another switch, such
as a horn switch or a computer as in a power train control module. Relays allow a small current
flow circuit to control a higher current circuit. Several designs of relays are in use today, 3-
pin, 4-pin, 5-pin, and 6-pin, single switch or dual switches.

4.5.2 RELAY OPERATION

All relays operate using the same basic principle. Our example will use a commonly
used 4 - pin relay. Relays have two circuits: A control circuit (shown in GREEN) and a load
circuit (shown in RED). The control circuit has a small control coil while the load circuit has a
switch. The coil controls the operation of the switch.

Fig.3 Relay Circuit

4.5.3 RELAY ENERGIZED (ON)

Current flowing through the control circuit coil (pins 1 and 3) creates a small magnetic
field which causes the switch to close, pins 2 and 4. The switch, which is part of the load circuit
is used to control an electrical circuit that may connect to it. Current now flows through pins 2
and 4 shown in RED, when the relay in energized.

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Fig.4 Relay ON
4.5.4 RELAY DE-ENERGIZED (OFF)
When current stops flowing through the control circuit, pins 1 and 3, the relay becomes de-
energized. Without the magnetic field, the switch opens and current is prevented from
flowing through pins 2 and 4. The relay is now OFF.

Fig.5 Relay OFF

4.6 SMPS (SWITCH MODE POWER SUPPLY)

Like a linear power supply, the switched mode power supply too converts the available
unregulated ac or dc input voltage to a regulated dc output voltage. However in case of SMPS
with input supply drawn from the ac mains, the input voltage is first rectified and filtered using
a capacitor at the rectifier output. The unregulated dc voltage across the capacitor is then fed to
a high frequency dc-to-dc converter.
Most of the dc-to-dc converters used in SMPS circuits have an intermediate high
frequency ac conversion stage to facilitate the use of a high frequency transformer for voltage
scaling and isolation. In contrast, in linear power supplies with input voltage drawn from ac
mains, the mains voltage is first stepped down (and isolated) to the desired magnitude using a

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mains frequency transformer, followed by rectification and filtering. The high frequency
transformer used in a SMPS circuit is much smaller in size and weight compared to the low
frequency transformer of the linear power supply circuit.

Fig.6 SMPS (Switch Mode Power Supply)

The ‘Switched Mode Power Supply’ owes its name to the dc-to-dc switching converter
for conversion from unregulated dc input voltage to regulated dc output voltage. The switch
employed is turned ‘ON’ and ‘OFF’ (referred as switching) at a high frequency. During ‘ON’
mode the switch is in saturation mode with negligible voltage drop across the collector and
emitter terminals of the switch where as in ‘OFF’ mode the switch is in cut-off mode with
negligible current through the collector and emitter terminals. On the contrary the voltage-
regulating switch, in a linear regulator circuit, always remains in the active region.

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CHAPTER 5
SYSTEM DESIGN
For the System design the chapter is sub divided in various parts which are process to
the fundamental concept of Braking and its modification ,design and Selection of Component
and its Analysis.

5.1FUNDAMENTAL OF BRAKING SYSTEM:-

Fig.7 Fundamental of Braking System

The modern automotive brake system has been refined for over 100 years and has
become extremely dependable and efficient. The typical brake system consists of Disk Brakes
in front and either disk or Drum Brakes in the rear connected by a system of tubes and hoses
that link the brake at each wheel to the master cylinder. Other systems that are connected with
the brake system include the parking brake, power brake booster and the anti-lock system.
When you step on the brake pedal, you are actually pushing against a plunger in the master
cylinder which forces hydraulic oil (brake fluid) through a series of tubes and hoses to the
braking unit at each
wheel. Since hydraulic fluid (or any fluid for that matter) cannot be compressed, pushing fluid
through a pipe is just like pushing a steel bar through a pipe. Unlike a steel bar, however, fluid

