Narrative Poems

of Shakespeare
Study Guide by Course Hero

collection includes four of Shakespeare's narrative poems as

What's Inside well as five of his sonnets which were each designed to tell a
larger story.

j Book Basics ................................................................................................. 1

d In Context ..................................................................................................... 1
d In Context
a Author Biography ..................................................................................... 2

h Characters .................................................................................................. 4
Shakespeare and Gender
k Plot Summary ............................................................................................. 9
Roles
c Section Summaries ............................................................................... 10
English men and women were held to fairly strict gender roles
g Quotes ......................................................................................................... 14
during the Elizabethan Era, a time period which spanned from
l Symbols ....................................................................................................... 17 1558 to 1603. Men were supposed to be the leaders and
providers, while women were traditionally relegated to working
m Themes ....................................................................................................... 19 within the home. Women were banned from performing on
stage. Female actors were generally accepted in mainland
Europe, but English society still viewed acting as a profession
best reserved for men. English authors were encouraged to
j Book Basics reinforce traditional gender roles within their plays, stories, and
poetry. Authors who pushed the boundaries too far could fall
AUTHOR under royal censure.
William Shakespeare
William Shakespeare carried a much more relaxed attitude
YEAR PUBLISHED toward gender roles than was generally approved of in
1593–1609 Elizabethan England. He still needed the censors' approval to
sell his writing, so he played a delicate game in his poetry and
GENRE plays. He pushed the boundaries of gender roles without
Romance, Tragedy directly contradicting his culture's views on men's and women's
respective places in society. "Venus and Adonis" presents
AT A GLANCE
Venus as a much more dominant individual than Adonis when it
English playwright and poet William Shakespeare wrote at
comes to courtship. Women were supposed to demurely wait
least 37 plays and 154 sonnets during the course of his career.
for men to show interest in them, but Venus throws this
He is most known today for his contributions to theater
tradition aside by directly propositioning Adonis. If anyone
through comedies and tragedies such as Romeo and Juliet,
complained about Venus's unfeminine behavior, Shakespeare
Hamlet, and A Midsummer Night's Dream. He also had
could argue that this behavior was not supposed to be
considerable influence in the realm of narrative poetry. This
connected with mortal women.
Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Author Biography 2

Other poems echoed classical gender roles to appeal to more Greek and Roman mythology. Inserting references to classical
traditional readers, as seen in "The Rape of Lucrece." Lucrece literature was practically a requirement in any serious play or
fits the picture of the docile woman who would rather die than poem.
be stained by scandal. Lucrece is brutally attacked, but her
foremost concern is for her husband's reputation. Roman
society views her as Collatinus's property, so whatever Elizabethan Publishing
happens to her directly affects his standing in society. Drastic
action must be taken to ensure Collatinus's honor is restored Shakespeare and his fellow playwrights were forced to leave
and Lucrece is cleared of all wrongdoing. Lucrece buys into London in 1592 and 1606 because of plagues. All theaters
this perspective on gender so much that she would rather kill within the city were ordered to close, and these orders left
herself than live as a reminder of Collatinus's misplaced trust. many authors and actors out of work. Both times Shakespeare
rose to the challenge. Since he could not make any money
"The Rape of Lucrece" already covers subject matter that
from ticket sales, he turned his attention to publishing poetry.
might upset some readers, so Shakespeare is careful to
adhere to tradition in his gender presentations. He emphasizes Poetry was much more commonly published than plays in
Lucrece's helplessness in the face of a much stronger Elizabethan England (1558–1603) because it required less of a
adversary. Lucrece appeals to Tarquinius's sense of honor, but material investment on the publisher's part. Shakespeare had
she does not physically assault him. She could have chosen his plays published once his career was firmly underway.
not to fight back to keep Tarquinius from killing anyone. However, when it came to physical publications, he made more
However, her decision also conforms with the Elizabethan money from his poetry. "Venus and Adonis" had 10 separate
picture of the chaste and pacifistic woman. Shakespeare print runs between 1593 and 1613. It was one of Shakespeare's
presents two different pictures of women in "Venus and most financially successful projects, and he wrote it during the
Adonis" and "The Rape of Lucrece." He pacifies the censors beginning of his career. One reason why "Venus and Adonis"
but also suggests that women do not all fit into the same was so popular was because Shakespeare knew what
convenient category. attracted audiences: lust and violence. He also knew how to
win the censors' favor by interspersing his violent content with
more traditionally acceptable poems.
Classical Allusions
Queen Elizabeth considered herself to be a patron of the arts,

Classical allusions are a common feature in Elizabethan but she still maintained a staff of court-appointed censors

literature. A classical allusion is a reference to classic literature tasked with keeping English literature as clean and proper as

that assumes prior knowledge on the reader's part. Berowne possible. These censors would screen for seditious ideas and

uses a classical allusion when he compares Rosaline's eye to explicit content. Shakespeare quickly became adept at judging

"Jove's lightning" in The Passionate Pilgrim. He does not what content could sneak past the censors and what would be

explain the reference; he presumes that readers know enough flagged as inappropriate. For example, the two main

about Roman mythology to interpret his meaning. Allusions characters in "Venus and Adonis" never have sex, but the

allow authors to demonstrate their familiarity with the classics descriptive language Venus uses in her attempted seduction

and their prowess at connecting literary symbols and themes. was graphic enough to capture Elizabethan readers' attention.

Professional playwrights in the 16th century had to fight to

prove their superiority over common street performers reciting
a Author Biography
other men's ballads. Their skill at writing was not enough to win
them an audience with the nobility who had by far the most
money to spend on theatrical diversions. Playwrights had to
tailor their work to their audiences. Every line had to proclaim Early Life
their skill with the pen, their insight into the human condition,
William Shakespeare was born in Stratford, England, on April
and their familiarity with the classics. Even the common
23, 1564, to John Shakespeare (c. 1520–1601) and Mary Arden
audience members at the Globe Theater knew the basics of

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Author Biography 3

(c. 1536–1608). John and Mary had two daughters prior to Shakespeare could not make any income from acting, and so
William's birth, but both girls died in infancy. John Shakespeare he turned his attention to writing. He wrote "Venus and Adonis"
was both a tanner and a civic leader in Stratford, and William (1593) and "The Rape of Lucrece" (1594) while sheltering from
was expected to learn his father's trade. The family had a high the plague. Shakespeare drew on his experiences of living in a
enough standing to send William to grammar school. Few city under quarantine when writing Romeo and Juliet (c. 1594).
records remain regarding William's performance in school or if The female protagonist Juliet sends a messenger to warn her
he even completed his schooling. William deviated from his lover Romeo she is going to fake her own death. The
parents' plans for his future when he reached early adulthood messenger becomes trapped in quarantine and is unable to
and decided to become an actor. reach Romeo. The quarantine therefore plays an instrumental
role in Romeo and Juliet's joint suicides.

