Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

Analog & Digital Systems

Analog Digital
1. Continuous time varying 1. Discrete digital signal
signal 2. Signal sampled and
2. Require a medium for quantized before
transmission transmission
3. More Noisy 3. Free from Noise
4. Subject to attenuation 4. Not subjected to attenuation
5. Not a flexible system 5. Highly flexible system

Advantages of digital systems in avionics

 Excellent display technology LCD or AMLCD
 Excellent Flight Instrumentation system in digital as in Airbus & Boeing
 Compression of data possible in Digital system
 Synchronizing image with Data
 Excellent interface with Core Memory
 Possible to have open system as in ARINC 629, 1553 B

Difficulties in Digital Data

 Digitizing analog data Losses
 Interface between data and data users
 Privacy and network environment
 Security requirements
 Operational Models & Programs
 Standardization requirement

Sampling and Quantization

• In the analogue world shown on the right of parameters are represented in real units: voltages,
degrees per hour, pitch rate, and so on. Analog signals that are to be digitized by an ADC
normally come from sensors or transducers that capture a signal (sound, pressure, light, radio
waves, and so on) and transform it into a voltage that is proportional to the amplitude of that
signal. To permit digital processing these analogue signals have to be converted into digital
form by a process called analogue to digital conversion (ADC). The A to D process, which
filters the analogue input using an anti-alias filter, The filtered analogue signal is passed into

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the ADC and a stream of digital data in the desired form emerges as the digital input. The rate
at which the analogue data is sampled is key to the fidelity and accuracy of the data supplied
to the digital processor.

This converts the analogue signal into a series of digital words which the processor is able to
manipulate in accordance with the instruction set that constitutes a particular algorithm or
control philosophy. Once the digital processing is complete, a reverse process called digital to
analogue conversion (DAC) converts the output back into an analogue parameter suitable for
supplying a demand to an actuator to move: for example, a flight control actuator, or controlling
a modulating valve within a fuel or environmental control system (ECS).

Analogue to Digital Process

In order to understand some of the key issues, the A to D process needs to be described in more
detail. Figure depicts the process as a control diagram with four main signal elements:
The incoming analogue input signal is the desired signal which is to be subject to digital
processing. This signal will vary continuously with time depending upon the behaviour of the

real world system that it represents. For example the voltage is varying between around 7.0 V

to around 2.5 V over a 60-second window. The signal is fed into a sample and hold (SH) circuit

which periodically samples the analogue signal.This closely replicates the original signal but

with a staircase appearance, with the width of the ‘steps’ depending upon the sampling rate.

The higher the sampling rate, the narrower these steps will appear. In practice, sampling cannot
be instantly achieved, and also in practice the sampling rate has a great effect upon the fidelity

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of the sampled (and therefore the digitised) signal, as has been explained in the previous

section.

The second step assigns a numerical value to the voltage level present at the output of the S/H.
This process, known as quantization, searches for the nearest value corresponding to the
amplitude of the S/H signal out of a fixed number of possible values covering its complete

amplitude range. The quantizer can’t search over an infinite number of possibilities and must

restrict itself to a limited set of potential values. The size of this set corresponds to the range

of the quantizer and is always a power of 2 (or 2N, such as 256, 512, 1024, and so on).
Once the closest discrete value has been identified by the quantizer,
The sampled data are converted into a stream of digital words which are a digital representation
of each of the analogue steps. shows an 8-bit representation. This is typical of the level of

resolution required for an aircraft system such as fuel or hydraulics. 12-bit or 16-bit resolution

may also be used for flight data such as airspeed, altitude and attitude.

Avionics Computers
An avionics computer is a task-oriented computer or an embedded system. It performs specific
avionics functions in real time in accordance with application software stored within it and pre-
loaded into its application memory on the ground.

An avionics computer may take a variety of forms. Some main processing computers such
as flight management computers, flight control computers and display management computers
may resemble what we expect a traditional computer to look like, a box in an avionics rack not
that dissimilar to a personal computer under a desk, except that its dimensions are different.
Other avionics equipment may not look like computers but in fact have similar computing

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hardware within them to perform the computational element of the item, such as multifunction
displays, control panels, remote data concentrators, inertial reference units, and so on.

A typical avionics computer has the architecture shown in Figure 2.3 and comprises:

• A power supply: this converts the 115 VAC 400 Hz aircraft power to conditioned and
stabilised power for the internal electronics (typically +5 V for semiconductor devices).
• Central processing units (CPUs) plus application and data memory: this executes the
application software to perform the desired avionics function.
• I/O interfacing: this interfaces real-world sensors and effectors to the digital world of the
CPU.
• Data bus communications interface: to connect the avionics computer to the avionics data
bus network.

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Classifications of Computers
Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows,

 Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor. In

addition to the microprocessor, a personal computer has a keyboard for entering data, a
monitor for displaying information, and a storage device for saving data.

 Working station: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal

computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and a higherquality monitor.
 Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting from 10 to hundreds of users
simultaneously.
 Microcomputer: The term microcomputer is generally synonymous with personal
computer, or a computer that depends on a microprocessor
 Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or
thousands of users simultaneously.
 Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of
instructions per second

Minicomputer:
• A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie between workstations
and mainframes.
• A minicomputer, a term no longer much used, is a computer of a size intermediate
between a microcomputer and a mainframe.

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• Typically, minicomputers have been stand-alone computers (computer systems with

attached terminals and other devices) sold to small and mid-size businesses for
general business applications and to large enterprises for department-level operations.
• In recent years, the minicomputer has evolved into the "mid-range server" and is part
of a network. IBM's AS/400e is a good example.

Microcomputer:
The term microcomputer is generally synonymous with personal computer, or a
computer that depends on a microprocessor.
• Microcomputers are designed to be used by individuals, whether in the form of PCs,
workstations or notebook computers.
• A microcomputer contains a CPU on a microchip (the microprocessor), a memory
system (typically ROM and RAM), a bus system and I/O ports, typically housed in a
motherboard.

Mainframe:
A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of
users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a simple microprocessors (in watches,
for example) at the bottom and moves to supercomputer at the top, mainframes are just below
supercomputers.
• In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support
more simultaneous programs.
• But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The
distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on
how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

Supercomputer: A supercomputer is a computer that performs at or near the currently

highest operational rate for computers.
• A supercomputer is typically used for scientific and engineering applications that
must handle very large databases or do a great amount of computation (or both).
• At any given time, there are usually a few well-publicized supercomputers that
operate at the very latest and always incredible speeds.
• The term is also sometimes applied to far slower (but still impressively fast)
computers.
• Most supercomputers are really multiple computers that perform parallel processing.
In general, there are two parallel processing approaches: symmetric multiprocessing (SMP)
and massively parallel processing (MPP).

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Microprocessor:
A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers, the terms
microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably.
• A microprocessor (sometimes abbreviated µP) is a digital electronic component with
miniaturized transistors on a single semiconductor integrated circuit (IC).
• One or more microprocessors typically serve as a central processing unit (CPU) in a
computer system or handheld device.
• Microprocessors made possible the advent of the microcomputer.
• At the heart of all personal computers and most working stations sits a microprocessor.
• Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to
fuel-injection systems for automobiles.

Microcontroller: A highly integrated chip that contains all the components comprising a
controller.
• Typically this includes a CPU, RAM, some form of ROM, I/O ports, and timers.
• Unlike a general-purpose computer, which also includes all of these components, a
microcontroller is designed for a very specific task - to control a particular system.
• A microcontroller differs from a microprocessor, which is a general-purpose chip
that is used to create a multi-function computer or device and requires multiple chips
to handle various tasks.
• A microcontroller is meant to be more self-contained and independent, and functions
as a tiny, dedicated computer.
• The great advantage of microcontrollers, as opposed to using larger microprocessors,
is that the parts-count and design costs of the item being controlled can be kept to a
minimum.
• They are typically designed using CMOS (complementary metal oxide
semiconductor) technology, an efficient fabrication technique that uses less power
and is more immune to power spikes than other techniques.
• Microcontrollers are sometimes called embedded microcontrollers, which just means
that they are part of an embedded system that is, one part of a larger device or
system.
Software
Software is the heart of modern digital avionics. It gives the system a flexibility that is far
beyond that achievable from analogue equivalents. The software describes algorithms, logical

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statements, data and control processes. Designing, coding and testing software requires unique
procedures to prove beyond reasonable doubt that the software is at least as reliable as its host
hardware.

