PRINCIPLES OF ILLUMINATION

Objective:
1. Selection of the most efficient light source possible to minimize power costs and energy
consumption.
2. Matching the proper lamp type, to the intended work task or aesthetic application, consistent
with color, brightness control and other requirements.
3. Establishing adequate light levels to maintain productivity improve security and increase
safety.
Definition of Terms
Estimating Illumination and Brightness
Coefficient of Utilization Factor
Measuring Foot-candle
Uniformity of Light
Lighting Control
Definition of Terms

Illumination - the intensity of light per unit area.

Electric Illumination - the production of light by means of electricity and its applications to provide
efficient, comfortable, and safe vision.
Quantity of Light – the amount of illumination or -luminous flux per unit area. Quantity of light can be
measured and easily handled because it deals with the number of light fixtures required for a certain
area.
Quality of Light – the distribution of brightness in the lighting installation. It deals with the essential
nature or characteristics of light.
Brightness – the light that seems to radiate from an object being viewed. Brightness or luminance is
the luminous flux (light) emitted, transmitted, or reflected from a surface.
Contrast – the difference in brightness or the brightness ratio between an object and its background.
The recommended brightness ratio between an object being viewed and its background is normally
3:1.
Direct Glare – an annoying brightness of light in a person’s normal field of vision.
Indirect or Reflected Glare – much more serious and difficult to control. Technically reflected glare is
a glossy object.
Perfect Diffusion – an equal intensity of light clashing from all directions producing no shadows.
Hue - is the quality attribute by which we recognize and describe colors as red, blue, yellow, green,
violet and so on.
Brilliance or Value - is the difference between the resultant colors of the same hue, such as: white is
the most brilliant of the neutral colors while black is the least.
Saturation or Chromate - is the difference from the purity of the colors. Colors of high saturation must
be used in a well-lit space.

Estimating Illumination and Brightness

In many respects, it is more important to know luminance measurements than illumination

because the eye is more sensitive to brightness than simple illumination. However, it is more difficult to
measure luminance than illumination.
There are three types of luminance meter, namely:
1. The Comparator type which requires the operator to make a brightness equivalence
judgment between the target and the background.
2. The Direct Reading type is basically an illumination meter equipped with a hooded cell
arranged to block oblique light.
3. The Accurate Laboratory Instrument which unsuitable for field work.

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The quantity of light level of illumination can be easily measured or calculated with the aid of portable
foot candle meter.

Foot-candle (fc) is the amount of light flux density. It is the unit of measure used when describing the
amount of light in a room and is expressed in lumens per square foot.
Footlambert (fl) is defined as “the luminance of a surface reflecting. Transmitting or emitting one lumen
(lm) of illumination per square foot of area in the direction being viewed or the conventional unit of
brightness or luminance. In the same manner, the lumens (lm) is the light output generated
continuously by a standard wax candle
In our study of light, we are interested in the amount of light that fall on the areas that we want to
illuminate. We also want to know the lumens per square foot or square meter in a space.
This quantity called Light Flux Density is the common term Foot-candle (fc) represented by the formula:

Foot-candle = Lumens
Area

Example 1
A 40 – watt fluorescent lamp 120 centimeters long produces 3,200 lumens of light in a room having a
general dimension of 10 x 20ft. Find the illumination on the floor.

SOLUTION
Foot-candle = Lumens
Area
fc = 3,200 lm. = 16 footcandle
10 x 20 ft.
The foot-candle is an important unit of measure in calculating the desired illumination and layout of
fixtures. In the absence of Tables of equivalent foot-candles for a fixture, a rule of thumb of 10-30-50
illumination level is here presented.

10 – foot-candle is adequate for halls and corridors

30 – foot-candle is sufficient for areas between workstations such as in offices other than desk areas.
50 – foot-candle is satisfactory on spaces where office work is done.

However, providing an adequate quantity of light alone is not a guarantee for an efficient and
comfortable vision. In fact, the quality of light is very important especially where difficult visual needs
are required. The luminance or brightness of a diffusely reflecting surface is equal to the product of the
illumination and the reflectance. Thus;

Luminance = Illumination x Reflectance factor or

Footlambert = Foot-candle x Reflectance factor

Example 2
From example 1, find the luminance if the reflectance factor of the wall is 40%.

SOLUTION
1. Footlambert = foot-candle x Reflectance factor
= 16 x 40% = 6.4

Metric Lighting Units

In English System of measure, the distance is expressed in feet and the area is in square feet. Under the
Metric System (SI) the distance and area are expressed in meters and square meters respectively.

Meanwhile, Lumens flux remains in Lumens, but illumination or light flux is expressed in Lux. Thus:
Lux = Lumens
Area (sq. m.)