Entrance into the Theatrical World The theaters reopened and Shakespeare's troupe resumed
acting once the plague had passed. Shakespeare wrote Love's
Shakespeare lived with his parents until he was 18. He married Labour's Lost between 1595 and 1596; three of the play's
Anne Hathaway (1556–1623) in 1582. Anne was already poems would go on to appear in The Passionate Pilgrim. The
pregnant at the time of their marriage, and this was a powerful same year Shakespeare wrote Love's Labour's Lost, he also
motivator for their rapid wedding. Anne moved into the wrote A Midsummer Night's Dream, Richard II, Romeo and
Shakespeare family home in Stratford after the wedding while Juliet, and King John. Shakespeare's professional life was put
her husband moved to London to begin his acting career. Anne on hold in August 1596 when his 11-year-old son Hamnet died
and Shakespeare's daughter Susanna (1583–1649) was born of unknown causes. It is not known whether Shakespeare
six months later on May 26. The twins Hamnet (1585–96) and managed to arrive in time for the funeral.
Judith (1585–1662) were born two years later on February 2.
Shakespeare grieved the loss of his son, but by 1597 he
Shakespeare continued to live in London and only occasionally
resumed work in London. He used some of his earnings to buy
visited his family.
his wife and daughters the second-largest house in Stratford-
The records regarding Shakespeare's activities grow hazy upon-Avon. The journey between London and Stratford was
following the birth of Hamnet and Judith. The time period time consuming, so Shakespeare primarily visited his family
between 1585 and 1592 is often referred to as the "lost years." during Lent when the theaters in London were closed. The rest
Shakespeare began writing his own plays during this period. of the time he lived in London.
He also gathered the resources and contacts necessary to
The Merchant of Venice was published in 1598, as was Henry
found his own acting troupe. They were known as the Lord
IV, Part I and Much Ado About Nothing. Shakespeare had a new
Chamberlain's Men and were based out of London.
theater built for his troupe in 1599. The Globe Theater was
specially designed to amplify actors' voices so everyone in the
theater could hear them clearly regardless of where they were
Writing Career sitting. Julius Caesar and Henry V were written the same year
that construction began on the Globe Theater.
There is some debate regarding which of Shakespeare's plays
was his first since the first ones his company performed were
Shakespeare wrote Hamlet in 1600. This tragedy set in
not necessarily the first ones he wrote. The Taming of the
Denmark became one of Shakespeare's most popular plays. It
Shrew and Henry IV, Part II are the top contenders for the first
is widely considered to be one of his most-performed works.
play. It is believed that The Taming of the Shrew was written
Shakespeare's troupe became known as the best acting
sometime between 1590 and 1592, while Henry VI, Part II was
company in London. When King James I was crowned in 1603,
most likely written in 1591. Shakespeare wrote Titus
the Lord Chamberlain's Men changed their name to the King's
Andronicus sometime between 1591 and 1592, followed by
Men. They wanted to proclaim their political loyalties and
Henry VI, Part I (1592) and Richard III (c. 1592).
therefore solidify upper class support.

London was struck by a plague in 1593. Roughly 10,000 people

Shakespeare wrote 12 more plays between 1603 and 1611,
died, and the theaters were forced to close for 14 months.
including Othello (1604), King Lear (c. 1605–06), Macbeth

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Characters 4

(1606), Antony and Cleopatra (c. 1606–07), Cymbeline (1610), figurative language, classical allusion, and rhetorical
and The Tempest (1611). He also wrote "The Phoenix and the manipulation.
Turtle" (1601) and "A Lover's Complaint" (1609). Two more
plagues hit London in 1603 and 1610. The 1603 outbreak killed
close to 20 percent of London's population. Shakespeare
h Characters
wrote some of the above plays while London was in turmoil
over the thousands of deaths.

Adonis
Later Years
Adonis is a character in "Venus and Adonis." In Roman and
Shakespeare began spending more time with his family in Greek mythology, Adonis is the son of Myrrha. Myrrha was a
Stratford-upon-Avon even as he wrote some of his most mortal woman whose beauty rivaled that of Venus. The envious
famous plays. He bought real estate in Stratford which goddess cursed Myrrha and her father so that they fell in love
increased his income by 60 pounds a year. After completing and committed incest. Adonis is the child of this union. In an
The Tempest in 1611, Shakespeare only wrote two more plays: example of situational irony, Venus falls in love with the son of
Henry VIII (1613) and The Two Noble Kinsmen (1613–14). The the woman she cursed. The same beauty that made Venus
Globe Theater burned down on June 29, 1613. Henry VIII was hate Myrrha enslaves Venus's heart to the mortal hunter. Most
being performed. A spark from one of the theater's cannons men would do anything to win Venus's favor, but Adonis shows
caused a fire on the roof which quickly consumed the entire exceptional cool-headedness when interacting with the
structure. goddess. He evaluates the cost of a relationship with Venus
and decides his independence is worth more. He only allows
William Shakespeare retired from writing in 1615 and moved Venus to kiss him when he believes she has swooned from
permanently to Stratford-upon-Avon. He died on April 23, 1616. neglect. He pulls away from her as soon as he sees she will
recover. Venus warns Adonis that he will die if he hunts a wild
boar, but Adonis ignores Venus's advice. He still believes she is
Legacy still focused on enticing him into her bed. His decision to
continue his pursuit of a wild boar despite Venus's warning
Shakespeare is considered to be one of the most influential
leads to his death.
authors in the English language. His plays are still performed
around the world in dozens of languages. Many of his stories
have been adapted into modern literature. The musical West
Side Story (1957) and the novels The Hunger Games (2008)
Collatinus
and Warm Bodies (2010) are based in part on Romeo and
Collatinus is a trusting man and a loving husband in "The Rape
Juliet. The 1994 Disney film The Lion King borrows elements
of Lucrece." He respects Sextus Tarquinius and believes
from both Hamlet and King Lear, two plays about rightful kings
Tarquinius will make a good ruler one day. Tarquinius
who are betrayed by their families and forced into exile. The
considers Collatinus to be a worthy ally. Collatinus has only
1956 science fiction film Forbidden Planet was inspired by The
one flaw. He is too trusting of his friends. He makes the
Tempest.
mistake of bragging about his wife and flaunting her perfection
In addition to creating engaging stories that captured readers' in front of his friends. Collatinus has no idea of the pain his
imaginations, Shakespeare played a significant role in actions will cause, but he still sets the events leading up to his
advancing the English language. He invented around 1,700 wife's rape in motion. Collatinus is horrified when he discovers
words by either changing their parts of speech, combining what Tarquinius has done. He cannot believe that one of his
words, adapting words from other languages, or making words friends would perform such a cruel betrayal under his own
from scratch. Some of his contributions include "alligator," roof. He swears to avenge Lucrece's honor by driving
"downstairs," "fashionable," "jaded," "lonely," "puppy dog," and Tarquinius and his family from the city. This action will likely
"skim milk." His plays and sonnets set a new standard for cause significant internal strife in Rome, but Collatinus is more

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Characters 5

concerned with seeing justice done than preserving the peace.

Sextus Tarquinius
Lucrece Sextus Tarquinius appears in "The Rape of Lucrece" as a
wealthy and powerful man with a bright future. His father rules
Rome and he will likely inherit his father's authority. There are
In "The Rape of Lucrece," the luckless Lucrece is renowned
dozens of women who would gladly marry him. Unfortunately
not only for her fair looks but also her mild temperament—so
he is interested in the one person who is strictly off-limits:
much so that Collatinus wagers she is more virtuous than any
Lucrece. He is honor-bound by Roman custom to respect the
of his friends' wives. Collatinus wins the bet, but he
wife of his friend and brother-in-arms. He is perfectly aware
inadvertently sets the stage for tragedy by drawing
that he is committing a grave crime against Lucrece, Collatinus,
Tarquinius's attention to Lucrece. Lucrece gladly welcomes
and the Roman people when he assaults Lucrece. Part of the
Tarquinius when he later arrives at her home. She believes it is
poem is told from Tarquinius's perspective. Shakespeare
her duty as Collatinus's wife and a good Roman citizen to look
reveals the soldier's innermost thoughts leading up to the
after Tarquinius's well-being. She has no idea that Tarquinius
assault. Tarquinius struggles with his sense of duty and the
intends to assault her. When Tarquinius makes plain his desire,
knowledge that he could ruin Lucrece's reputation. It briefly
Lucrece tries to protect his reputation. She urges him to
appears that his better side will prevail and that he will turn
consider the fallout of his actions. Lucrece is unsuited for
back to his own chamber. Then he pushes aside his misgivings.
violence. She is also unsure of whether her husband will side
His selfishness ruins Lucrece and Collatinus's lives.
with her against his friend. After she is raped, she is so
consumed by shame that she commits suicide.