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can be directed through many twists and turns on its way to its destination, arriving with the
exact same motion and pressure that it started with. It is very important that the fluid is pure
liquid and that there are no air bubbles in it. Air can compress, which causes a sponginess to the
pedal and severely reduced braking efficiency. If air is suspected, then the system must be bled
to remove the air. There are "bleeder screws" at each wheel cylinder and caliper for this
purpose.
On a disk brake, the fluid from the master cylinder is forced into a caliper where it presses
against a piston. The piston, in-turn, squeezes two brake pads against the disk (rotor) which is
attached to the wheel, forcing it to slow down or stop.
This process is similar to a bicycle brake where two rubber pads rub against the wheel
rim creating friction. With drum brakes, fluid is forced into the wheel cylinder which pushes the
brake shoes out so that the friction linings are pressed against the drum which is attached to the
wheel, causing the wheel to stop. In either case, the friction surfaces of the pads on a disk brake
system, or the shoes on a drum brake convert the forward motion of the vehicle into heat. Heat
is what causes the friction surfaces (linings) of the pads and shoes to eventually wear out and
require replacement.
The master cylinder is located in the engine compartment on the firewall, directly in
front of the driver's seat. A typical master cylinder is actually two completely separate master
cylinders in one housing, each handling two wheels. This way if one side fails, you will still be
able to stop the car. The brake warning light on the dash will light if either side fails, alerting
you to the problem. Master cylinders have become very reliable and rarely malfunction;
however, the most common problem that they experience is an internal leak. This will cause the
brake pedal to slowly sink to the floor when your foot applies steady pressure. Letting go of the
pedal and immediately stepping on it again brings the pedal back to normal height.

5.2 BOTTLENECKS OF BRAKING:-

5.2.1 DEATH OCCURS DURING IMPACT:-
There have been a range of estimations about the number of accidents that are caused
by, or contributed to, by driver distraction. It is hard to make an accurate estimate as accident
databases are generally constructed from reports following an accident and it is probable that
not every driver admits to being distracted or inattentive at the time of the accident.
The largest analysis of driver behavior conducted is the 100-Car Naturalistic Study in
the USA, which recorded the activities of 241 drivers over the course of 12 –13 months in order
to build up a picture of how drivers behaved in cars. Around 42,300 hours of driving data was

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collected, and in this time the vehicles covered around 2 million miles. At the end of the study,
researchers also had 15 police-reported and 67 non-police reported crashes to study, as well as
761 near-crashes and 8,395 ‘incidents’.
It was found that 78% of the crashes and 65% of near crashes had one form of
inattention or distraction as a contributing factor – including inattention due to fatigue.
Another study which examined film footage of drivers in their vehicles, found that all drivers
partook in at least one distracting activity, and that altogether, drivers spent 14.5% of the time
that the vehicle was in motion involved in a distracting activity. They engaged in a distracting
activity once every 6 minutes on average.

Fig.8 Car Naturalistic Study

1.The study says that about 78% of all crashes are taking place due to DISTRACTION Driving.
2.The 65% of this Crashes take place due to less reaction time while Breaking the vehicle.
3. About 2 million Passenger yearly Died or may injure fatally.
4.Thus 60 %of Accident Happen Because of close impact.

5.3 FACTORS INFLUENCING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF BRAKING:-

Three Major Factors are influencing the Braking and leads to Accident:-
1.Distraction Driving:-
2.Defected Part:-
3.Other Factors:-

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5.3.1 DISTRACTION DRIVING:-

There are four types of driver distraction,
• Visual
• Cognitive
• Biomechanical
• Auditory
An activity can create multiple types of distraction – for example, using a hand held mobile
phone while driving creates a biomechanical, auditory and cognitive distraction.
1.Visual distraction occurs when a driver sees objects or events and this impairs the driver’s
observations of the road environment. Concern about visual distraction is not new - when
windscreen wipers were first introduced, there was concern over their potentially hypnotic
effect. The way that a driver observes the area around the vehicle depends on how complex it
is, and in complex environments, drivers can find it more difficult to identify the main hazards.
In undemanding situations, driver’s attention tends to wander towards objects or scenery
that are not part of the driving task. Estimates of how much time drivers spend doing this varies
from between 20% and 50%ix
2.Cognitive distraction occurs when a driver is thinking about something not related to driving
the vehicle. Study of driver’s eye fixations while performing a demanding cognitive task show
that their visual field narrows both vertically and horizontally – meaning that rather than
scanning the road environment for hazards and spends much more time staring ahead than
usual; in other words, tunnel vision. This means that drivers who are cognitively impaired will
spend less time checking mirrors or looking around for hazards
3.Biomechanical distraction occurs when a driver is doing something physical that is not
related to driving, for example, reaching for something and be out of the driving position, or
holding an item.
4.Auditory distraction is caused when sounds prevent drivers from making the best use of
their hearing, because their attention has been drawn to whatever caused the sound.