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 Table 1 APPROXIMATE REFLECTANCE FACTOR

In the metric system, Luminance or Brightness is expressed in Lambert which is defined as “the
luminance or brightness of a surface reflecting, transmitting or emitting one lumen per square
centimeter. Millilambert is more conveniently used than the lambert because the value of lambert is
greater than what is usually encountered.

Table 2 TABLE OF COMPARISON

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EXAMPLE 3
A 40 – watts x 120 centimeters long fluorescent lamp produces 3,200 lumens of light in a room having
a general dimension of 10ft. x 20ft. Compute the illumination on the floor comparing the English and
the Metric units.
SOLUTION BY COMPARISON
English Metric (SI)
Light Flux = 3,200 lm. …………………. 3,200 lm
Area = 10’ x 20’ …………………. 10 x 20
10.76
= 200 sq. ft. ………………… 18.59 sq. m.
Illumination = 16 fc ……………………… 172.16 lux
Another SOLUTION
Convert: 10 feet to meter = 3.048 m.
20……………. = 6.097 m.
Lux = 3,200 = 172.19 Lux
3.048 x 6.097
EXAMPLE 4
Compute for the brightness of a fixture with a 1’x 4’ plastic diffuser having a transmittance of 6 and
illuminated by 2 pieces 3,200 lm. lamp assuming 100% use of light flux.

SOLUTION
1. Luminance = Total lumens x transmission factor
Area of diffuser
= 2pcs. x 3,200 x .6
1’ x 4’
= 960 footlambert
1. To obtain the metric equivalent, multiply:
Millilambert = Footlambert x 1.076
= 960 x 1.076
= 1032.96 millilambert

The Watts per Square Meter

Another method used in determining the illumination is the watts per square meter wherein the floor
area is computed from the outside dimensions of the building excluding open porches.

Depending upon the size of the room, color of wall and ceiling, types of lighting units and methods of
lighting used, the watts per square meter method is may produce 50 to 100 lux which is approximately
5 to 10 foot-candles.

1. Twenty watts (20) per square meter will provide an illumination of 100 to 150 lux which is
approximately 10 to 15 fc in industrial areas.
2. For commercial areas, two (2) watts per square foot or 22 watts per square meter is will
provide from 80 to 120 lux when used with standard quality equipment.
3. Forty (40) watts per square meter will provide about 200 lux which is approximately 20 fc
wherein greater illumination is required
4. Sixty (60) watts per square meter will provide about 300 lux or approximately 30 fc which is
recommended for many conventional, industrial, and commercial requirements.
5. Eighty (80) watts per square meter will provide from 300 to 350 lux and more than
supplementary lighting is necessary.

COEFFICIENT OF UTILIZATION AND MAINTENANCE FACTOR

The usable Initial foot-candle or lux is equal to the foot-candle produced by the coefficient of utilization
(cu).
Initial was emphasized because the output is of a light fixture is reduced with time as the lamp fixture
is becomes old and dirty. Lamp output normally drops and is termed as Maintenance factor (mf). And
to find the average-maintained illumination, we reduce the initial illumination by the maintenance
factor.

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The efficiency of a light fixture is equaling the ratio of fixture output lumens to lamp output lumens.
What we need is to determine a number indicating the efficiency of the fixture room combination, or
how a light fixture lights a room. This number is normally expressed in decimal value called coefficient
of utilization represented by letter (cu).

The usable initial foot-candle is equal to the foot-candle produced by the coefficient of utilization (cu).

a.) Initial Foot-candle = foot-candle x cu.

Area
b.) Maintenance illumination = Lamp lumens x cu x mf
Area
* Lamp lumen therefore is simply the rated output of the lamp.

TABLE 3 COEFFICIENTS OF UTILIZATION TABLE 4 MAINTENANCE FACTOR

EXAMPLE 5
A school classroom with a general dimension of 24 x 30 ft. is lighted with 10 fluorescents of 4F 40 T12
WW rapid start lamp. Calculate the initial and maintained illumination in foot-candles (English) and Lux
(Metric) assuming that (cu) is 0.35 and (mf) is 0.70.

SOLUTION – 1 (English Measure)

1. Refer to Table Fluorescent Lamp Data from previous module. An F 40 T12 WW watts fluorescent
lamp has 3,200 lm. output. Multiply:
Lamp lumens = 10 fixtures 4 lamps per fixture X 3,200 lumens per lamp
= 128,000 lumens
Initial foot-candle = 128,000 x 0.35
24 x 30 ft.
= 62.22 fc x 0.70 mf
= 43.55 foot-candle
SOLUTION – 2 By Metric Measure (SI)
Convert feet to meter: 24 ft. = 7.32 m.
30 ft = 9.14 m.
Lux = Lumens x cu x mf
Area
= 10 x 4 x 3,200 x 0.35 x 0.70

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 7.32 m. x 9.14 m.
= 468.75 lux
Check the answer:
One lux = .09294
468.75 x .09294 = 43.56 fc.
Sometimes when the size of the room and the foot-candle are given, the problem is how to find the
number of lamps required in each fixture. The following example is offered.