The Airbus A320 avionics system has around 800,000 lines of code. The Boeing 777 avionics
system has in excess of 4,000,000 lines of code running on 50-plus hardware platforms. The
Airbus A380 and Boeing 787 will have many more lines of code.

Assemblers and Compilers

Assembly code: It is a set of pseudo-English language statements that have a 1:1

correspondence with the machine executable binary code that the CPU understands.

Translation from the pseudo-English language assembler code to machine code is performed

by a machine-specific translator known as an assembler. A linker/loader assigns specific

memory addresses at the final stages of generating the machine code executable binary, to load
and run the code from a specific area of memory.

The application software will be written in a high-order language such as Ada or C++which is

not machine-specific and does not require the programmer to have intimate knowledge of the

target machine architecture or its instruction set.

Good programming technique devolves the application software into a hierarchical structure
of tasks, processes and objects that are then executed under the control of a real-time operating

system (RTOS), which manages allthe computing resources in accordance with agreed resource

allocations (also known as the run-time environment). High-order source code in languages

such as Ada and C++is translated to run on the target machine by a compiler where it is

combined with lower-level device drivers as necessary to produce machine loadable and

executable target code.

•The compiler: Translates the application software (source code) into an intermediate form.It

performs syntax checking, (mis)use of types and generates warnings or errors.

•The assembler: Translates the intermediate code to machine code (object code), which is the

sequence of binary numeric values representing CPU-specific instructions plus data and

references to data.

The linker: Combines multiple machine code entities into a single executable entity

andresolves address references between entities.

•The loader: Writes the run-time executable code into the assigned CPU memory locations.

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•Firmware: The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)Standard Glossary of

Software Engineering Terminology, Std 610.12-1990, defines firmware as “The combi-nation

of a hardware device and computer instructions and data that reside as read-only

software on that device,”

Microprocessors

A microprocessor is a semiconductor device that incorporates most or all of the features of a

central processing unit (CPU) on a single integrated circuit (also known as a chip).
Microprocessors emerged in the early 1970s and were first used in electronic calculators, point-
of-sale till machines and cash dispensers. Affordable 8-bit microprocessors capable of
performing control-type embedded applications appeared in the mid-1970s and spawned the
personal computer (PC) industry. No longer were computers the sole domain of large
corporations and government organizations. Today 32- and 64-bit multicore machines running
at clock rates exceeding 1 GHz are readily available and affordable for desktop applications
Moore’s Law
In 1965, Gordon Moore, a co-founder of Intel, predicted the future of microprocessor-based
computing in his now-famous Moore’s Law: “Microprocessor processing power will double
every two years”. As illustrated in Figure 2.33, his prediction has largely proven to be correct.

Intel 4004

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Releasedin1971,the Intel 4004 was the first commercially available CPU on a

singleintegrated circuit (IC) chip. It had a simple architecture (see Figure 2.34) with the
following features:

• a 4-bit machine, with a 4-bit ALU and 8-bit instructions;

• a 12-bit memory address field accessing a maximum memory capacity of 4096 bytes of
memory via a multiplexed 4-bit bus;
• a clock frequency of 740 kHz, and an instruction execution time of 10.8 μs;
• 46 instructions, and 16 registers;
• 2300 transistors, 10 μm process in a 16-pin dual in-line package (DIP).

INTEL 8086

Released in 1978, this was the first 16-bit microprocessor. An earlier 8-bit version, the Intel
8080, was the basis for the first IBM PC. Intel later Released a maths co-processor (Intel
8087) which supported floating point arithmetic. It had the following features:

• 16-bit data and instructions, 20-bit address (paged);

• a clock frequency of 10 MHz and a 2 μs instruction execution time (average); • dual ALU
(data and address), 8 registers, limited pre-fetch queue (cache);
• 20,000 transistors, 3.2 μm process in a 40-pin surface mount package.

The Intel 8086 was probably the first microprocessor to be widely used in avionics
applications by several companies in the mid-1980s for embedded federated architecture
avionics computers in both civil and military applications

Difference between Microprocessor and Microcontroller

Microprocessor Micro Controller

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Microprocessor is heart of Computer Micro Controller is a heart of embedded

system. system.
It is just a processor. Memory and I/O Micro controller has external processor
components have to be connected along with internal memory and i/O
externally components
Since memory and I/O has to be connected Since memory and I/O are present
externally, the circuit becomes large. internally, the circuit is small.

Cannot be used in compact systems and Can be used in compact systems and
hence inefficient hence it is an efficient technique
Cost of the entire system increases Cost of the entire system is low
Due to external components, the entire Since external components are low, total
power consumption is high. Hence it is not power consumption is less and can be
suitable to used with devices running on used with devices running on stored
stored power like batteries. power like batteries.

Most of the micro controllers have power

Most of the microprocessors do not have saving modes like idle mode and power
power saving features. saving mode. This helps to reduce power
consumption even further.
Since memory and I/O components are all
Since components are internal, most of
external, each instruction will need the operations are internal instruction,
external operation, hence it is relatively hence speed is fast.
slower.
Microprocessor have less number of Micro controller have more number of
registers, hence more operations are registers, hence the programs are easier
memory based. to write.
Microprocessors are based on von
Neumann model/architecture where Micro controllers are based on Harvard
architecture where program memory and
program and data are stored in same Data memory are separate
memory module
Used mainly in washing machine, MP3
Mainly used in personal computers
players

General Architecture of a Microprocessor

A microprocessor based system has standard components like memory, timing and
input/output. Depending on the application, other components are added such as digital to
analog converter, interval timer, math coprocessors, interrupt controller etc. Figure below

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shows the basic block diagram of microprocessor based system containing some standard
components.

All components of the system communicate via system buses i.e address, data and
control buses.

Central Processing Unit [CPU]

 The CPU is the heart of the system, the master controller of all operations that can be
performed.
 It reads instruction from the memory then decodes and finally executes that instruction
to perform desired operation.
 The CPU is also responsible to generate all necessary control signals and control other
components in the system.
 The CPU section consists of a microprocessor and the associated logic circuitry
required enabling the CPU to communicate with the other components in the system
via system buses.
 This logic may consist of data and address driver for communication.
 The actual microprocessor used depends on the complexity of the task that will be
controlled or performed by the system.

Memory

 It has two components i.e read only memory [ROM] and random access memory
[RAM].
 Sometimes other semiconductor memories such as EPROM, PROM, E2PROM can be
used and usually contains monitor programs or BIOS program.

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 The ROM included provides the system with its intelligence, which is needed at the
start up (power on) to configure or initialize peripheral.
 The RAM is of again two types i.e static and dynamic RAM.
 The static RAM is fast and easy to interface, but comes in small sizes and costly.
 The dynamic RAM is slow and requires numerous refreshing cycles to retain the stored
data, even so dynamic RAM is the choice for large memory where large amount of data
can be stored as these RAM‟s are cheaper in cost.
 Both static and dynamic RAM lose their information, when power is turned off, which
may cause a problem in certain situations.
 In the latest systems, non-volatile memory (NVM) is used which retains its information
even when power is turned off.
 NVM comes in a small size; hence it is used to store only the most important
information during power failure.

Timing and Control

 This section of the system governs all system timing and thus is responsible for the
proper operation of the entire system hardware.
 The timing section usually consists of a crystal oscillator and timing circuitry set to
operate the microprocessor at its specified clock rate.

I/O Section

 Some system may require the I/O peripherals for the some specific purpose such as
keyboard for entering data and program, monitor to display results, printers to get hard
copy etc.
 So, microprocessor can communicate with these peripheral either using parallel or
serial communication port.
 Serial communication is slow but it has advantage of simplicity i.e requires only two
wires for receive, transmit and ground.