Turtle
The maid The Turtle or turtledove features in "The Phoenix and the
Turtle" and is a much more common member of society
The maid in "A Lover's Complaint" once fell in love with a man
compared to the Phoenix. He exudes his own quiet beauty, but
who captured the eye of every girl in town. She believed that
he does not have the same regal quality as the Phoenix. He is
he was faithful to her. Later she realized that he had other
still completely certain of her devotion and recognizes that he
lovers besides her and that he swore undying fidelity to each
has every right to be with her. From the moment he chooses to
one. She immediately broke off their relationship. Now she is
court the Phoenix, he knows her internal fire will eventually
older and much less naive about love. She recognizes that a
claim him. He decides to stay by her side despite the risks.
person can hide their true identity by taking advantage of their
partner's emotions. The maid wishes she was wise enough to
become a nun instead of letting a man take advantage of her
youth, yet she also admits that she misses her former beloved. Venus
She would forgive his past betrayals if given the chance to
start their relationship over. In "Venus and Adonis" Venus is a beautiful goddess who is
supposed to be able to draw the attention of anyone she
pleases. Unfortunately, the one person whom she genuinely

Phoenix desires is the one person who is immune to her charms:

Adonis. This young man draws Venus's eye with his flawless
physique, his skill as a hunter, and his independent spirit. She
The Phoenix in "The Phoenix in the Turtle" is renowned for her
becomes so enraptured by him that she abandons all dignity in
beauty and power. She possesses an inner fire that sets her
the hope of winning his attention. The goddess initially appears
apart from the other birds. She is immediately drawn to Turtle
to only care about fulfilling her own needs, but she is genuinely
when she meets him. Reason argues that they can never be
concerned for Adonis's fate. She has a premonition that he will
together because of their many differences. She nevertheless
be killed in his next hunt and tries to avert his fate by
adores the Turtle, and he worships her as his queen. The
suggesting a different prey. At this point, she does not care if
Phoenix is consumed by her own fire along with her lover.

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Characters 6

he leaves her; she just wants him to be safe. She is ultimately

unable to avert his fate. Adonis dies and Venus experiences a
level of grief usually reserved for mortals. Adonis's blood
produces a flower which she swears to carry for the rest of her
days.

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Characters 7

Full Character List Adonis's

Adonis's stallion abandons his master
in pursuit of a mare in "Venus and
stallion
Adonis".
Character Description
Berowne is the narrator in Sonnet 5 of
The Passionate Pilgrim. He swears an
Adonis appears in "Venus and Adonis"
Berowne oath to avoid any romantic
as a young man renowned for his skill
relationships, but he changes his mind
Adonis as a hunter as well as his physical
after meeting Rosaline.
beauty. As soon as Venus sees him,
she falls in love with him.
The boar kills Adonis during a hunt in
The boar
"Venus and Adonis."
In "The Rape of Lucrece" Collatinus is
a Roman soldier who fought alongside
Sextus Tarquinius in a rebellion which Junius Brutus appears in "The Rape of
Collatinus shifted control of Rome to Sextus's Junius Brutus Lucrece." He is a close friend and ally
father Lucius. He adores his wife of Collatinus.
Lucrece and often boasts of her
beauty and modesty.
Dumain is the narrator in Sonnet 16 of
The Passionate Pilgrim. He swears to
Lucrece is Collatinus's wife in "The Dumain avoid women and focus on his studies,
Rape of Lucrece." After Collatinus but he renounces his oath after
brags about Lucrece's virtues to meeting Kate.
Lucrece
Sextus Tarquinius, Tarquinius
becomes obsessed with her and finally
decides to rape her. Hecuba is the Queen of Troy who is
referenced in "The Rape of Lucrece."
Hecuba In Homer's Iliad she loses both her son
The maid in "A Lover's Complaint" is a Hector and her husband Priam during
beautiful woman who is betrayed by the Trojan War.
The maid
her lover. She responds by destroying
every gift he gave her.
The hounds belong to Adonis and his
friends in "Venus and Adonis." They
The Phoenix appears in "The Phoenix The hounds are supposed to help Adonis kill the
and the Turtle" as an unnamed boar, but they are overpowered by the
Phoenix
individual who chooses to die with her boar.
true love, the Turtle.

In "Venus and Adonis," Venus mistakes

Sextus Tarquinius features in "The A huntsman a huntsman for Adonis when she hears
Rape of Lucrece" and is the son of him shout in the forest.
Sextus
Lucius Tarquinius and the future ruler
Tarquinius
of Rome. He claims to be Collatinus's
friend and then rapes his wife Lucrece. Jove, also known as Jupiter, is the
Roman god of storms, the leader of
Jove/Jupiter the Roman pantheon, and Juno's
The Turtle in "The Phoenix and the husband. He is referenced in The
Turtle" is an unnamed individual who Passionate Pilgrim.
Turtle
decides dying beside his beloved is
preferable to living without her.
Juno is the Roman goddess of
Juno marriage and Jupiter's wife. She is
Venus features in "Venus and Adonis" mentioned in The Passionate Pilgrim.
and is the Roman god of love and
Venus
femininity. She is based on the Greek
goddess Aphrodite. Kate is the subject of Dumain's sonnet
Kate
in The Passionate Pilgrim.

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Characters 8

King Priam is the final king of Troy who Narrator 4 in Sonnet 2 of The
is mentioned in "The Rape of Lucrece." Passionate Pilgrim is torn between his
King Priam
He is killed by Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, loyal friend and his less-​than-
after Troy falls to the Spartans. Narrator 4 honorable lover. She is a corruptive
influence in his life; he believes she will
soon turn her attention to ruining his
Longaville is the narrator in Sonnet 3 only counselor.
in The Passionate Pilgrim. He promises
Longaville
to avoid romantic relationships but
then falls in love with Maria. Narrator 4's friend appears in Sonnet
Narrator 4's
2 of The Passionate Pilgrim. He is the
friend
narrator's sole counselor.
Lucrece's messenger carries the letter
Lucrece's
from Lucrece to Collatinus and her
messenger
father in "The Rape of Lucrece." Narrator 4's lover is the narrator's
Narrator 4's
romantic interest in Sonnet 2 of The
lover
Passionate Pilgrim.
Lucrece's servant attends to her
mistress following the night of
Lucrece's Lucrece's sassault in "The Rape of Narrator 5 is an unnamed individual
servant Lucrece." The servant knows that Narrator 5 who laments the Phoenix and Turtle's
something is wrong, but Lucrece deaths.
refuses to tell her what has happened.

Narrator 6 is an unnamed person who

In "The Rape of Lucrece," Lucretius is relates the maid's lament that he
Narrator 6
Lucretius Lucrece's father and a respected heard while on a walk in "A Lover's
Roman citizen. Complaint."

The maid's lover in "A Lover's The nun sends a letter to the maid in
The maid's Complaint" wins her affection with "A Lover's Complaint." A king once
lover gifts and love letters, and then he The nun sought the nun's hand in marriage, and
betrays her. she chose to enter a convent rather
than be forced to marry him.
The mare distracts Adonis's stallion in
The mare
"Venus and Adonis." Philomel, or Philomela, is a figure from
Greek mythology who is raped then
Philomel mutilated by her brother-​in-​law
Maria is the subject of Sonnet 3 in Tereus. Her tragic story is referenced
Maria
Love's Labour's Lost. in "The Rape of Lucrece."

Narrator 1 is an omniscient third- In "The Phoenix and the Turtle,"

Narrator 1 person narrator who relates the Reason offers a eulogy for the
events of "Venus and Adonis." Reason
Phoenix and Turtle and praises their
love for each other.
Narrator 2 is an omniscient third-
Narrator 2 person observer in "The Rape of A reverend patiently listens to the
Lucrece." A reverend maid's complaint against her lover in
"A Lover's Complaint."
Narrator 3 in Sonnet 1 of The
Passionate Pilgrim is a man in love with Rosaline is the subject of Berowne's
a woman who is less experienced in Rosaline
Narrator 3 sonnet in The Passionate Pilgrim.
life. She swears she will always be true
to him, but he believes she is lying
even if she does not realize it. Lucius Tarquinius is Sextus
Lucius Tarquinius's father in "The Rape of
Tarquinius Lucrece" and the newly proclaimed
ruler of Rome.

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Plot Summary 9

grief because she knows that this assault will ruin her and her
In Greek mythology Tereus is a king of
Thrace who rapes his sister-​in-​law husband's lives. The next day Lucrece tells Collatinus, her
Philomel and removes her tongue in father, and their allies what happened and then commits
Tereus
the hope that it will help hide his guilt. suicide. Tarquinius and his family are banished from Rome
He is referenced in "The Rape of
after the public learns of his deeds.
Lucrece."