5.4 EFFECTS OF DISTRACTION

Cognitive distraction causes drivers to look at their mirrors, instrument panel and what’s
happening in the environment around them much less; instead they concentrate their
observations straight ahead, and so are more likely to detect hazards later than they would
otherwise have done. Worryingly, distracted drivers underestimate the effects that distraction
has on them, and do not perceive their reduced awareness or their ability to spot hazards. This

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may be because they are still looking at the road straight ahead and are not gathering the whole
picture of the road around the vehicle.
Drivers who are distracted also have difficulty controlling their speed and their distance
from the vehicle in front, and their lane position can vary drastically. The more complex or
involved a driver becomes with a distraction, the more detrimental the distraction is on their
ability to make observations and control the vehicle safely.
Hence the Distraction is Main contributor to the Road Accident But why it is So
Important. let as have an Example:-
Consider A Vehicle Travelling At 30 Km/h At Steady Speed And Driver is Dealing
With the His Mobile after some time he sees a Hurdle at 10m Distance so Reaction Time
Required For Braking the Vehicle is 5Sec But His Attention is Distracted and Reaction time Of
Braking Is Distributed Within Handling Mobile And Then Braking the Vehicle, Hence it may
Leads to High end Braking or Accident.

5.5 DEALING WITH DISTRACTION

Distraction is a difficult risk to manage. On the one hand, some level of distraction is
unavoidable, but drivers can take some simple steps to avoid becoming distracted.
• If you need to do something distracting, find a safe place to pull over
You can prevent yourself from doing distracting things behind the wheel by finding a safe place
to pull over first. By planning so that you are not trying to drive and do other tasks at the same
time, you can reduce the likelihood of becoming distracted in the vehicle.
• Recognize what makes you distracted
Many drivers sometimes carry out a distracting activity, without realise the extra risk that it
causes. Eating or changing a CD are examples of activities that drivers may do without thinking
of the risks involved. Before engaging in an activity, ask yourself “will this be distracting”.
Think about how you would feel if you saw another road user doing the same thing - self-
assessment is an important part of developing your driving.
• Concentrate on your driving
This is easier said than done, especially in uninteresting environments. However, attention to
thought can reduce the quality of the observations that you make. It may be difficult to stop
yourself becoming distracted but if you find yourself engaged in thought or distracted by other
means, then it is important to focus on your driving as soon as you realise.
Make sure that you are ready to drive before setting off for a journey. If you are about to drive
after an emotional event, then it is best to allow yourself time to cool down.

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• Use technology sensibly

In-Vehicle technology can be distracting, especially if there are several systems in the
same vehicle. Never put too many different devices in a vehicle. If you can change the settings
on the technology, then find ways of using it that is less distracting.
But “Distraction is an Inevitable consequence of being human … driver distraction
cannot be eliminated.” Experimental studies show conclusively that distractions of all types
affect performance on driving-related tasks. But these, Experimental results cannot predict what
effect various distractions have on crash risk. There is no way to predict how a change in some
driver performance measure, such as reaction time, affects crash risk.
1.If you need to do something distracting, find a safe place to pull over.
2.Recognise what makes you distracted.
3.Concentrate on your driving.
4.Take refresher or further driver training.
BUT
“It is an Inevitable consequence of being human such as driver distraction cannot be
eliminated.” So what we can Do?
Thus WE can Eliminate the Traditional Breaking Unit By Ultimate Automated Braking Unit
Which can Sense the object in Front an alert the Driver And apply the Emergency Break
automatically if Needed. Thus By using Sensor we can increase the reaction time of Braking.
5.6 METHOD TO REDESIGN THE TRADITIONAL BRAKING:-
5.6.1 TRADITIONAL BRAKING:-