 Serial communication is easily adapted for use in fibre optics cables.

 On other hand, parallel I/O is faster but requires more lines depending on size of data
bus hence it is costly for implementation.
 A parallel I/O operation can be used to transfer data to/from a hard disk, reading switch
information, controlling indicator lights, transferring data to A/D or D/A converter and
other types of parallel devices.

Interrupt Circuitry
 When a microprocessor used in control applications, there will be times when the
system must respond to special external circumstances.

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 Such circumstances interrupt the microprocessor from its normal execution to service
the unexpected event.
 The system software is designed to handle such unexpected event.
 Interrupts are used to perform a special task such as real time clocks, multitasking
capability and fast I/O operations.
 The interrupt circuitry needed from system to system will vary depending on the
applications

Function Of Components In A Microprocessor

• ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit):It performs arithmetic task such as addition, deduction,
multiplication and division and logic task such as AND, OR, NOT and etc.
• ACC (Accumulator):
o It is a register which can store data for temporary before sending to process in
ALU and also can store the processed data before sending to store in the memory
or display through peripheral output.
o It is just like a “entrance” for a data to go in and come out from ALU.
• Flag register/PSW (Program Status Word ) register
o This register contains information regarding the result of a process which has been
carried out by ALU.
o It tells the user whether the result has Carry (CY), Auxiliary Carry (AC), Odd or
Even Parity (P) or Overflow (OV) or the other way round.
o It also consists information regarding registers from which bank will be working on
.
• Program Counter (PC)
o It controls the sequence in which the instructions in a program are performed.
o Normally, it does this by counting in the sequence, that is 0, 1, 2, 3,
o At any given time, the count indicates the location in memory from which the next
location of information/instruction is to be taken.
• Stack Pointer (SP)

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o This register will store the contains of Program Counter (location of memory) for
a short time when there is subroutine/sub-program occurs in the program.
o This register will be taken place when some particular instructions, such as PUSH,
POP, CALL and RET are used in the program.
• Data Register
o This register is a temporary storage location for data going to or coming from the
data bus.
• Address Register
o This register is another temporary storage location.
o It holds the address of the memory location or I/O device that is used in the
operation presently being performed.
• Instruction Decoder
o After an data is pulled from memory and placed in the data register, the data is
decoded by this circuit.
o The decoder checks the code and decides which operation is to be performed.
• Controller-sequencer
o This unit will produce a variety of control signals to carry out the instruction.
o Since each instruction is different, a different combination of control signals is
produced for each instruction.
• Data Bus
o It is a group of wires that is used to channel data (which to be processed or after
processed) from peripherals (memory or I/O devices) to CPU or vice versa.
• Address Bus
o It is a group of wires that is used to channel locations of data which will be or has
been processed.
• Control Bus
o It is a group of wires that is used to send control signals (such as MEMW, MEMR,
IOR, IOW, interrupt and DMA) from CPU to peripheral (memory or I/O devices)
or vice versa.
o

CPU Instruction Format

The format of a typical CPU instruction is shown below:

Operation Register Address Operand

Mode Address
It comprises:

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• the operation to be executed, or operation (op) code, for example, add, logic and, multiply,
skip if greater than zero, goto, and so on;
• the internal accumulator or register to be use as the first operand (A);
• the location in memory of the second operand (B) with some address moding to extend the
address field.

Following shows a list of typical instructions the CPU can execute. It comprises:

• data transfer instructions, such as load, store, move;

• arithmetic instructions, such as add, subtract, multiply, divide;
• bit manipulation instructions, such as logic and, logic or, shift left, shift right;
• program transfer instructions, such as jump (goto), skip the next instruction if greater than
zero, loop back

DATA TRANSFER ARITHMETIC BIT

General Purpose Addition MANIPULATION
MOV Move byte or ADD Add Logical
word
PUSH Push onto INC Increment by NOT NOT byte or
stack 1 word
POP Pop word off Subtraction AND AND byte or
stack word
SUB Subtract OR Inclusive OR
Input/Output
DEC Decrement
IN Input byte or by 1 XOR Exclusive OR
word NEG Negate
OUT Output Shift
CMP Compare SHL Shift left
Address Object
Multiplication SHR Shift right
LEA Load address
MUL Multiply Rotation
LDS Load pointer
IMUL Integer ROL Rotate left
multiply
Division ROR Rotate right

DIV Divide STRING

IDIV Integer REP Repeat

divide
REPZ Repeat while
Convert
zero
CBW Convert to REPNZ Repeat non
word zero

Example to illustrate the programming in microprocessor

Instruction Execution Sequence
The following example illustrates the instruction execution process. The example is the simple

algorithm to evaluate the expression y = mx + c, where x is an input variable, m and c are

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constants and y is the resultant output value. Additionally the algorithm limits the value of y so

that it does not exceed the value k. Although in a high-order language we would write this as

a single statement, the CPU does not understand this. The high-order language statement needs
to be compiled into a sequence of instructions the CPU can understand, known as machine
code. Following Figure shows the flowchart of the operation sequence that the CPU must

execute in order to evaluate this function. The flow chart is then interpreted into a set of
instructions the CPU will step through in sequence, in this example these are held in memory
locations 100 to 106. Constants m, c and k are held in memory locations 200 to 203; variables

x and y in memory locations 301 and 302. The reason for assigning instructions, constants and

variables to different areas in memory will become clearer later.

Flow chart:
Compute value y from x
according to the relationship: Acc:= x
Set Accumulator (A) to x

Multiply Accumulator by m Acc:= mx

y Slope = m
Add c to Accumulator Acc:= mx+ c

k Yes
Is Accumulator
y = mx + c <= k
c No
If Acc > k
Set Accumulator to k
x Then Acc:= k

y:= mx+ c
Store Accumulator in y
limited at k

Figure Flow chart to evaluate y = mx + c

Evaluation of the algorithm commences with the instruction register set to 100.

• Fetch instruction: ALU(A) is set to the function R = A + 0 and its output is routed through
the memory interface to address the memory at location 100 and the instruction ‘Load the
Accumulator with the contents of memory location 300’ is fetched from memory (memory
read cycle). The operand address, in this case 300, now appears on the B port of ALU(A).
• Fetch data: ALU(A) is now set to the function R = 0 + B and addresses the memory at
location 300. Variable x is fetched from memory (since memory location 300 contains the
value of variable x) and this now appears on the B port of ALU(D).

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• Execute instruction: ALU(D) is now commanded to execute the ‘Load’ instruction and is set
to the function R = 0 + B, and variable x is loaded into the accumulator register.

This completes the first instruction and the CPU steps on to the next instruction by
incrementing the instruction register to the value 101, and the execution cycle commences
again:

• Fetch instruction: Fetches the instruction at memory location 101, namely ‘Multiply the
Accumulator with the contents of memory location 200’. The operand address, in this case
200, now appears on the B port of ALU(A).
• Fetch data: Constant m at memory location 200 is fetched from memory and this now
appears on the B port of ALU(D).
• Execute instruction: ALU(D) is now commanded to execute the ‘Multiply’ function R = A
× B by a series of add and shift operations into the Accumulator register, resulting in it taking
the value of x multiplied by m.
The CPU steps onto the next instruction at memory location 102, and the execution cycle
repeats again, this time:

• Fetch instruction: ‘Add to the accumulator the contents of memory location 201’.
• Fetch data: Constant c is fetched from memory.
• Execute instruction: ALU(D) is now commanded to execute the ‘Add’ function R = A + B
and writes the answer back into the accumulator register resulting in it taking the value of mx
+ c.

The CPU steps onto the next instruction at memory location 103, and the execution cycle
repeats again, this time:

• Fetch instruction: ‘Skip if the accumulator contents are less the value of memory location
202’.
• Fetch data: Constant k is fetched from memory.
• Execute instruction: ALU(D) is now commanded to execute the ‘subtract’ function R = A −
B, but this time it does not write the contents back into the accumulator register; instead the
instruction register is incremented if the answer is negative, that is, mx + c is less than constant
k, then the next instruction is skipped.