Publius Valerius is a friend of Lucretius

Publius in "The Rape of Lucrece." He helps Love and Sacrifice
Valerius ensure that Lucrece's assailant is
punished. The five narrators in The Passionate Pilgrim (1599) all struggle
with complicated relationships. The narrators in Sonnets 1 and
2 expect that their relationships will eventually end badly

k Plot Summary
because of their lovers' flaws. By contrast, the three other
narrators believe that their lovers are paragons of grace,
beauty, and passion. All three men have promised to avoid any
romantic relationships for three years, but they eventually
Shakespeare's Narrative Poetry decide it is better to sacrifice their honor than to deny their
hearts.
and The Passionate Pilgrim
The same idea of sacrifice appears in "The Phoenix and the
William Shakespeare wrote four narrative poems between the Turtle" (1601). A congregation of birds is called together to
years of 1593 and 1609 that departed from his sonnets' 14-line witness the funeral rites for the Phoenix and the Turtle. The
format. These poems examine many aspects of love, from Phoenix and the Turtle were different in every way, but their
betrayal to self-sacrifice to passionate devotion. A publisher love was so strong that they chose to die rather than be
named William Jaggard released a poetry collection called The parted. Their sacrificial love is held up as a symbol of ultimate
Passionate Pilgrim during this same period. Jaggard claimed devotion.
that Shakespeare wrote all 20 poems in the collection, but
many were actually stolen from other poets. Shakespeare was
not consulted. Jaggard reused a few of Shakespeare's Love and Mistakes
previously published poems without the author's consent. Only
5 of the 20 poems used in The Passionate Pilgrim are Shakespeare's 1609 poem "A Lover's Complaint" examines
confirmed works of Shakespeare: numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, and 16. what happens when a person loves unwisely. The narrator
sees the maid weeping near a brook as she destroys all of the
letters her lover sent her during their ultimately disastrous
Love and Tragedy relationship. A concerned reverend appears on the scene and
asks the woman to explain what happened to her. She says
"Venus and Adonis" (1593) and "The Rape of Lucrece" (1594) that she fell in love with a beautiful man who was sought after
both follow relationships that end in tragedy. In "Venus and by many of the women in her town. She thought he loved her
Adonis," the goddess Venus attempts to win the heart of the and her alone. Then she discovered that he had been
hunter Adonis. He rejects her in favor of hunting a wild boar unfaithful. The maid says she is determined to destroy all
with his friends. Venus warns him that she has foreseen his reminders of him, yet she concedes that she would likely take
death if he pursues the boar. Adonis ignores her and is him back if he asked.
subsequently killed.

In "The Rape of Lucrece," Sextus Tarquinius spends the night

in his friend Collatinus's house while Collatinus is away. That
night he rapes Collatinus's wife Lucrece after threatening to
frame her for adultery if she resists. Lucrece is wracked with

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Section Summaries 10

calls out in the woods and Venus assumes it is Adonis. She

c Section Summaries immediately retracts her words against Death. Just when
Venus believes she will be reunited with Adonis, she comes
Shakespeare wrote the 9 poems covered in this guide over the across Adonis's body in a grove and sees that the boar slashed
course of 17 years. The sections of this guide are arranged open his thigh during their battle. The young man bled to death
chronologically by the poems' original publication dates, one unaided by his scattered friends. Venus decides that the boar
section devoted to each poetic work with the exception of the is ultimately not to blame; like her, it just wanted to be closer to
poems in The Passionate Pilgrim. Because the five poems by Adonis. It did not realize it was killing him with its mighty tusks.
Shakespeare included in The Passionate Pilgrim were Venus weeps over Adonis's body, and a purple and white
published together, they have been compiled into a single flower grows where Adonis's blood has stained the ground.
section. The goddess plucks the flower and places it beside her heart.

Venus and Adonis Analysis

Shakespeare examines the idea of unrequited love in "Venus
and Adonis." Venus could easily find scores of willing suitors,
Summary yet she has chosen the one man who does not want her.
Adonis is still in the flower of his youth. He believes he has
"Venus and Adonis" is narrated by Narrator 1, an omniscient
plenty of time to settle down and build a family, and he is
observer who plays no direct role in the poem. The Roman
currently more interested in indulging his love of adventure.
goddess of love Venus corners the handsome hunter Adonis in
Adonis values his independence above all else and sees Venus
a clearing. She is fixated on winning Adonis's devotion despite
as a snare set to entrap him. Venus fails to realize that by
the young man's indifference. She tries to sway Adonis's
clinging to Adonis she is actually making him less interested in
opinion of her by appealing to his sense of duty to his species,
a relationship with her.
highlighting the beauty of their surroundings, and reminding
him of his mortality. When Adonis prepares to ride away, she Similar to A Midsummer Night's Dream, in which four lovers flee
calls forth a mare in heat to distract Adonis's stallion. The mare into a forest in pursuit of each other, Shakespeare creates a
leads Adonis's stallion away and leaves Adonis alone with parallel between the natural world and human relationships.
Venus. Adonis appears to consider her offer for a short time. Venus is a goddess, but she acts fully human. Her love for
He even goes so far as to let the goddess kiss him. His Adonis has stripped her of her authority and her reason. Venus
preference nevertheless still lies with hunting, not lovemaking. is supposed to wield control over love with impunity, yet she is
He pulls free from Venus and ignores her protestations that just as vulnerable to passion as any mortal. She tries to win
she will succumb to despair without him. Adonis to her side by calling upon nature. In one verse she
claims outright, "By law of nature thou art bound to breed."
Adonis informs Venus that he has a prior commitment with his
From her perspective Adonis's refusal to give in to love is
friends. They are going to hunt a wild boar together in the
unnatural. He would be much happier if he allowed himself to
nearby forest. Venus begs him not to leave. She insists that
be ruled by nature's innate rhythm.
she has foreseen that he will be killed by the boar. If he must
hunt with his friends, he should choose a less dangerous prey Venus claims to be on the side of nature, but she turns on the
like a rabbit or deer. Adonis believes she is lying about her natural order of life and death when she realizes this same
premonition to detain him. He breaks free from her and leaves order could easily deprive her of Adonis. She rails against
for the hunt. Venus waits in fear until she finally hears the Death and curses the boar for daring to harm her beloved.
sound of bellowing hounds. She finds an injured hound and Venus shows that love is full of contradictions. It can cause
from there follows the trail back to the scene of the battle. The unmeasurable bliss, but it also makes both mortals and gods
hounds are milling about with no master in sight. vulnerable to the deepest pain. One reason why Adonis avoids
romance is because he understands how much love can hurt.
Venus believes Adonis is dead. She curses Death. A huntsman