EXAMPLE 6
An office room having a general dimension of 8 x 20 meters is to be lighted at an averaged
maintained foot-candle of 50 fc, How many 3-lamp fixtures of 120 centimeters long F40 T12 WW rapid
start fluorescent lamps are required assuming the cu is 0.38 and the mf is 0.75?

SOLUTION
1. Lamp lumens = maintained foot-candle x area
cu x mf
= 50 fc x (8m. x 20 m.)
0.38 x 0.75
= 28,070 lumens
2. Each 40-watt fluorescent lamp has an output of 3,200 lumens, the number of lamps will be:
Number of lamps = 28,070
3,200
= 8.77 lamps
3. Since there are 3 lamps for each fixture, divide:
8.77 = 2.93 say 3 lamps in ach fixture
3
Calculation involving a wide area is more confusing than by computing the number of lamp
fixtures per bay or per row which is more meaningful and interesting.
This could be done easily by using the following formula:
Number of Fixtures = Illumination x area _
Lamp per fixture x lumens x cu x mf

This means that the area lighted by a single area is:

Area per fixture = lamp per fixture x lumens per lamp x cu x mf
Illumination

TABLE 6 EFFICACIES OF VARIOUS LAMPS

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EXAMAPLE 7
An entire office floor is lighted at an averaged maintained 538 lux or 50 fc. The floor measures 20
meters by 50 meters and is divided into bays measuring 4 m. x 5 m. Using 2-lamp of F40 T12 CW rapid
start preheat lamp, find the number of fixtures required. Assume an economy grade fixture with a lo
cu of 0.35 and mf of 0.70
SOLUTION – 1
Solve for the number of fixtures per bay.
Refer to Table Fluorescent Lamp Data from previous module for F40 T12 CW = 3,150 lm.
No. of Fixtures = Illumination x area
Lamp per fixture x lumens x cu x mf
Fixtures = 538 lux x (4 m. x 5m.)
2-lamps x 3,150 lm. x 0.35 x 0.70
= 10,760 = 6.9 fixtures
1,543
Accept 6 pieces per bay to make it symmetrical
SOLUTION – 2
1. From the following Formula, substitute the values:
Area per Fixtures = Lamp per fixture x lumen/ lamp x cu x mf
Illumination
Fixtures = 2-lamps per fixture x 3,150 lm. x 0.35 x 0.70
538 lux
= 1,543.5 = 2.87 sq.m. per fixture
538
2. Therefore, the number of fixtures per bay is:
4 m x 5m = 6.9 say 6 pcs. Per bay for symmetry
2.87

MEASURING FOOT-CANDLE
The unit measure of illumination is the foot-candle or lux in the Metric System which is
frequently used when describing the amount of light in a room. It is not enough to know how to
calculate the illumination level, but it is also equally important to know how to measure them in
enclosed space. In measuring illumination level, the foot-candle meter is held horizontally with its
sensitive surface at least 30 centimeters from the body of the person holding the meter, The meter
could be placed on a table and read from a distance to avoid obstruction of the light.
In conducting a general illumination check inside a room, the meter is held at least 80 centimeters
above the floor. Reading is undertaken throughout the room and the results are recorded on the
plan of the room.

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 a. All dimensions in meters
b. These spacing apply where desks and benches are next to wall, otherwise, one third the spacing
between units is satisfactory.
c. The actual spacing of luminaries is usually less the maximum spacing to suit bay or room
dimensions.
d. For mounting height of general diffusing and direct-indirect fixtures.

Uniformity of Light
The purpose of lighting calculations, by the foot-candle or lux, is to determine the average
illumination in a room or lux, is to determine the average illumination in a room to a working level
condition. This working level condition refers to the height of 75 centimeters above the floor being the
approximate height of the table. The average illumination at the working level is directly related to the
maximum spacing of the light to the mounting height ratio represented by the formula.

S/mh where: S = Spacing of light fixtures

mh = mounting height
Normally, the manufacture of light provides data with respect to spacing and mounting ratio.
However, if the manufacturer failed to provide these data, Table 6-8 was presented shoeing the
spacing and mounting height ratio for lighting conditions.

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 Table 8 SPACING AND MOUNTING HEIGHT RATIO

EXAMPLE 8

A room with a ceiling height of 3 meters is to be lighted with direct concentrating fluorescent light.
What are the maximum fixtures spacing?

SOLUTION:
1. For spacing and mounting ratio, refer to table 8. The mounting height ratio of direct
concentrating light is 0.40.

Therefore:
2. Substituting the given values, wherein mh is the ceiling height,

S = 0.40 x 3.00
Spacing: S = 1.20 meters maximum side to side of the fixtures.