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The CPU steps onto the next instruction. The instruction at memory location 104 will only be
executed if mx + c is greater than constant k. This instruction is a ‘Load’ instruction like the
first at location 103, and will overwrite the accumulator register with the constant k.

The instruction at memory location 105 is a little different to previous instructions.

• Fetch instruction: ‘Write the accumulator contents to memory location 301’.

• Store data: ALU(A) is set to the function R = 0 + B through the memory interface to address
the memory at location 301 as before. ALU(D) is now commanded to execute the function R
= A + 0, but this time it does not write the contents back into the accumulator register; instead
its output is routed to the memory interface and written to memory location 301 (memory
write cycle).

The final instruction at memory location 106 changes the instruction sequence:

• Fetch instruction: ‘Loop back by 6’.

• Load instruction register: ALU(A) is set to the function R = A − B, but this time it does not
address the memory; instead its output is loaded back into the instruction register which loops
the instruction sequence back to begin again at memory address 100.

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Extended Operand Addressing Modes

In general the computer memory is much larger than can be addressed by the simple
mechanisms illustrated above, and a range of techniques (or modes) together with a set of

registers, usually called the index registers, are used to extend the address range. The index
registers are a set of address registers whose contents can be loaded and manipulated
arithmetically by ALU(A) to provide various means to index or point to areas of memory.

Direct addressing: This is used to access data (generally constants) in the same segment (page)

as the instructions being executed. The resultant operand address is the current instruction page

concatenated (joined) with the short operand address in the instruction.

Relative addressing: This is used to access data (generally constants) in the same block of

code as the instructions. The resultant operand address is the current instruction address plus

the short operand address in the instruction. This mode has the benefit that the instruction code

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block with associated constants can be relocated in memory without revising the short operand
addresses, since each address is relative to the instruction that called it.

Indexed addressing: This is used to access data (generally variables), data tables, first-in first-

out stacks and data arrays. The resultant operand address is the selected index register plus the

short operand address in the instruction.

Extended Op Address

ALU

Index Registers Instruction Register

Page Line/Row

Op Code Reg Mode Op Address

Figure Operand (data) address modes

MEMORY:

It is a storage device. It stores users program or users data and the results.. So memory is an
important component of the microprocessor based system, which will allow you to store
program and data. The memory consists of the thousands of memory cells arranged to store

data. Each memory cell is capable of storing 1 bit of the data. Hence, to use memory to store
programs or data of user or system, memory must be interfaced with microprocessor properly,
so that it can be accessed while reading or writing data or program from/to it .In the same way,
input and output devices are also required to read or write data out from the microprocessor
using input device such as keyboard or output device using console.

There are two kind of memories; semiconductor memories & magnetic memories.

Semiconductor memories are faster, smaller, and lighter and consume less power.

Semiconductor memories are used as the main memory of a computer. Magnetic memories are

slow but they are cheaper than semiconductor memories. Magnetic memories are used as the

secondary memories of a computer for bulk storage of data and information’s. With the

development in technology, semiconductor memories are used everywhere.

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Characteristics of Memory:

An important characteristic of a memory is whether it is volatile or nonvolatile. The contents

of volatile memory are lost if the power is turned off. On the other hand, a nonvolatile memory

retains its contents after the power is switched off. The best known nonvolatile memory is

magnetic core.

In the broad sense, a µC’s memory system can be logically divided into three groups:
 Processor memory
 Primary or main memory
 Secondary memory
Processor memory refers to a set of µP registers. These registers hold temporary results

when a computation is progress. There is no speed disparity between these registers and the

µP because they are fabricated on the same chip using the same technology.

Primary memory is the external memory to store both program and data. The µP can access

their memories directly. In earlier days, the primary memory was designed using magnetic

cores. In modern µPs, MOS technology is employed in the primary memory design. Usually,
the size of primary memory is much larger than the processor memory and its operating speed
is slower than that the processor registers by a factor of 25 or 30.
Secondary memory refers to the storage medium compositing slow devices such as hard disks
and floppies. These devices are used to hold large data and huge program that are not needed

by the processor frequently. Sometimes, secondary memories are also referred to as auxiliary

or back up storage.

Classification of Memory:

In general, semiconductor memories can be clarified in two main groups’ random access

memories (RAM) and sequential access memories (SAM).

RAM can be classified in three main groups as shown below.

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RWMS RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY (RAM):

RWMs are generally called RAMs Random access means that the stored data can be accessed
in any order, which is in contrast to the more restricted access provided by other memory
systems, such as tape and disk drive. The access time to any piece of data stored on in RAM

is essentially the same.

RAM is normally used in computer systems for main memory or primary storage. This is where

running programs and the data they use are stored. Moving data from primary storage to the
processor requires only a few cycles, although retrieving data from a hard drive can take
considerable longer. For this reason, modern operating systems run primarily in RAM, and as
they load and run additional applications, they move these programs and their data into RAM
for faster processing.

RAM can be categorized as volatile or non-volatile. Volatile means that all data is lost when

the chip is powered down. Most computers incorporate two types of volatile RAM: static and

dynamic. Although both types require constant electrical current to function, they have some

important differences.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM) :

Dynamic RAM is less expensive, and therefore it is the most widely used. When a computer
is said to have 512 megabytes or one gigabyte of RAM, the specification refers to dynamic
RAM (DRAM). DRAM stores each bit of information in a separate capacitor on the integrated

circuit. The DRAM chip requires only one transistor and one capacitor for each bit of storage.

This makes it both cheap and space efficient. One disadvantage with using capacitors for
storage is that they gradually dissipate their charge, so the charge must be refreshed regularly
(current specifications are for their fresh to occur every 64 milliseconds or less). This refresh

requirement is what makes this technology dynamic.

DRAM controller :
The DRAM controller is an extra piece of hardware placed between the processor and the
memory chips. Its main purpose is to perform the refresh operations required to keep your data

alive in the DRAM.

Almost all DRAM controllers require a short initialization sequence that consists of one or
more setup commands. The setup commands tell the controller about the hardware interface to

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the DRAM and how frequently the data there must be refreshed. If the DRAM in your system
does not appear to be working properly, it could be that the DRAM controller either is not
initialized or has been initialized incorrectly.

Static RAM (SRAM) :

Static RAM (SRAM) has the advantage of being faster than DRAM, although the disadvantage

is that it is more expensive. SRAM is static in the sense that it doesn’t require constant electrical

refreshes; however, it still requires constant current to maintain the voltage differentials.

SRAM generally requires less power than DRAM.

Each bit in a SRAM chip requires a cell of six transistors, although DRAM needs only one
transistor and one capacitor. This means that SRAM cannot achieve the storage densities of

the DRAM family. As with DRAM, SRAM chips are mostly large arrays of these cells of

transistors. The two primary applications of SRAM are embedded use and in computers.

READ ONLY MEMORY (ROM) :

Memories in the ROM family are distinguished by the methods used to write new data tothem
and the number of times they can be rewritten. This classification reflects the evolution of

ROM devices from hardwired to one-time programmable to erasable-and-programmable. A

common feature across all these devices is their ability to retain data and programs forever,
even during a power failure.

There are several types of read only memory (ROM), although most are obsolete. These ROMs

are called read only because they cannot be modified by the casual user (and some types cannot

be modified at all). ROMs have traditionally been used in computer systems to store

configurationdata, such as bootstrap or BIOS code, which requires fast access.

Masked ROMs :
The very first ROMs were hardwired devices that contained a preprogrammed set of data or
instructions. The contents of the ROM had to be specified before chip production, so the actual

data could be used to arrange the transistors inside the chip. Hardwired memories are still used,

though they are now called "masked ROMs" to distinguish them from other types of ROM.

The main advantage of a masked ROM is a low production cost. . The contents of MROMs

cannot be changed by the user. Most desktop computers use MROMs to contain there operating

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system and for execution fixed procedures, such as decoding the keyboard and the generation
of characters for the CRT.

Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) :

One step up from the masked ROM is the PROM (programmable ROM), which is purchased

in an programmed state. The process of writing your data to the PROM involves a special piece

of equipment called a device programmer. The device programmer writes data to the device

one word at a time, by applying an electrical charge to the input pins of the chip. Once a PROM

has been programmed in this way, its contents can never be changed. If the code or data stored

in the PROM must be changed, the current device must be discarded. As a result, PROMs are

also known as one-time programmable (OTP) devices.

The PROM is a cheaper and more flexible approach than mask ROM, although each PROM
can still be programmed only once. PROMs are reliable, permanent, and relatively fast. They

are still in limited use.

Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EPROM) :

An EPROM (erasable-and-programmable ROM) is programmed in exactly the same manners

a PROM. However, EPROMs can be erased and reprogrammed repeatedly. To erase an

EPROM, you simply expose the device to a strong source of ultraviolet light. (There is a"

window" in the top of the device to let the ultraviolet light reach the silicon.) By doing this,you

essentially reset the entire chip to its initial-un programmed-state. EPROM chips preserve their

data for roughly10 to 20 years and allow for an unlimited number of reads. The erasing window

is kept covered by a foil label to prevent erasure by exposure to sunlight.

The most popular use of EPROMs in computer systems was to store the BIOS in older PC
systems. Though more expensive than PROMs, their ability to be reprogrammed makes

EPROMs an essential part of the software development and testing process.

Electronically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM):

The electronically erasable programmable read only memory (EEPROM) has largely

supplanted all other types of ROM in the current generation of computing devices. The

capacity of EEPROMs ranges up to hundreds of kilobits. This is now the preferred technology

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for storing the BIOS in personal computers. They need not to be removed from a

microcomputer board for erasing. Erasing & programming E2PROM is much easier as the

ultraviolet sources are not required. The stored information can be erased by applying a high

voltage of about 21V, a singly byte or the entire chip can be erased in10 mille sec. This is faster
than UV erasing and it can be done easily while the chip is still in circuit, One can write into
at any time without erasing prior contents. The problems with EAROM are that electronically

they are relatively difficult to use also, they slowly lose their information.

As the term electronically erasable implies, EEPROMs can be erased and rewritten, usually
by creating a high-voltage pulse on the chip. This rewriting eventually damages the layer of

insulating material on the chip, so the number of writes is limited. Although early models

would fail after 100 write-erase cycles, current and rewritten. Once written, the new data will

remain in the device forever- EEPROMs can sustain one million write-erases or more. Any

byte within an EEPROM can be erased or at least until it is electrically erased. The tradeoff for

this improved functionality is mainly higher cost.

One application of the E2PROM is in the tuner of a modern TV set. The E2PROM remember

(i) the channel, you were watching when your tuned off the set (2) the volume setting of the

audio amplifier.

Flash Memory
Flash memory is the most recent advancement in memory technology. It combines all the best

features of the memory devices described thus far. Flash memory devices are high density, low

cost, nonvolatile, fast (to read, but not to write), and electrically reprogrammable. Although
flash memory is erased only one block or page at a time, it is much less expensive than
EEPROM.
These advantages are overwhelming and the use of Flash memory has increased dramatically
in embedded systems as a direct result. From a software viewpoint, Flash

and EEPROM technologies are very similar. The major difference is that Flash devices can be

erased only one sector at a time, not byte by byte. Typical sector sizes are in the range of 256

bytes to 16kilobytes. Despite this disadvantage, Flash is much more popular than EEPROM

and is rapidly displacing many of the ROM devices as well.

NONVOLATILE RAM (NVRAM)

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An NVRAM is usually just an SRAM with a battery backup. When the power is turned on, the

NVRAM operates just like any other SRAM. But when the power is turned off, the NVRAM

draws just enough electrical power from the battery to retain its current contents. NVRAM is

fairly common in embedded systems. However, it is very expensive-even more expensive than

SRAM-so its applications are typically limited to the storage of only a few hundred bytes of

system-critical information that cannot be stored in any better way.

Touch Panels

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The traditional touch screen technology is analog resistive. Electrical resistance refers to how
easily electricity can pass through a material. These panels work by detecting how much the
resistance to current changes when a point is touched.

This process is accomplished by having two separate layers. Typically, the bottom layer is
made of glass and the top layer is a plastic film. When you push down on the film, it makes
contact with the glass and completes a circuit.

The glass and plastic film are each covered with a grid of electrical conductors. These can be
fine metal wires, but more often they are made of a thin film of transparent conductor material.
In most cases, this material is indium tin oxide (ITO). The electrodes on the two layers run at
right angles to each other: parallel conductors run in one direction on the glass sheet and at
right angles to those on the plastic film.

When you press down on the touch screen, contact is made between the grid on the glass and
the grid on the film. The voltage of the circuit is measured, and the X and Y coordinates of the
touch position is calculated based on the amount of resistance at the point of contact.

This analog voltage is processed by analog-to-digital converters (ADC) to create a digital signal
that the device's controller can use as an input signal from the user.

Plasma display
Plasma panel typically comprises millions of tiny compartments in between two panels of
glass. These compartments, or "bulbs" or "cells", hold a mixture of noble gases and a minuscule
amount of another gas (e.g., mercury vapor). Just as in the fluorescent lamps over an office
desk, when a high voltage is applied across the cell, the gas in the cells form a plasma. With
flow of electricity (electrons), some of the electrons strike mercury particles as the electrons
move through the plasma, momentarily increasing the energy level of the atom until the excess
energy is shed. Mercury sheds the energy as ultraviolet (UV) photons. The UV photons then
strike phosphor that is painted on the inside of the cell. When the UV photon strikes a phosphor
molecule, it momentarily raises the energy level of an outer orbit electron in the phosphor
molecule, moving the electron from a stable to an unstable state; the electron then sheds the
excess energy as a photon at a lower energy level than UV light; the lower energy photons are
mostly in the infrared range but about 40% are in the visible light range. Thus the input energy
is converted to mostly infrared but also as visible light. Depending on the phosphors used,
different colors of visible light can be achieved. Each pixel in a plasma display is made up of
three cells comprising the primary colors of visible light. Varying the high voltage of the
signals to the cells thus allows different perceived colors.
The long electrodes are stripes of electrically conducting material that also lie between the glass
plates, in front of and behind the cells. The "address electrodes" sit behind the cells, along the
rear glass plate, and can be opaque. The transparent display electrodes are mounted in front of
the cell, along the front glass plate. As can be seen in the illustration, the electrodes are covered
by an insulating protective layer. Control circuitry charges the electrodes that cross paths at a
cell, creating a voltage difference between front and back. Some of the atoms in the gas of a
cell then lose electrons and become ionized, which creates an electrically conducting plasma

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of atoms, free electrons, and ions. The collisions of the flowing electrons in the plasma with
the inert gas atoms leads to light emission; such light-emitting plasmas are known as glow
discharges

Advantages

 Capable of producing deeper blacks allowing for superior contrast ratio

 Wider viewing angles than those of LCD;
 Less visible motion blur,
 Superior uniformity. LCD panel backlights nearly always produce uneven brightness
levels,
 Unaffected by clouding from the polishing process.
 Less expensive for the buyer per square inch than LCD,

Disadvantages

 Earlier generation displays were more susceptible to screen burn-in and image retention.
 Screen-door effects (black lines between rows of pixels) become noticeable on screen sizes
larger than 127 cm (50 in
 Uses more electrical power, on average, than an LCD TV using an LED backlight.
 Does not work as well at high altitudes above 2 km due to pressure differential between the
gases inside the screen and the air pressure at altitude.
 Plasma displays are generally heavier than LCD, and may require more careful handling
such as being kept upright.

CRT Displays

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The cathode, heater, grid and anode assembly forms an electron gun which produces a beam
of electrons that is focused on the rear phosphor coating of the screen.