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Section Summaries 11

has been raped and apologizes that she was unable to defend
The Rape of Lucrece herself. She is more grieved for the attack upon her husband's
honor than upon her body. She names her attacker and then
commits suicide. Publius Valerius, Lucretius, Collatinus, and
Summary Junus Brutus arrange for Lucrece's body to be carried through
the city. Heralds follow after her body proclaiming what Sextus
In "The Rape of Lucrece", Narrator 2 relates the tale of Tarquinius has done. Tarquinius's entire family is driven from
Lucrece and Tarquinius. A man named Lucius Tarquinius kills the city.
his father-in-law Servius Tullius and seizes his kingdom. His
son Sextus Tarquinius fights in the war. Sextus's friends
Collatinus and Junus Brutus join the revolution. One day the Analysis
men begin to compare their wives. Each man insists that his
wife is the most virtuous. They decide to visit each wife to The rites of a guest and host were treated as holy in Roman
determine which is the best-behaved. All of the wives are out culture. Roman mythology is filled with examples of people
celebrating the victory except for Collatinus's wife Lucrece. whom the gods cursed for violating the rules of hospitality.
She is quietly thanking the gods for protecting her husband. Tarquinius takes this betrayal a step further in "The Rape of
Collatinus wins the competition. He also introduces Sextus Lucrece." He turns against not only his host but also a friend
Tarquinius to his wife. who fought loyally by his side in his hour of need. Both
Collatinus and Lucrece deserve much more gratitude than
Tarquinius obsesses over Lucrece and finally decides to visit Tarquinius shows. Tarquinius's expulsion from the city is all but
her home while Collatinus is away. He enters the house under guaranteed once his deeds are made known. The worst part is
the pretense of being travel-worn. Lucrece offers him a room that Tarquinius already suspected this fate would befall him.
to spend the night. Tarquinius waits until the rest of the house He knew assaulting Lucrece could destroy his family. He did it
is asleep and then ventures forth from his room. On the way to anyway.
Lucrece's chamber, he debates whether he has the right to
force himself upon her. She is a virtuous woman, and her A considerable part of the poem is told from Tarquinius's
husband is his friend. Nevertheless, Tarquinius's lust perspective. Shakespeare provides insight into the mind of a
overcomes his shame. He enters Lucrece's room and predator. Tarquinius struggles with the potential
threatens to murder one of the family's manservants if Lucrece consequences of attacking Lucrece. Not only does he risk the
cries for help. He also says he will tell Collatinus that Lucrece ire of Collatinus and his allies—he could also feasibly call down
was sleeping with the servant and that he killed the servant to the wrath of the gods upon himself. None of these arguments
avenge Collatinus's honor. Lucrece remains silent as outweigh his lust. He surrenders the most important aspect
Tarquinius rapes her. Tarquinius then leaves the house. When that separates humans from wild beasts: his self control.
Lucrece's servant comes to wake her, Lucrece refuses to Tarquinius convinces himself that the situation is Collatinus
reveal what happened. She instead writes a letter to her and Lucrece's fault. If Collatinus had not boasted about his
husband and her father Lucretius in which she asks them to wife, or if Lucrece had not let Tarquinius into her home, this
come swiftly to her aid. Lucrece's messenger leaves to find situation would have been averted. Tarquinius uses this
Lucretius and Collatinus. convoluted act of self-deception to wash his hands of any
blame.
While Lucrece waits for Lucretius and Collatinus, she examines
a depiction of the Battle of Troy and compares her own fate to One of the most tragic parts of "The Rape of Lucrece" is
that of Hecuba, Queen of Troy. Hecuba's husband King Priam Lucrece's decision to commit suicide. She would rather die
was murdered in front of her while she stood helpless. Lucrece rather than live with the shame of being victimized. Her only
also sympathizes with Philomel, a woman who was raped by hope is that Tarquinius will live a long life of pain, continually
her brother-in-law Tereus. The man cut out Philomel's tongue plagued by the consequences of his decisions. Lucrece sees
so she could not name her assailant. Lucretius and Collatinus death as a place of peace. She places the responsibility of
arrive at the house. They are accompanied by their friends resolving the situation solidly in her husband and friends'
Publius Valerius and Junus Brutus. Lucrece explains that she hands.

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Section Summaries 12

It is important to interpret Lucrece's actions from the love than her. He knows from past romances that love can be
perspective of Roman culture. Lucrece has minimal power she much more complicated and inconstant than his lover
can directly wield against her attacker. Tarquinius could deny imagines. The speaker concludes that he is willing to hide his
the rape happened and then accuse her of trying to cover up misgivings to stay with his lover.
her own infidelty. It would be her word against that of
Tarquinius, a powerful man who recently saved the city from a 2 – Two loves I have, of comfort and despair

terrible ruler. Lucrece's suicide adds more weight to her

Narrator 4 in the second sonnet loves two people, a woman
accusation than any testimony. She proves through her actions
and his friend. Narrator 4's friend currently acts as a mediating
that she is willing to sacrifice her own life in defense of the
force and a voice of reason, while Narrator 4's lover is a
truth. Lucrece believes in the moment that she is doing the
corrupting influence. The narrator's friend has done an
right thing, regardless of how others interpret her actions later.
honorable job protecting the narrator from any unwise
impulses. However, Narrator 4 suspects his lover will sooner or
later turn her influence on his friend. If she can pull Narrator 4's
The Passionate Pilgrim friend into corruption, she will have transformed her former
rival into an ally.

Summary 3 – Did not the heavenly rhetoric of thine eye

This sonnet was originally published in Love's Labour's Lost. It

The Passionate Pilgrim
is read by the nobleman Longaville in Act 4, scene 3. He has
The Passionate Pilgrim was published in 1599 by William written it for his beloved Maria in the hope of winning her favor.
Jaggard without the permission of either William Shakespeare Longaville and his friends have made a pact with the King of
or the other featured authors. Jaggard recognized a growing Navarre to forswear all romantic entanglements for three years
market for Shakespeare's sonnets, so he put together a to focus on their studies. Longaville now believes he should be
collection of 20 poems which he claimed all belonged to released from his vow. Maria is a goddess in his eyes. He is
Shakespeare. Only five of the poems are actually confirmed convinced that his devotion to her trumps his fealty to the king.
works of Shakespeare: numbers 1, 2, 3, 5, and 16. Poems 3, 5,
5 – If love make me forsworn, how shall I swear to love?
and 16 are excerpts from Shakespeare's comedy Love's
Labour's Lost. Poems 1 and 2 are independent sonnets by Berowne writes this sonnet to Rosaline in Love's Labour's Lost.
Shakespeare. It appears in Act 4, scene 2. Similar to Longaville's sonnet, this
sonnet tries to justify breaking an oath to the king. Berowne
Poems 8 and 10 in The Passionate Pilgrim were written by
proclaims in his letter that Rosaline's beauty is so great that
Richard Barnfield. Poem 11 was written by Bartholomew Griffin
the "soul that sees thee without wonder" is a fool. He is not a
and 19 by Christopher Marlowe. The rest of the poems are
fool. Therefore, he has no choice but to fall in love with her.
orphans. They have no clear authors. William Jaggard did not
give credit to anyone besides Shakespeare when he published 16 – On a day (alack the day)
the folio. This detail has led some scholars to argue that more
of the poems may have been written by Shakespeare. Dumain writes this poem for Kate in Love's Labour's Lost. It is
However, there is not enough concrete evidence to prove this the only poem that diverges from the standard Shakespearean
assertion. The following poems are those that have been sonnet form. This poem is constructed of nine rhyming
definitively connected to Shakespeare: couples. It appears in Act 4, scene 3 and follows a similar
theme as the love letters sent by Longaville to Maria and
1 – When my love swears that she is made of truth Berowne to Rosaline. Dumain claims that the Roman god
Jupiter would gladly forsake his wife Juno and become a
The first sonnet is a classic Shakespearean sonnet that
mortal if he had the chance to be with Kate.
contains 13 lines—3 quatrains followed by a rhyming couplet.
The sonnet's speaker, Narrator 3, pretends to believe his
lover's lies even though he has much more experience with

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Section Summaries 13

becomes an act of catharsis. Pent-up emotions are given a

Analysis productive outlet through poetry.