EXAMPLE 9

A warehouse will install pendant dome incandescent lamps at a mounting ratio of 1.50 meters. The
lamp will be mounted on a grid measuring 5.00 x 5.00 meters. What is the minimum mounting height
of the lamps?
Solution:
Mounting height is; mh = Spacing
Ratio
mh = 5.00 m. = 3.30 meters
1.50

Classification of Lighting System

Lighting system is classified into four types, namely:

1. Direct lighting 2. Semi-direct lighting
3. Semi-indirect-lighting 4. Indirect Lighting

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Direct Lighting. When the light on an illuminated area is focused downward coming directly from the
lighting fixtures.

Semi-Direct Lighting. When the predominant light on the illuminated area is fed directly from the
lighting units wherein the greater amount of light is obtained from the ceiling through the reflection.

Semi-Indirect Lighting. A lighting arrangement wherein 5% to 25% of the light is directed downward
with more than half of the light focused upward and reflected from the ceiling.

Indirect Lighting. When the light is diffused and reflected from a wide ceiling area. This kind of lighting
produces a soft and subdued effect due to low brightness and absence of sharp shadows.

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 FIGURE 6
CHART FOR ESTIMATING LIGHTING LOAD AND ILLUMINATION LEVEL CALCULATED FOR FAIRLY LARGE
ROOM

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Street Lighting
The Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers instituted guidelines for adequate and acceptable
illumination of the streets in order to promote safety. This concept was brought about by the
continuously increasing speed of motor vehicles using the road.
The Philippine Electrical Code Committee prepared the guidelines for a standard practice on design
of street lighting installation recommending the proper quantity and quality of light for traffic routes.
Definition of Terms
Lighting Installation – is defined as the whole of the equipment provided for lighting the roadway
comprising the lamps luminaries, means of support and electrical installations including other
auxiliaries.
Lighting System – refers to an array of luminaires having a characteristic of light distribution.
Luminaire – is a housing for one or more lamps comprising a body and any refractor, diffuser or
enclosure associated with the lamps.
Road Width – is the distance between the edges of the road curbs measured at right angles to the
length of the roadway.
Outreach – is the distance measured horizontally between the outer of the column or wall face or
lamp post and the center of the luminaries.
Overhang – is the horizontal distance between the center of luminaires and the adjacent edge of
the road.
Mounting Height – refers to the vertical distance between the center of the luminaire and the surface
of the roadway.
Spacing – is the distance between the successive luminaries in an installation.

Maximum Light Utilization – In order to attain the maximum utilization of light from the fixtures, the
luminaires should be mounted under the following specifications.

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Working Voltage
Luminance are properly selected and mounted on a location most feasible and effective with
minimum cost. For a 230 volt system, a voltage drop of 5% is allowed although in extreme cases 15%
voltage drop is sometimes tolerated.
For street illumination, the following formula is adopted.

Where:
E=The illumination in lux
Al=Average lumens with a typical value of:
20 500 lumens for 40 watts
11 500 lumens for 250 watts
5 400 lumens for 125 watts
The value of Al varies depending upon the type of lamp specified.
mf- is the maintenance factor which depends on the following:
a). Maintenance practice of the company
b). Operation of light sources at rate current and voltage
c). Regular replacement of depreciated lamp
d). Periodic cleaning of the luminaires either 0.8-0.9
w = Width of the roadway
d = Distance between luminaires
cu = Coefficient of utilization, which is dependent on the type of fixture, mounting height, width of
roadway and the length of mast arm or outreach.

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 The values given are based on the favorable reflectance’s for asphalt road, the recommended
illumination should be increased by 50%. For concrete road, the recommended value could be
decreased by 25%.
In decreasing street illumination, consider the modern lighting today that will be obsolete
tomorrow when the minimum light levels are raised. The increasing motor vehicle speed and the
increasing congestion in the street requires higher level of highway lighting. Therefore, future needs for
light should be considered in the design.

EXAMPLE 10
Considering the data as presented on Figure 6-7 when the night pedestrian traffic is estimated
to be light and the night vehicular traffic is to be medium, determine the required lumens if theroad
concrete is a pavement.

SOLUTION
1. Referring to Table 9, E= 6.46 for light pedestrian medium traffic classifications. For concrete
road, the reflectance will be higher but let us accept the value of 6.46 lumens.
2. Determine the average pole distance.
E= 6.46 lumens per sq.m.
w= 7.00 meters
d= 50 meters
mf= 0.9
cu= 0.29 (type A fixture)

Under the Working Voltage, the mean lamp lumens of a 250 watts lamp is 11, 500 lumens, this is the
nearest value to 8,662.83 average lumens. Therefore, a 250 watts lamp is acceptable.
Computing for the new actual illumination E

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This is higher than the 6.46 recommended in table 11. Therefore, the road is considered as adequately
lighted.

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