The heater raises the temperature of the cathode which is coated with thoriated tungsten (a
material that readily emits electrons when heated). The negatively charged electrons form a
cloud above the cathode (the electrons are literally ‘boiled off’ the cathode surface) and
become attracted by the high positive potential that appears on the various anodes.
The flow of electrons is controlled by the grid. This structure consists of a fine wire mesh
through which the electrons must pass. The grid is made negative with respect to the cathode
and this negative potential has the effect of repelling the electrons. By controlling the grid
potential it is possible to vary the amount of electrons passing through the grid thus controlling
the The focus anodes consist of two or three tubular structures through which the electron beam
passes. By varying the relative potential on these anodes it is possible to bend and focus the
beam in much the same way as a light beam can be bent and focussed using a biconvex lens.
The final anode consists of a graphite coating inside the CRT. This anode is given a very high
positive potential (typically several kV) which has the effect of accelerating the beam of
electrons as they travel towards it. The result is an electron beam of high energy impacting
itself against the phosphor coating on the inside rear of the screen area. The energy liberated
by the collision of the electrons with the phosphors is converted into light

Scanning
In order to scan the full area of the CRT it is necessary to repeatedly scan the beam of electrons
from top to bottom and left to right, as shown in Figure. The voltage waveforms required on
the X and Y plates to produce the scanned raster must be ramp (sawtooth) shaped with
different frequencies. For example, to produce the extremely crude four-line display shown in
Figure 11.4(d) the ramp waveform applied to the X-plates would be 50 Hz whilst that applied
to the Y-plates would be 200 Hz. A complete raster would then be scanned in a time interval
of 20 ms (one fiftieth of a second). A high resolution display will clearly require many more
than just four lines however the principle remains the same. Suppose that we need to have 400

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lines displayed and we are using a 100 Hz ramp for the Y-plates. The X-plates would then need
to be supplied with a 40 kHz ramp waveform.

Colour CRT displays

By introducing a pattern of phosphors of different colours and by using a more complicated
CRT with three different cathodes it is possible to produce a CRT that can display colour
information. By combining three different colours (red, green and blue phosphors) in
different amounts it is possible to generate a range of colours.

The arrangement of a colour CRT display is shown in Figure 11.8. Three separate video
signals (corresponding to the colours red, green and blue) are fed to the three cathodes of the
CRT. These signals are derived from the video processing circuitry that generates the
required waveforms used for varying the intensity of the three electron beams. Note that each
beam is brought to focus on pixels of the respective colour (for example, the beam generated
by the red cathode only coincides with the red phosphors). A synchronising system generates
the scanning ramp waveforms and ensures that the time relationship between them is correct.

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LED Display
LED displays are frequently used to display numerical data. The basis of such displays is the
seven segment indicator which is often used in groups of between three and five digits to
form a complete display.

Typically 7-segment displays consist of seven individual coloured LED’s (called the
segments), within one single display package. In order to produce the required numbers or
HEX characters from 0 to 9 and A to F respectively, on the display the correct combination of
LED segments need to be illuminated and BCD to 7-segment Display Decoders such as the
74LS47 do just that

.
A standard 7-segment LED display generally has 8 input connections, one for each LED
segment and one that acts as a common terminal or connection for all the internal display
segments. Some single displays have also have an additional input pin to display a decimal
point in their lower right or left hand corner.
In electronics there are two important types of 7-segment LED digital display.

1. The Common Cathode Display (CCD) – In the common cathode display, all the cathode
connections of the LED’s are joined together to logic “0” or ground. The individual segments
are illuminated by application of a “HIGH”, logic “1” signal to the individual Anode
terminals.

2. The Common Anode Display (CAD) – In the common anode display, all the anode
connections of the LED’s are joined together to logic “1” and the individual segments are
illuminated by connecting the individual Cathode terminals to a “LOW”, logic “0” signal.

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7-Segment Display Format

So in order to display the number 3 for example, segments a, b, c, d and g would need to be
illuminated. If we wanted to display a different number or letter then a different set of
segments would need to be illuminated. Then for a 7-segment display, we can produce a truth
table giving the segments that need to be illuminated in order to produce the required
character as shown below

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Binary Coded Decimal

Binary Coded Decimal (BCD or “8421” BCD) numbers are made up using just 4 data bits (a
nibble or half a byte) similar to the Hexadecimal numbers we saw in the binary tutorial, but
unlike hexadecimal numbers that range in full from 0 through to F, BCD numbers only range
from 0 to 9, with the binary number patterns of 1010 through to 1111 (A to F) being invalid
inputs for this type of display and so are not used as shown below.

A binary coded decimal (BCD) to 7-segment display decoder such as the TTL 74LS47 or
74LS48(IC), have 4 BCD inputs and 7 output lines, one for each LED segment. This allows a
smaller 4-bit binary number (half a byte) to be used to display all the denary numbers from 0
to 9 and by adding two displays together, a full range of numbers from 00 to 99 can be
displayed with just a single byte of 8 data bits

LCD Display Panel

Liquid crystals have properties that can be considered to be somewhere between those of a
solid and those of a liquid. Solids have a rigid molecular structure whilst the molecules in

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liquids change their orientation and are able to move. A particular property of liquid crystals
that makes them attractive for use as the basis of electronic displays is that the orientation of
molecules (and consequently the passage of light through the crystal) can be controlled by the
application of an electric field.

The most common form of LCD uses twisted nematic material. A cell is formed in which the
long, thin, liquid crystal molecules are sandwiched between two glass plates. Microscopic
grooves are formed on the inner surfaces of the plates, inducing the adjacent liquid crystal
molecules to become aligned with the grooves. However, the grooves in one plate are aligned
at 90◦to those in the other, and this constrains the molecules to adopt a spiral orientation as
shown in Figure.

A A polariser is attached to each glass plate such that its plane of polarisation is aligned with
the grooves in the glass. Thus the planes of polarisation of the two polarisers are crossed;
however, the spiral molecular orientation of the liquid crystal material causes the plane of
polarisation of the light from one polariser to be rotated by 90◦ as it passes through the liquid,
thus aligning it with the second polariser and allowing the light tobe transmitted through the
cell.

When an electric potential is applied between transparent electrodes on the inner glass surfaces,
the resulting electric field across the liquid crystal material causes the molecules to become
aligned along the electric field in a direction normal to the glass surfaces. This disrupts the
spiral molecular structure of the fluid, inhibiting the rotation of polarised light as it passes
through the material. The light is now blocked by the second polariser and is therefore
prevented from passing through the liquid crystal cell. The cell is a light valve;
light is transmitted through the cell in the de-energised condition but blocked when the cell is
energised.For the display of video scenes containing dynamic, complex pictorial information,
nematic liquid crystal displays have been developed containing more than a million discrete
pixels arranged as a matrix of rows and columns. The matrix is addressed via row and column

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selection circuits and the entire display is scanned in a sequential manner in which all the
elements in one row are updated simultaneously, each row being addressed in turn. When a
cell’s row is energised, a transistor switch associated with each cell is turned on, thus applying
an electric field determined by the column voltage (a function of the scene luminance at that
point) to the cell’s electrodes and charging up the cell capacitance. During the period (most of
the time) when other rows are being addressed, the switch is turned off, preventing the charge
in the cell from leaking away. This arrangement is shown in Figure

. Because each element of the array is operated by an active semiconductor switch, this type of
display is referred to as an active matrix liquid crystal display, or AMLCD.

To achieve colour, a pattern of red, green and blue dyes is printed onto the surface of one of
the glass sheets, such that each small area of dye coincides with an AMLCD cell. Thus each
cell passes only red, green or blue light. The dye pattern can be arranged in various ways,
ofwhich the most common is the vertical stripe pattern shown in the figure
The principle advantages of the AMLCD (with backlight) are:

 Significantly less depth than a CRT and easier to package (typically<60 mm);
 Significantly less weight than the CRT (typically<1 kg);
 Significantly less power than a CRT (typically<20 W);
 No high voltages;
 No magnetic components and no influence from external magneticfields;
 Perfect registration (no misconvergence);
 Fixed pixel (spot) size at all display brightness levels.