Fig.9 Traditional Braking

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When you apply the brakes, brake fluid is forced, under pressure, into the wheel
cylinder which, in turn, pushes the brake shoes into contact with the machined surface on the
inside of the drum. When the pressure is released, return springs pull the shoes back to their rest
position. As the brake linings wear, the shoes must travel a greater distance to reach the drum.
When the distance reaches a certain point, a self-adjusting mechanism automatically reacts by
adjusting the rest position of the shoes so that they are closer to the drum.

1.BRAKE SHOES
Like the disk pads, brake shoes consist of a steel shoe with the friction material or lining
riveted or bonded to it. Also like disk pads, the linings eventually wear out and must be
replaced. If the linings are allowed to wear through to the bare metal shoe, they will cause
severe damage to the
brake drum.

2.BACKING PLATE
The backing plate is what holds everything together. It attaches to the axle and forms a solid
surface for the wheel cylinder, brake shoes and assorted hardware. It rarely causes any
problems.

3.BRAKE DRUM
Brake drums are made of iron and have a machined surface on the inside where the shoes
make contact. Just as with disk rotors, brake drums will show signs of wear as the brake linings
seat themselves against the machined surface of the drum. When new shoes are installed, the
brake drum should be machined smooth. Brake drums have a maximum diameter specification
that is stamped on the outside of the drum. When a drum is machined, it must never exceed that
measurement. If the surface cannot be machined within that limit, the drum must be replaced.

4.WHEEL CYLINDER
The wheel cylinder consists of a cylinder that has two pistons, one on each side. Each piston
has a rubber seal and a shaft that connects the piston with a brake shoe. When brake pressure is
applied, the pistons are forced out pushing the shoes into contact with the drum. Wheel
cylinders must be rebuilt or replaced if they show signs of leaking.

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Fig.10 Wheel Cylinder

5.RETURN SPRINGS
Return springs pull the brake shoes back to their rest position after the pressure is released
from the wheel cylinder. If the springs are weak and do not return the shoes all the way, it will
cause Pre mature lining wear because the linings will remain in contact with the drum. A good
technician will examine the springs during a brake job and recommend their replacement if they
show signs of fatigue. On certain vehicles, the technician may recommend replacing them even
if they look good as inexpensive insurance.

6.VACUUM BOOSTER
The two types of vacuum boosters used on modern vehicles are the single-diaphragm and the
tandem-diaphragm (or dual-diaphragm) booster. Both booster types operate similarly but the
tandem-diaphragm booster is smaller in diameter and is used on vehicles where space is critical.

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Fig.11 Vacuum Brake Booster

Vacuum boosters operate as follows:
• When the brake pedal is released, an internal vacuum port is open which allows engine
vacuum
to flow from the check valve to both sides of the diaphragm. With equal pressure (vacuum) on
both sides, the diaphragm is held to the rear by spring pressure (fig. 21).
• As the brakes are applied, the brake pedal pushrod moves forward, which closes the vacuum
port and opens the air inlet valve. This action seals off the backside of the diaphragm from the
vacuum source and at the same time allows filtered atmospheric air pressure to pass through the
air inlet valve to the diaphragm backside.
The combination of atmospheric pressure on the backside and vacuum on the front side
then moves the diaphragm and master cylinder pushrod forward to apply the brakes.
But let us Know The Reaction time is Provided By the System To Driver while
travelling at different speed.
And if Decision and response time increases by Standard it will lead to fatal Accident, and
Brake having ABS, TRC Does not give any Advantage Possible danger can’t Be avoided But
If we reduced the Driving Interference of Braking And Give the Responsibility To Intelligence
Sensor which will Take decision and initiate the Response To give Warning alarm First and if
Distance of impact is Closing it will Apply brake Automatically and Stop the Vehicle in
advanced.
Here is Flow Diagram Of how it will Work:-