William Jaggard seems to have chosen poems that were less

known by Shakespeare's fans. He minimized the chance that
someone would discover that these sonnets were not new
The Phoenix and the Turtle
works but rather reprints of published material. Elizabethan
authors had limited rights to their own works. Jaggard's
unapproved sale of others' intellectual property carried little Summary
risk. It was a worthwhile gamble considering the amount of
money he could make in a market desperate for new "The Phoenix and the Turtle" is a lament for the deaths of two
Shakespearean sonnets. true lovers. In the poem's opening lines, Narrator 5 calls
together songbirds, swans, crows, and an eagle. These birds
These five works all address ideas that are regular themes in will witness the funeral rites for the Phoenix and the Turtle,
Shakespeare's sonnets: doubt for the future, forbidden more commonly known as the turtledove. The Phoenix was the
passion, and the deification of lovers. The narrators in Sonnets Turtle's queen. They were each other's reason for living. The
1 and 2 realize that their romantic relationships will likely end in fire of their love finally consumed them both. The other birds
tragedy. Narrator 1 admits that his beloved does not gather in attendance. Reason comes forth to expound on the
understand the true sacrifice required by love. Narrator 2 is beauty and purity of the fated couple's love. The lovers' ashes
convinced that his beloved will end up turning his best friend are gathered and placed in an urn at the end of the funeral.
into a worse human being. Both men are still determined to
enjoy their relationships as long as they last. It is as if looming
tragedy makes romance all the sweeter. Analysis
Longaville, Berowne, and Dumain voice the same dilemma. There has been considerable debate regarding Shakespeare's
They have forsworn women for three years. Breaking this vow intended meaning in "The Phoenix and the Turtle." Some
will mean sacrificing some part of their honor. However, they literary scholars argue that the Phoenix and the Turtle
cannot justify denying their hearts' desires because of a single represent historical personages who are separated by
promise made in haste. Each man uses his own tactics to society's demands. Others claim that the Phoenix and Turtle
justify breaking his vow. Longaville argues that he swore off serve as a metaphor for love itself. In both his plays and his
women and that Maria is more goddess than woman. Berowne poetry, Shakespeare often portrays love as a tragic condition
calls upon the vow's original goal. He promised to avoid women bound by fate. The Phoenix and the Turtle decide that their
so that he could improve his mind, but to ignore Rosaline would union is more important than their own survival. They do not
prove him to be a fool. In the first line of his sonnet, he asks, "If want to face the world without each other. Shakespeare did
love make me forsworn, how shall I swear to love?" He believes not provide his own commentary on this poem, so the poem's
that his vow has placed him in an impossible position. He true meaning is ultimately left up to the reader's interpretation.
cannot deny his feelings just to maintain his reputation.
Shakespeare was fond of personifying abstract concepts in his
Dumain chooses to break from the traditional sonnet form in writing. The moon, time, death, and the seasons all are all
his ode to Kate. He draws upon nature imagery to compare represented at one point or another as creatures that possess
Kate to a blossom dancing on the breeze and wishes that he a will of their own. Reason acts as a concrete character in "The
could caress her like the wind. Dumain goes one step further Phoenix and the Turtle." He delivers a "threnos" or eulogy at
than Longaville and Berowne, who compare their lovers to the Phoenix and Turtle's funeral. Reason is usually portrayed
goddesses. He argues that Kate's beauty surpasses that of the as separate from emotion, but the Phoenix and Turtle's love is
queen of the Roman pantheon. All three men desperately want so unique and their deaths so tragic that even Reason cannot
to find a loophole in their vows. They do not want to surrender contain his grief. Traditionally phoenixes are able to resurrect
their reputations entirely, but neither do they want to surrender themselves from death. The Phoenix's refusal to bring herself
the women they desire. These men carry deep feelings which back from the ashes suggests that she would rather remain at
they believe can only be expressed through writing. Writing

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Quotes 14

peace with her lover than carry on without him. she could to protect herself from heartbreak. She insists, "With
safest distance I mine honour shielded." She likens herself to a
vulnerable plant in a garden: "[I] Threw my affections in his
A Lover's Complaint charmed power, / Reserved the stalk and gave him all my
flower." Her lover is set up as a cunning thief who plundered
her with every intention of leaving. It is possible that the maid's

Summary lover is solely to blame for the relationship's failure.

Nonetheless, it is important to remember that he is never given
a chance to produce his side of events. The maid is seeking
Narrator 6 is on a walk in the country when he hears a woman
sympathy in a time of emotional turmoil. She has every reason
weeping. He comes across a young maid wearing a straw hat
to paint herself as the victim to her listener.
and standing by a brook. She cries unabashedly, throwing torn
scraps of paper and other trinkets into the water. She breaks
rings in two and casts them in after the other reminders of her
lost love. A reverend approaches the woman upon hearing her g Quotes
sobbing.

The narrator listens from a distance as the old man asks the "Whose vulture thought doth pitch
maid what agony merits such behavior. She explains that her
lover has betrayed her. He took advantage of her affections the price so high, / That she will
without offering his own heart in exchange. She knows that he
draw his lips' rich treasure dry."
was untrue to her, but she still laments the end of their
relationship. She hopes that by destroying the letters and gifts
— Narrator 1, Venus and Adonis
that he gave her she will be able to move past him. The maid
then admits that she would gladly welcome her lover back if he
asked for her forgiveness. Shakespeare often compares women with harmless birds like
doves and swans and uses predatory birds to symbolize men.
In this situation Venus is the predator and Adonis her intended
Analysis prey. Mortals who enter into romantic relationships with gods
rarely meet happy ends. Venus claims to love Adonis above
The maid's story is related through a series of layers that lend any other, but she drains him of life in her blind rush to sate her
a sense of unreliability to the tale. The narrator is a own desire.
disconnected third-person party. The distraught woman
relates her woes to a passing reverend. According to the maid,
her lover convinced her to offer up the best years of her life to
"The colt that's back'd and
him in exchange for his devotion. He doted on her with
presents and assurances of love. As time passed he slowly burden'd being young / Loseth his
became less invested in the relationship. The maid wishes she
pride and never waxeth strong."
had the wisdom of a nun who shut herself away in a convent.
The nun is permanently protected from men's deceit. The maid
is now addicted to her beloved to the point where she would — Adonis, Venus and Adonis

reverse all her curses against him if he showed her the

slightest hint of favor. In an earlier line, Venus draws evidence from nature to support
her amorous demands of Adonis. The young hunter responds
This poem carries the telltale signs of an unreliable narrative.
in kind. He reminds Venus that animals must be allowed to
The maid's lover is never consulted for his side of the story; the
grow unrestrained or else they will never reach their full
woman has total control over the tale. She presents herself as
potential. He will lose the very strength which Venus so
a helpless innocent who did nothing to contribute to the
admires if he submits to her will. Adonis does not reject any
relationship's dissolution. According to her, she did everything

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Quotes 15

future romance with Venus. He just does not want to be with Lucrece uses multiple tactics in her plea with Tarquinius. One
her right now. recurring theme is self-discipline. In Roman culture self-control
was a highly prized characteristic in a leader. Rulers who could
not be trusted to govern their passions usually did not remain
"His snout digs sepulchres in power for long. Men were allowed to act on their emotions
during the heat of battle, but they were still supposed to act
where'er he goes." with honor while under an ally's roof. Lucrece hopes that she
will be able to push Tarquinius toward reason by invoking the
— Venus, Venus and Adonis Roman ideal of personal discipline.

Venus foreshadows Adonis's own death through her use of

figurative language. She compares a boar rooting at the "Gnats are unnoted wheresoe'er
ground in search of food to a gravedigger. This image adds a they fly, / But eagles gazed upon
tone of carelessness on the boar's part. It cannot help but
cause death wherever it goes. The boar also brings destruction with every eye."
to those around it with the same mindless routine that it shows
when it digs at the earth. Venus later pardons the boar for — Lucrece, The Rape of Lucrece
killing Adonis because in her mind it did not act with malicious
intent. It wanted to be near Adonis and unwittingly ruined the
Tarquinius has earned greater shame than a common ruffian
very thing it loved. She and the boar have more in common
because of his prominent position in Roman society. He is
than she originally assumed.
supposed to hold himself to a higher standard of behavior
because he is in line to inherit the throne. His cruelty and lust
reflects upon the Romans' national identity and invites the
"Having all, all could not satisfy." gods' judgment upon the entire country. One reason why
Roman culture carried such hefty penalties for
— Narrator 2, The Rape of Lucrece treachery—including enslavement, torture, and crucifixion—is
that the Roman people believed that treachery was an
insidious poison which affected both the betrayer and the
In "The Rape of Lucrece," Shakespeare establishes early on
betrayed. A person who sacrificed their honor could never be
that Tarquinius is in a very favorable position. He is wealthy,
fully trusted again. Tarquinius cannot remain unpunished or
praised by the masses for his bravery, and set to inherit the
else all sense of justice could be jeopardized.
throne from his father. He will almost assuredly reap great
rewards as long as he continues on his current path. However,
despite his bright future, he willingly strays from his former life
of morality for the sake of momentary passion. Shakespeare "Therefore I'll lie with love, and
shows through Tarquinius that even the most successful
love with me, / Since that our
people are prone to corruption. Tarquinius has everything he
needs, and it is still not enough. faults in love thus smothered be."

— Narrator 3, The Passionate Pilgrim

"Kings like gods should govern
everything." Sonnet 1 of The Passionate Pilgrim addresses the theme of
deception performed in the name of love. Shakespeare uses
the double meaning of "lie" to reinforce the connection
— Lucrece, The Rape of Lucrece
between romantic love and deceit. The narrator knowingly lies
to himself even as his lover also lies to him. They both want the

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Quotes 16

relationship to continue because it makes them happy. Their — Berowne, The Passionate Pilgrim
emotional desires make them ignore their better judgment.