Organic Light-Emitting Diodes (O-LED)

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The operation of an LED is based upon the fact that semiconductors can be of two types, p-
type or n-type, depending upon whether dopants pull electrons out of the crystal, forming
‘holes’, or add electrons. An LED is formed when p-type and n-type materials are joined. When
a voltage is applied, electrons flow into the p-type material, and holes flow into the n-type
material. An electron–hole combination is unstable and they recombine to release energy in the
form of light. This can be a very efficient way to convert electricity to light.

Light-emitting diodes, based upon semiconductors such as gallium arsenide, have been around
since the late 1950s. These crystalline LEDs are expensive, and it is difficult to integrate them
into small high-resolution displays. However, there is a wide class of organic compounds that
have many of the characteristics of semiconductors. They have energy gaps of about the same
magnitude, and they can be doped to conduct by electrons (n-type) or holes (p-type). Electrons
and holes recombine at the interface of the n-type and p-type materials andlight is emitted

ELECTRO LUMINESCENT DISPLAY

It is a type of display created by sandwiching a layer electroluminescent material (GaAs)

between two layers of conductors. When current flows, the layer of material emits radiation, in the
form of visible light. ELD’s are developed by two firms,

i) Sharp – Japan
ii) Planar systems – USA
Electroluminescence = Optical + Electrical phenomenon

It is a result of radiative recombination of electrons and holes in a material. The excited

electrons release their energy as photons. Prior to recombination the electrons and holes can be
separated by doping.

This electroluminescent devices are fabricated using thin films of either organic (It emits light
in response to an electric current) or of inorganic materials.

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

The thin film layers contain bulk semiconductor and a dopant which defines the visible colour
emitted. The EL display system and its layers are given in figure 3.10 and 3.11.

Figure 3.10 Electro Luminescent Display System

Layers of Electro Luminescent Display System

Inorganic thin film EL

Zinc sulphide powder doped with copper or silver.

Natural blue diamond with boron as dopant.

Now active matrix ELD are used for displaying large amount of text and graphics.

Advantages

● Speed
● Brightness
● High contrast
● Wide Angle vision

Head UP Display (HUD):

Working Principle

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

The basic configuration of a HUD is shown schematically in Figure The pilot views the outside
world through the HUD combiner glass (and windscreen). The combiner glass is effectively a
‘see through’ mirror with a high optical transmission efficiency so that there is little loss of
visibility looking through the combiner and windscreen. It is called a combiner as it optically
combines the collimated display symbology with the outside world scene viewed through it.

The display symbology generated from the aircraft sensors and systems (such as the INS and
air data system) is displayed on the surface of a cathode ray tube (CRT).The display images
are then relayed through a relay lens system which magnifies the display and corrects for some
of the optical errors which are otherwise present in the system. The relayed display images are
then reflected through an angle of near 90°by the fold mirror and thence to the collimating lens
which collimates the display images which are then reflected from the combiner glass into the
pilot’s forward field of view. The virtual images of the display symbology appear to the pilot
to be at infinity and overlay the distant world scene, as they are collimated. The function of the
fold mirror is to enable a compact optical configuration to be achieved so that the HUD
occupies the minimum possible space in the cockpit

A typical HUD block diagram is provided in following Figure. The HUD comprises the
following functional elements:

1. Optics assembly. A set of optical elements comprising the final collimating lens for the
Collimating HUD or the relay lens for the pupil-forming HUD, image field flattener lenses and
the fold mirror with coatings and filters to reduce sunlight reflections.
2. Combiner. A pair of optically flat parallel glass plates for the collimating HUD or a curved
collimator for the pupil-forming HUD, with semi-reflective coatings tuned to the peak spectral
emission of the CRT phosphor.

3. Cathode ray tube. A high-brightness, high-resolution CRT used to produce bright, precision
fine-line stroke-written graphics symbology and raster sensor video imagery.

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

4. X and Y deflection amplifiers. These are high-precision power amplifiers that source current
into the CRT X and Y magnetic deflection yokes to cause the CRT electron beam to trace out
the stroke (cursive) symbology and also the raster sensor video scan waveforms.

5. Video amplifier. Controls the CRT beam current by adjusting the CRT cathode bias with
respect to the grid electrode to turn the beam on or off in stroke mode and modulate the beam
with the sensor video image.

6. Ramp generator. Strips synchronization pulses from the sensor video and generates the raster
scan waveforms to align/harmonise the sensor video with the outside world.

7. High-voltage power supply. Provides the final anode potential (usually around 18 kV), the
A1 (focus) potential (usually around 2–4 kV) and the grid potential (usually around 200 V).

8. Low-voltage power supply. Provides all the low-voltage rails for the electronic circuits,
typically +5V,+15 V, +20 V, etc.

9.Chassis. Usually a complex precision casting, the chassis provides environmental protection
to the HUD functional elements and affords a means of bore sighting the HUD to the aircraft
structure.

HUD Symbology and Principles of Use

Principal areas of symbol generation include the following:
 Primary flight data;
 Navigation symbology;
 Air-to-air weapon-aiming symbology;
Primary flight data displayed on the HUD usually encompass:
 Flight-path vector/marker (also known as velocity vector);

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

 Attitude (pitch and roll);

 Speed;
 Altitude;
 Heading;
 Vertical speed (rate of climb/dive);
 Angle of attack.

Helmet Mount Display (HMD):

The basic functions of a Helmet are:

1. To protect the pilot’s head and eyes from injury when ejecting at high airspeeds.
2. To interface with the oxygen mask attached to the helmet. Combat aircraft use a special
pressurized breathing system for high maneuvering.
3. To provide the pilot with an aural and speech interface with the communications radio
equipment. The helmet incorporates a pair of headphones which are coupled to the outputs
of the appropriate communications channel selected by the pilot. The helmet and earpieces
are also specifically designed to attenuate the cockpit background acoustic noise as much
as possible.
4. A speech interface is provided by a throat microphone incorporated in the oxygen mask.
5. In addition to the clear protective visor, the helmet must also incorporate a dark visor to
attenuate the glare from bright sunlight.
6. The helmet must also be compatible with NBC (nuclear–biological–chemical) protective
clothing and enable an NBC mask to be worn.

HMD Optical Configurations

The optical configuration should be selected according to operational use

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1. Sight or display. A sight is used simply as a target designator, possibly with the addition
of simple direction-finding cues (such as look-up/down, left/right) and event annunciators
(such as weapons lock/fire). A display generally adds other symbology such as primary
flight data, weapons data and imagery at night.
2. Monocular or binocular. Monocular is suitable for daytime use when the pilot’s attention
is mostly on the outside world. However, a binocular configuration is preferred at night
when vision is augmented by other aids such as FLIR or NVGs.
3. If binocular, then one image source or two. Both configurations have been used. If dual
sources are used then it is possible to extend the azimuth field of view having a central area
in which the image is seen by both eyes with two monocular areas either side,
4. Off-visor or periscope optical system. The periscope optical system is easier to design and
manufacture and therefore was the first to be used. Off-visor systems are less obstructive,
more technically elegant but demand more complex solutions if wide fields of view are
required.
5. Day, night or day/night operation. It is a self-evident requirement that a daytime display
must be viewable in direct sunlight. At night the image may be augmented with sensor
video and/or night-vision goggles.

Working Principle
A lower weight HMD system can be achieved by the use of a visor projection system in
conjunction with a high efficiency optical design. This allows a standard spherically curved
aircrew visor to be used to carry out the combiner and collimation function by the addition of
a neutral density reflection coating. The visor coating provides high display brightness whilst
maintaining high real world transmission (>70% can be achieved) with no coloration. Display
accuracy is also insensitive to visor rotation because of the spherical shape and partial raising
of the visor is possible,

The image from the Image Intensifier Tube (IIT) is a phosphor screen which emits green light
in the center of the visual band where the eye is most sensitive.
NVGs basically comprise two image intensifiers through which the observer views the scene
at night by means of a suitable optical arrangement. Image intensifiers are highly sensitive
detectors which operate in the red end of the visible spectrum amplifying light about 40,000
times from less than starlight up to visible level.