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5.7 INSTRUMENT USED:-

The System is Consist of Two Photoelectric Distance Measurement Sensors, kit of
Electronic control Unit to give input and output of sensor, Hydraulic Circuit and Single Acting
Hydraulic Cylinder .The Sensor is Having 15volt Supply and can Measure Hurdle upto 10m
.The Brake Kit is gong to be Fabricate Having Redesign Brake Paddle With reduced mass.The
Hydraulic Cylinder we are Using is Single acting Spring Return type Having Solenoid Valve.
5.8 PROCEDURE:-
Let us Consider that A Vehicle Speeding at 25Km/h Constantly and think worst case that
Driver is Fallen Sleep While Driving And Vehicle is Approaching to a park car at same
speed,so here is how the Auto brake System will Work:-
1. The Photo electric Sensor Which will sense the any object in Front and Will give Continues
output while on go ,in this case if car in front comes in contact with the sensor it will give
output to the Electronic Control Unit at 10M Distance remaining
2. thus ECU automatically alert the driver by blowing the alarm, thus if Driver here the
alaram,the Distraction phase of Driver such that (Sleeping while Driving, Use of
Mobile,Gossiping,or doing any other Activity)will come to end and he will take control of the
situavetion,and further damage can be Prevented.
3.If Driver does not Respond to this Alarm mean that no action is implies to stop the Vehicle
then ECU will send the Signal to Hydraulic circuit.

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4. Thus Stroke Of Hydraulic cylinder will start and lead to Auto Forcing the Brake Paddle to
engage Position and lead to stopping the Vehicle, if in case Driver reaction lead to take control
the situation , Driver will apply the force on Paddle then the Connection Between the Piston
And Brake Paddle Will Disengage and Paddle will Force Down.
5.Thus After stopping the Vehicle Spring will Force the Paddle To take its Original Position
And Thus returning it will connect to a Piston and Help to reposition the Stroke.
6.Thus Brake will apply normal way and also in Distraction Situation and Accident can be
prevented, with Reducing the Reaction time.

5.1 Is Indian Condition Suitable for it ?

Fig.12 Analysis of Road Accident In India

1. India has 5.3 million kilometers of road network, the second largest in the world.
2. Accident rate is third in the world.
3. 65% of freight, 87% of passenger traffic is by road transportation.
4. Traffic on roads is growing at 15% per annum.
5. Vehicle population growth is of the order of 12% per annum.
6. 11 vehicles per 1,000 persons.
7. In just seven years the number of vehicles on Indian roads has shot up by 17 million and 48 %
of these vehicles ply in the metros.
8. Total numbers of cars in India are 21.53 million. During year 2011, the total car production
was about 8.75 lakh units.

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CHAPTER 6
OVER SPEED INDICATION AND ACCIDENT PREVENTION
There are different systems as applied to automobiles such as Emergency Brake Assist,
Dynamic Stability And Traction Control, Electronic Brake Distribution, Anti-Lock braking
system, Blind Spot Information System, Night Vision etc, & these are extremely costly as they
compulsorily need a computer for their implementation and in most of the cases GPS is
mandatory. More over all these systems are singular problem oriented, hence there is a need of
a cost effective low end technology or device that can perform the function of over-speed
indication –alarm-and brake control with minimal use of high end technology, suitable for low
budget commercial vehicles.
The Over speed indication and accident prevention system is a answer to the above problems
where in the following features have been incorporated; Over speed sensing using a simple
centrifuge and inductive proximity sensor ,Over-speed indication using flashing LED or hooter.
Braking –using Disk brake to ensure optimal braking force and minimum braking distance.
Electromagnetic actuation using solenoid. Making the operation fully automatic. Braking
(Nature similar to the anti-lock braking) i.e., intermittent and gradual braking. Power regulation
of the prime mover (in our case of model ---Single phase variable speed motor) to avoid power
loss and excessive brake wear.