Berowne likens his beloved Rosaline to Jove, also known as

Jupiter. Jove is the god of storms and the leader of the Roman
"To win me soon to hell, my female pantheon. By drawing a comparison between Rosaline and
Jove, Berowne highlights Rosaline's two sides: one of power
evil / Tempteth my better angel
and one of beauty. He admires her independence and strength
from my side." of will. She chooses whether to be harsh or gentle. Her
decision to show her gentler side toward Berowne carries
— Narrator 4, The Passionate Pilgrim more weight than if she were always mild-tempered regardless
of her company.

Narrator 4 recognizes that his lover will likely corrupt his friend.
He and his closest confidant will eventually give in to this
negative influence. This potential outcome is still not enough of
"Thou for whom Jove would swear
a motivation to fix the situation. The narrator logically should / Juno but an Ethiope were ... /
sever his relationship with either his lover or his friend. He
knows that his friend will probably be dragged down with him, Turning mortal for thy love."
but he is willing to let the situation play out if the alternative
means surrendering one of his companions. The narrator's — Dumain, The Passionate Pilgrim
devotion to his lover is framed as a sign of youthful passion but
also indicates his inborn selfishness.
Like Berowne, Dumain invokes the name of Jove when he
praises his beloved. He argues that Kate deserves a god's
devotion. The goddess Juno was praised for her beauty in
"Exhale this vapour vow." Roman mythology. Dumain claims that if Juno were compared
to Kate, Juno would be stripped of her charms. Kate's
— Longaville, The Passionate Pilgrim superiority is so obvious that Jove would gladly surrender his
immortality if he could stand by her side. It was common in
Elizabethan poetry for men to compare their lovers to
The phrase "vapor vow" suggests that Longaville's original oath
goddesses, using exaggerated language that beggared belief.
to forswear all women was made of nothing more than air. It
Shakespeare often laughed at this tendency in literature. He
should be as easy to get rid of as the air in his lungs. Longaville
uses Dumain as a case study on how love can strip men of
is convinced that his personal circumstances should justify a
their reason.
release from his vow. When he made this promise, he had no
idea that someone as fair as Maria could exist. To give up
women presented no real sacrifice. Now he is actually being
asked to surrender something of value, and his resolve has "Reason, in itself confounded /
begun to waver. Saw division grow together."

— Narrator 5, The Phoenix and the Turtle

"Thy eye Jove's lightning seems,
thy voice his dreadful thunder, / The Phoenix and the Turtle logically should not love each
other, but their passion erases all their differences. They know
Which (not to anger bent) is music
that their romance will end in destruction, yet they decide to
and sweet fire." remain together and face the fire as one. Even the physical
embodiment of Reason cannot explain how the Phoenix and

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Symbols 17

Turtle's love triumphs over the natural fear of destruction. affections that she would gladly dismiss his faults to spend one
Their devotion defies all logic. more day with him. She admits to her own weaknesses. She
also admits that she has no idea how to correct them.

"Truth and beauty buried be."

— Narrator 5, The Phoenix and the Turtle

l Symbols

Shakespeare enjoyed playing with the English language in his

poems. He not only invented new words to express his ideas;
Birds
he made use of every linguistic tool in the writer's repertoire.
The phrase "beauty buried be" combines personification,
metaphor, and alliteration. It sets up beauty as a physical thing Shakespeare uses birds as indicators of his characters'
that can be laid to rest alongside truth, ties into the poem's personalities or roles in "Venus and Adonis," "The Rape of
extended funeral metaphor, and reinforces the line's Lucrece," "The Phoenix and the Turtle," and "A Lover's
memorability through the repetition of initial consonant sounds. Complaint." Lucrece is represented by a dove in "The Rape of
Lucrece." Tarquinius is assigned the role of predator: "like a
falcon towering in the skies, / Coucheth the fowl below with his
"Time had not scythed all that wings' shade." Lucrece has no way of defending herself
against Tarquinius's violent intentions. She is as helpless as a
youth begun." dove attacked by a falcon.

— The maid, A Lover's Complaint The roles are reversed in "Venus and Adonis." Venus is the
dominant party, so she is connected with a bird of prey.
Shakespeare compares the goddess of love to "an empty
Time is represented as a physical adversary. It is a harvester
eagle, sharp by fast ... devouring all in haste, / Till either gorge
who cuts plants down at the height of their bloom. When the
be stuff'd or prey be gone." Adonis is compared to a "dive-
maid fell in love, she was still young and full of promise. Time
dapper" or a duck. Venus is the predator in this relationship;
had not yet completed his harvest. The maid's prime years
Adonis is her prey.
should have been full of happiness, but her beloved destroyed
them. She willingly gave him the best season of her life, and in Shakespeare's use of symbolism in "The Phoenix and the
return he broke her heart. Time has now begun to claim his due Turtle" is even more overt. The attendants at the lovers' funeral
and reduce the chance that she will find someone else. are all substituted with birds. The "treble-dated crow" in its
mourning attire, the "feather'd king" or eagle, and the Phoenix
and the Turtle all represent players in the human customs of
"I fell; and yet do question make / love and mourning. The spurned maid in "A Lover's Complaint"
likens her beloved to a phoenix: "His phoenix down began but
What I should do again for such a to appear." Birds are as varied in personality as humans, and,
sake." like humans, they all have a role to perform that cannot be
transferred to any other.

— The maid, A Lover's Complaint

The maid's lover betrayed her trust and left her with nothing Fire
but letters and trinkets to show for her sacrifice, yet she still
loves him. She has been burned by an unwise relationship and
will likely be burned again. Her lover has such a hold over her

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Symbols 18

Fire is a traditional symbol for passion that hearkens back to innocence. The maid in "A Lover's Complaint" says that she
the earliest forms of literature. Shakespeare was often an was "a spreading flower" when she met her false beloved. This
innovator in the world of English literature, but even he could metaphor means that she was young and naive. She fell for her
not resist falling back on the classics. It was considered poor lover's promises because she did not know how cruel love
taste to directly refer to lust in poetry. Shakespeare therefore could be. Lucrece's cheek in "The Rape of Lucrece" is likened
uses symbolism to represent passion without overtly stating to "an April daisy on the grass." White flowers represent purity.
the characters' intentions. Shakespeare writes that Venus is Red flowers are more often used to denote passion or in
"red and hot as coals of glowing fire" instead of explaining the Lucrece's case shame.
goddess's motivations outright. The goddess "seeks to kindle
[Adonis's passion] with continual kissing." The core conflict in "Venus and Adonis" takes the symbolism one step further.

their relationship is that Venus is a being all of fire, while Adonis is literally replaced by a flower following his death. His

Adonis remains cold. blood transforms into a bright purple and white blossom which
Venus immediately picks. She promises to carry the flower
Fire gains a darker side in "The Rape of Lucrece." Tarquinius's beside her heart in Adonis's stead. Her decision to pick the
lust for Lucrece is labeled as "rash false heat." He insists to flower matches her earlier words: "Fair flowers that are not
himself, "As from this cold flint I enforced this fire, / So Lucrece gather'd in their prime / Rot and consume themselves in little
must I force to my desire." Like the goddess of love, Tarquinius time." She would rather enjoy the flower while it is at the height
is fixated on someone who does not feel any fire toward him. of its beauty than leave it in the earth to wither away. Her
Unlike Venus he is perfectly willing to take the object of his approach to flowers parallels her perspective regarding love.
desire against her will. The same fire that is represented as a
natural part of life in "Venus and Adonis" becomes corrupted in
Tarquinius's hands.
Rain
The narrator in Sonnet 2 of The Passionate Pilgrim is wary of
fire. He likens unbridled passion to the fires of hell. This
comparison suggests that he has been burned by love in the
Shakespeare ties grief to the natural process of rain in "Venus
past. In both this sonnet and "The Rape of Lucrece,"
and Adonis," "The Rape of Lucrece," and "A Lover's Complaint."
Shakespeare warns readers not to approach fire too lightly
Venus waters the ground with her tears following Adonis's
and assume it will always be in their control. Passion is a fickle
death. Lucrece spends the hours after her assault "seasoning
thing. It can easily turn on the same person who gives it life.
the earth with showers of silver brine." The maid in "A Lover's
"The Phoenix and the Turtle" presents another side of fire. The Complaint" describes her sadness as "sorrow's wind and rain."
symbol is still linked to passion, but it gains a purifying element Shakespeare's use of symbolism implies that sadness is an
even as it destroys the poem's lovers. The narrator proclaims unavoidable part of life. It is a cyclical element of the natural
that the Phoenix and Turtle are bound together "in a mutual world which cannot be forestalled forever.
flame." Their shared fire consumes them, yet it also unifies
The women's grief comes upon them as suddenly as a spring
them in perfect sacrificial love. The Phoenix's fire is an element
storm and overshadows their former joy. They do not
associated with both renewal and eternity in mythology. The
anticipate this abrupt shift in fortune and are left reeling in its
Phoenix's fire moves through a cycle of destruction and
wake. Lucrece decides that it is better to die than endure the
rebirth. Shakespeare similarly suggests that the two lovers'
storm any longer. Venus and the maid by contrast both know
death does not represent the end of their union.
that life will go on after the rain has passed. Venus carries a
memorial of Adonis with her, but she still moves past weeping
and carries on with life. The heartbroken maid similarly
Flowers recognizes that grief has its own season just like rain. She will
fall in love again—possibly with the same person.