It should be noted that special cockpit lighting is necessary as conventional cock-pit lighting
will saturate the image intensifiers. Special green lighting and complementary filtering are
required.
The image intensifier devices can be battery powered from a small battery carried by the pilot.
This enables the pilot to see in pitch darkness conditions on the ground and walk out to the
aircraft/helicopter without any lights being required during covert operations.

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

Difference between HUD and HMD

Sl HUD HMD
NO
1 HUD viewing angle is around 30° HMD viewing angle is around 90°
2 A single unit HUD system (combined The HMD system, however, is not a ‘one box’
processor, symbol generator and system and comprises helmet,cockpit interface
display) can meet the integrity unit, head tracker and a processor/symbol
generator
3 It is not yet feasible to target unguided the HMD is entirely adequate for launching
weapons with an HMD to the same ac- precision guided weapons such as missiles and
curacy as with a HUD. laser guided bombs.
4 The HUD is equally in a fixed The HMD cannot be as rigidly located with
relationship to the windshield and views respect to the pilot’s eye because of limitations
the outside world only through a small of helmet design suchas eye relief, weight,
and well defined segment. Corrections comfort, etc.
can be readily applied in respect of
windshield optical effects and symbol
position distortion.

Head Down Display(HDD)or Multifunction Displays:

The multifunction head-down display, variously called the MFD, the MHDD, the MPD
multipurpose display (MPD) and the multipurpose colour display (MPCD), provides theflight-
deck/crew-station/cockpit designer with a flexible display media on which to present data in a
variety of ways according to the information needed by the crew for the current phase of the
flight or mission.

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

Typically, a HDD comprises the display together with the drive electronics and power
regulation. As with the HUD, there is frequently a simple processor and housekeeping software
to control the brightness, self test and mode changes. Some units now contain a full processor
and symbol generator and data bus interface, but it is more usual for the HDDs to be driven by
a central display processor(s).
The size of an HDD is typically defined by an ARINC standard of square format with one inch
increments – for example, 5×5, 6×6 inch, etc. This is not ideal for the normal 4: 3 aspect ratio
video and indeed rectangular format displays are found in both military and civil cockpits.

Civil Cockpit Head Down Displays:

The displays are duplicated for the Captain and Second Pilot and being multi-function it is
possible to reconfigure the displayed information in the event of the failure of a particular
display surface.
The electronic Primary Flight Display (PFD) replaces six electro-mechanical instruments:
altimeter, vertical speed indicator, artificial horizon/attitude director indicator,
heading/compass indicator and Mach meter. PFD formats follow the classic ‘T’ layout of the
conventional primary flight instruments

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

Airspeed is shown on a scale on the left with pressure altitude and vertical speed on the right
hand scales. Aircraft heading information is shown on a ‘tape’ scale type format below the
attitude display. The artificial horizon/attitude display has a blue background above the horizon
line representing the sky and a brown background below the horizon line representing the
ground. This enables ‘which way is up’ and the aircraft orientation to be rapidly assimilated by
the pilot in recovering from an unusual attitude

The above shows a typical navigation (or horizontal situation) display. Pilot selectable modes
include the traditional compass rose heading display, expanded ILS or VOR formats, a map
mode showing the aircraft’s position relative to specific waypoints and a North up mode
showing the flight plan. Weather radar displays may be superimposed over the map. The
vertical flight profile can also be displayed.

The above figure shows a Systems Display for monitoring the aircraft systems, for example,
the fuel system, hydraulic systems, electrical systems, air conditioning and other systems,
showing current status.

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

MilitaryCockpit Head Down Displays

Video head down displays now include FLIR, LLTV and maps. All the HUD functions may
be repeated overlaid on the video pictures. Fuel and engine data, navigation waypoints and a
host of ‘housekeeping’ functions (e.g. hydraulics, pressurization) may be displayed. A stores
management display is also required showing the weapons carried and their status.
Typical advanced military cockpits are configured with four head down displays. There are
two large colour displays; a Horizontal Situation Display (HSD) providing a6×8 inch map
display in ‘portrait’ format with symbol overlay of routeing and threat data and a Vertical
Situation Display (VSD) providing an 8×6inch IRvideo display showing targeting video at
various magnifications.
The other two displays are smaller 5×5 inch monochrome displays comprising a Systems Status
Display (SSD) displaying systems status data and a Systems Control Display (SCD) displaying
systems control data. Both displays have tactile data entry overlay.
The advanced cockpits for the new generation of fighter/strike aircraft have just two large
colour displays as the primary head down displays.

The above figure shows the instrument panel of the Lockheed Martin ‘Lightning 2’ Joint Strike
Fighter which features two large flat panel colour display surfaces. The pilot can divide each
screen into several windows, as can be seen in the illustration, enabling a very wide variety of
information to be displayed at the same time

Direct Voice Input

Direct voice input (DVI) control is a system which enables the pilot to enter data and control
the operation of the aircraft’s avionic systems by means of speech. The spoken commands and
data are recognised by a speech recognition system which compares the spoken utterances with
the stored speech templates of the system vocabulary. The recognised commands, or data, are
then transmitted to the aircraft.

Feedback that the DVI system has recognised the pilot’s command correctly is provided
visually on the HUD and HMD (if installed), and aurally by means of a speech synthesizer

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

system. The pilot then confirms the correctly recognised command by saying ‘enter’ and the
action is initiated.
The pilot can thus stay head up and does not have to divert attention from the out-side world
in order to operate touch panels, switches, push buttons, keyboards etc. DVI can thus reduce
the pilot’s work load in high work load situations. Sub-systems by means of the interconnecting
data bus
The main characteristics and requirements for an airborne DVI system are briefly summarized
below:
 Fully connected speech. The speech recognition system must be able to recognize
normal fully connected speech with no pauses required between words.(Systems which
require a pause between each word are known as ‘isolated word recognizers’.)
 Must be able to operate in the cockpit noise environment. The background noise level
can be very high in a fast jet combat aircraft.
 Vocabulary size. The required vocabulary is around 200 to 300 words.
 Speech template duration. The maximum speech template duration is around 5seconds.
 Vocabulary duration. The maximum duration of the total vocabulary is around 160
seconds.
 Syntax nodes. The maximum number of syntax nodes required is about 300.
 An example of a typical ‘syntax tree’ is shown below:

 Duration of utterance. There must be no restrictions on the maximum duration of an

input utterance.
 Recognition response time. This must be in real time

Problem with Voice Recognition

● The words in the vocabulary are limited.

● Generating templates are time consuming.
● Microphones have the same electrical characteristics as the flight microphone.
● Difficult to stimulate the stress artificially.
● Speaker independent Speech Recognition requires large amount of memory and slow
signal processing.
.
Commercial systems with an impressive performance are now widely available

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Principles of Digital Systems and Flight Deck and Cockpits

HOTAS: Two items of aircraft equipment straddle the boundary between utility systems and
avionics. These items are the throttle lever handles and the stick top, associated with propulsion
and flight controls respectively. Both items have been furnished with switches and controls to
perform a number of avionic functions, over and above their basic use as a comfortable grip
for the throttle and flight control demand levers. This allows the pilot to perform a number of
control functions without removing hands from the two demand levers. This has become
known as hands-on throttle and stick, or HOTAS. The positioning and actuation loads of the
switches installed in the handles has to be designed with great care to meet ergonomic requires
for instinctive finger movements.

Multi-Function Keyboard

It is an avionics sub system through which the pilot interacts to configure mission
related parameters like flight plan, airfield database, communication equipment during
initialization and operation flight phase of mission. The MFK consist of a processor with ROM,
RAM and EEPROM memory which is shown in figure 3.21. It is connected to one of the 1553B
buses used for data communication. The MFK has a built-in display unit and a keyboard.

It is also connected to the Multi Function Rotary switch (MFR) through a RS422
interface. The MFK has a built-in display unit. The display unit is a pair of LCD based Colour
Graphical Display. The Real-time operating specifications are very stringent in such
applications because the performance and safety of the aircraft depend on it. Efficient design
of the architecture and code is required for successful operation.

Figure 3.21 Multi-Function Keyboard

48 | Dept of Aeronautical Engg, MITE Moodabidri ©Yathin KL