Fig.13 System construction

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6.1 WORKING
System starts with motor starting…motor speed controlled by electronic speed regulator….as
speed increases the dead weight of the centrifuge governor fly’s out making the probe to slide
back…at over speed level the resultant gap between probe of the slider and the proximity
sensor exceeds the permissible limit…which makes the relay to operate and ..consequently the
following actions take place…Visual over speed indicator in the form of over speed indication
lamp lights .Audio over speed indicator in the form of over speed indication hooter goes ON .
Braking mechanism is actuated to operate the shoe brake cam linear actuator mechanism

6.2 DESIGN AND FABRICATION

6.2.1 DESIGN

Design consists of application of scientific principles, technical information and imagination

for development of new or improvised machine or mechanism to perform a specific function
with maximum economy & efficiency
.Hence a careful design approach has to be adopted. The total design work, has been split
up into two parts; System design, Mechanical Design.

6.2.2 DESIGN OF BELT DRIVE

Selection an open belt drives
using V-belt; Reduction ratio = 5

Planning a 1 stage reduction

A) Motor pulley ( D1) =20mm

B) Main shaft pulley ( D2) =100mm

INPUT DATA

Input power = 0.05KW

Input speed=1000 RPM

Center distance = 210 MM

Max belt speed = 1600 M/MIN = 26.67 M/SEC

Groove angle (2  ) = 400
Coefficient of friction = 0.25

Between belt and pulley allowable tensile stress= 8 N/mm2

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6.2.3 DESIGN OF INPUT SHAFT

Motor Torque
P= 2ПNT
60
T= 60 x 60
2 П x 6000
T = 0.095 N-m
Ball Bearing Selection

Series 60

P = XFr + Yfa.
Where ;
P=Equivalent dynamic load, (N)

X=Radial load constant

Fr= Radial load (H)
Y = Axial load contact

Fa = Axial load (N)

In our case;
Radial load FR= T1+T2=

Fa = 0
P= 140.4 N
L= (C/p) p
Considering 4000 working hours

L= 60 n L h = 336 mrev
106

 336 = C
140.48
 C = 976 N
AS; required dynamic of bearing is less than the rated dynamic capacity of bearing ;
 Bearing is safe.

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6.2.4 DESIGN OF GOVERNOR

Here the approach is to select the spring directly as per geometrical constrains and
calculate the mass of the centrifugal bob weights to deflect the spring according to
requirements of the governor set-up,
Assuming minimum cut off speed for model = 60 kmph
Wheel diameter = 300 mm
Hence speed of wheel shaft =1060 rpm
Radial speed = ω = 111 rad/sec
According to the Geometry of setup the spring used in the governor setup is mounted on the
wheel shaft, hence minimum diameter = 16 mm, assuming rod diameter = 1.2 mm and no.
of turns to be 10, both end ground, free length = 20mm.
The function of the spring is to maintain the gap between the sensor and the probe below
3mm, hence in order to cut-off to occur the spring has to be deflected by at least 4mm.
Hence specifications of spring selected:
Type: Helical compression spring:
End condition: Both end ground
Rod dia. = 1.2 mm
Inner diameter of spring = 16mm
Outside diameter of spring = 18.4
Mean coil dia. = 17.2
Free length = 20mm
No of turns = 10mm
Hence solid length = 12mm
Maximum deflection possible = 8 mm
Spring index =15
Maximum permissible stress = 420 N/mm2
Modulus of rigidity = 84 KN/mm2
Fs= K x 8 Wc
 d2

420 = 1.123 x 8 x W x 15

X 1.22
W = 14.09 N

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This is the load in the axial direction to be applied by the flying bob weight as centrifugal
force, so also the fiction in linkages and shaft sliding bearing has to be overcome by the
mass system hence the load is taken to be 2 times required
W= 2 x 14.09 = 28.18
W = mω2r ------This is because two bob-weights are used.
m = 28.18 / ω2r
m =28.18 / 1112 x 0.025 = 0.092 N
m = (0.092 /9.81) x 1000 =9.4 gms

6.3 ADVANTAGES

 The over speed indication and accident prevention system offers the following
advantages:

 The system eliminates the over-speeding which considerably reduces the chances of
accidents due to over- speeding
 Ensures safety of the driver and or passengers …as automatically speed is reduced
Reduces brake wear and tear as no need of excessive braking force to keep vehicle speed
in control
 System components involve simple and cost effective components hence simple
production.