Shakespeare uses flowers as a symbol of youth and

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Themes 19

remain single. However, self-deception is even more prevalent

m Themes than outright lies.

Artifice is not only reserved for enemies. It is just as easy for

individuals to lie to themselves. Venus knows that Adonis does
The Price of Love not love her, but she still convinces herself that his heart will
change if she can only form the right argument. Shakespeare
makes it abundantly clear in "The Rape of Lucrece" that
Love hurts, especially in Shakespearean literature. Tarquinius recognizes the evil behind his actions. Tarquinius
Shakespeare's narrative poems reinforce the idea that love tries to smother his conscience with excuses. Lucrece's
must always come at a price. The Phoenix and the Turtle have bedchamber becomes "the heaven of his thought." He creates
one of the best relationships in Shakespeare's poetry, and a false picture of what their interaction will be like as a way to
even they must face the fire eventually. The price of love is an steady his resolve.
emotional one for some characters, while others pay for their
The maid in "A Lover's Complaint" acknowledges that plenty of
relationships with their honor or even their lives. The maid in "A
women deceived themselves regarding her former lover. She
Lover's Complaint" gets off lightly compared to Lucrece. She
explains, "So many have, that never touch'd his hand, / Sweetly
only suffers from a temporarily broken heart, while Lucrece
supposed them mistress of his heart." She told herself that he
sacrifices her own life because of her husband's misplaced
chose her out of his crowd of admirers because it appealed to
loyalty.
her ego. Now she recognizes how faulty her original
Each narrator in The Passionate Pilgrim surrenders something presumption was, but she is still willing to lie to herself. She
for the sake of love. Sonnet 1's narrator willingly enters a knows he is unfaithful, and she will gladly fly back into his arms
romance that he knows will eventually break his heart. Sonnet to have her heart broken again.
2's narrator chooses to let his best friend be drawn into
corruption rather than call off a toxic relationship. Longaville
decides his beloved is worth sacrificing his honor. He
proclaims, "what fool is not so wise / To break an oath, to win a
Men versus Women
paradise?" Berowne and Dumain make the same decision to
sell their integrity for love.
Elizabethan men and women in the 16th century had
Even Venus cannot dodge paying love's toll. She is a goddess
prescribed roles when it came to romance. Men were
with the power to control nature itself yet binds her heart to
supposed to play the dominant role and seek after the women.
someone she cannot help but outlive. Adonis's death comes
The women in turn were supposed to protect their honor until
much more quickly than she bargained for, but she would have
the right prospective husband appeared. Men were called to
had to say goodbye to him eventually. Shakespeare uses his
be aggressive and women demure. The vast majority of the
characters to demonstrate that love is rarely borne without
characters follow this pattern in Shakespeare's narrative
some measure of pain.
poems. Collatinus brags about his wife's innocence and mild
temper, not her intelligence or personal skills. When Tarquinius
enters Lucrece's bedchamber, he immediately assumes he will

Self-Deception be able to bully her into submission. Lucrece has been taught
from a young age to be passive when she interacts with men.
She does not even consider defending herself through
violence.
Shakespeare's narrative poems carry their fair share of
characters lying to one another. The maid's lover in "A Lover's The narrators in Sonnets 3, 5, and 16 of The Passionate Pilgrim
Complaint" lies about his fidelity. Tarquinius lies to Lucrece place their lovers on pedestals rather than treat them like
about his motivations when he seeks refuge in her home. equals. It is easier to regard women as either corrupt devils or
Longaville, Berowne, and Dumain all go back on their vows to peerless goddesses than as normal humans with normal

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Narrative Poems of Shakespeare Study Guide Themes 20

human desires. Adonis chides Venus for being so open about better to risk dishonor to secure their happiness as quickly as
her physical needs. He believes it is inappropriate for a woman possible.
to voice her demands; this role should be reserved for men.
Venus herself wishes she were a man, declaring, "Would thou One of Venus's primary arguments to Adonis in favor of

wert as I am, and I a man ... For one sweet look thy help I would immediate lovemaking is the ever-present threat of age and

assure thee." The goddess consents that her gender decay. She asks Adonis, "What is thy body but a swallowing

complicates her demands. Even the outraged maid in "A grave?" The goddess plays on Adonis's fear of death and

Lover's Complaint" is ultimately a passive individual. She has urges him "To take advantage on presented joy." The weather

been betrayed by her lover, but she still defines herself by her is fair, they are both young and beautiful—what reasons are

interactions with him. She fits the perfect Elizabethan picture there for him to refuse? She is genuinely confused by his

of the pining maiden even though she swears she has become insistence on abstaining from such important decisions until he

older and wiser. has seen more of life. Adonis recognizes that a mortal man
should not enter into a relationship with a goddess lightly. He
The only real deviation from the standard male/female dynamic has no idea that his own life is going to be incredibly short. If
appears in "The Phoenix and the Turtle." The Phoenix is placed anyone has an excuse to seize the day, it is Adonis.
in a position of power over the Turtle. Shakespeare writes, "the
Turtle saw his right / Flaming in the Phoenix' sight." The Turtle Tarquinius's actions in "The Rape of Lucrece" demonstrate the

does not accept his right to be with his beloved until he is sure darkest iteration of carpe diem. Tarquinius pushes aside all

of her affections toward him. Shakespeare later declares that considerations not only for the future but also for morality. His

they both belong to each other: "Either was the other's mine." mind is solely focused on feeding his own immediate urges.

Elizabethan women were traditionally viewed as their This brutality is not what Horace intended when he advocated

husbands' property. The Phoenix and the Turtle's relationship seizing the day's happiness whenever possible. Tarquinius tries

defies such standards. to justify his actions using a similar rationale to Venus: Time is
short and the future is not guaranteed, so take what you want.
However, Venus never uses her power to force Adonis's
compliance. She manipulates him by distracting his horse and
Carpe Diem then pretends to swoon when he becomes angry with her, but
she still respects Adonis's will. Tarquinius corrupts the ideas of
carpe diem and as a result ruins his friends and family's future.

Shakespeare was a proud proponent of seizing the day, an

ideal often known as "carpe diem." Carpe diem existed long
before the 16th century. Its origins go back to the Roman poet
Horace (65–8 BCE) who coined the expression. The Latin
phrase literally means to "pluck the day" like one would pluck a
flower. Horace believed that there was no sense in ignoring
immediate pleasures when life could end at any moment. The
future is not guaranteed, so a person should grab whatever
happiness they can—an idea which the lovers in Shakespeare's
narrative poems act out through their words and actions. The
Phoenix and Turtle are consumed by fiery passion while still in
the prime of life. All five of Shakespeare's narrators in The
Passionate Pilgrim place much greater importance on their
present circumstances than the future. They have something
they want, and they are willing to ignore the future price in the
name of immediate satisfaction. Longaville, Berowne, and
Dumain could have asked their chosen lovers to wait three
years until their vows were fulfilled. They instead decide it is

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