 Low system cost as low level electronics is used.

 No computing / /microprocessor involved…keeps the system cost effective.

 Can be easily implemented in both commercial LCV/MCV/HCV.

 Minimal space requirements. Hence modifications in conventional system is reduced

further increases the adaptability of system
 Visual indication in the form of indication lamp.

 Audio indication in the form of hooter…increases operator vigilance and safety.

6.4 APPLICATION

 Small Cars

 SUV and commercial cars

 Medium to heavy duty transport vehicles

 Cargo trucks and Public transport vehicles etc.

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CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION
1.By dragging the front seat at opposite direction to Impact and increase the Distance And Time
Of Direct Impact the death can be minimized and safety of vehicle also can improved, and also
it can add the new feature to the car which will attract the customer who prefer safety while
traveling.
2. The results of the simulations showed that by using an energy absorbing seating system,
crash deceleration can be effectively attenuated and occupant injuries significantly reduced in
comparison to conventional seating systems. In future, physical crash tests will still be required
as the final certification method for approval of a particular crashworthy mechanical system.
However during the development process the application of computer simulation methods as
presented in this paper show that it is possible to reduce development costs.
3. This project work given us experience and excellent opportunities to use our limited
knowledge .we also feel that project work is the good solution to fill gap between industry and
institute.
4. Thus, we studied the “over speed indication and accident prevention system “indicate the
over speed and prevent the accident automatically. This system is implemented in to vehicle.
Now a day’s accident is one of the danger, while traveling in vehicle, our moral is to avoid
accident, save the passenger and prevent damage to vehicle
5. We would also like to add few words, while working on this project we gain lot of practical
knowledge regarding, purchasing designing and fabricating the model. We are also proud to
complete this project successfully within a given limit

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7.1 FUTURE SCOPE

Over speed indication and accident prevention system is used as a safety device in vehicle
instead of using centrifugal governor for indicating over speed we can use electronic sensors
for indicating overspend .governor is complex ,costly ,and difficult to design and
fabrication. This problem can be overcome by using electronic sensors.
Arrangement should be provided to expand the scope of work in future. Such as to convert
the machine motor operated; the system can be easily configured to required one. The die &
punch can be changed if required for other shapes of notches etc.
Height of Machine from Ground

For ease and comfort of operator the height of machine should be properly decided so that
he may not get tired during operation. The machine should be slightly higher than the waist
level, also enough clearance should be provided from the ground for cleaning purpose.
Weight of Machine

The total weight depends upon the selection of material components as well as the
dimension of components. A higher weighted machine is difficult in transportation & in case
of major breakdown; it is difficult to take it to workshop because of more weight.

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REFERANCES
[1] Ahmed, S. R. 1981. Wake structure of typical automobile shapes. Trans. ASME, J. Fluids
En,qr~7. 103:162-69 Ahmed, S. R. 1984. Influence of base slant on the wake structure and drag
of road vehicles. Trans. ASME, ,L Fluids Engry. 105:429-34
[2] Klein TM, Van Dyke J, Surti J, et al. An Investigation of the Increase in Child Passenger
Fatalities since 1984. Washington, DC: US Department of Transportation, National Highway
Traffic Safety Administration; 1990
[3] Occupant Crash Protection, 49 CFR 28962 Part 571.208. Washington, DC: US Department
of Transportation, National Highway Safety Administration; 1984.
[4] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration. Safety Fact Sheet. November. 02, 1999.
http://www.nhtsa.dot.gov/airbags/factsheets/numbers.html. Accessed March. 20, 2000.
[5] Adreoni, G., Santambrogio, G.C., Rabuffetti, M., and Pedotti, A. (2003). Method for the
analysis of posture and interface pressure of car drivers. Applied Ergonomics 33,pp. 511-522.
[6] Chaffin, D. (2001). Introduction in Digital human modeling for vehicle and workplace
design (Ed. D. Chaffin).

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