Why
do we love sugar so much?
Many scientists believe our love of sugar may actually be an addiction.
When we eat or drink sugary foods, the sugar enters our blood and
affects parts of our brain that make us feel good. Then the good feeling
goes away, leaving us wanting more. All tasty foods do this, but sugar has
a particularly strong effect. In this way, it is in fact an addictive drug, one
that doctors recommend we all cut down on.
Our bodies are designed to survive on very little sugar. Early humans
often had very little food, so our bodies learned to be very efficient in
storing sugar as fat. In this way, we had energy stored for when there
was no food. But today, most people have more than enough. So the
very thing that once saved us may now be killing us.
So what is the solution? It’s obvious that we need to eat less sugar. The
trouble is, in today’s world, it’s extremely difficult to avoid. From
breakfast cereals to after‐dinner desserts, our foods are increasingly
filled with it. Some manufacturers even use sugar to replace taste in
foods that are advertised as low in fat.
But there are those who are fighting back against sugar. Many schools
are replacing sugary desserts with healthier options like fruit. Other
schools are growing their own food in gardens, or building facilities like
walking tracks so students and others in the community can exercise.
The battle has not yet been lost.
Food for the Future
In 1845, a deadly disease struck the farms of Ireland, killing all the
Lumper potato plants. In another place or time, the death of a single
crop species might not have been so important. But in Ireland, in 1845,
people depended almost solely on the potato for food. The death of one
species caused a terrible famine. Now, some scientists are worried that
such a famine could happen again—but on a much wider scale.
Over the centuries, farmers have discovered thousands of different
species of food crops. Each species has special qualities. Some can be
grown in very hot or cold climates. Others are not affected by certain
diseases. However, you won’t find many of these species in your local
supermarket. To feed the seven billion people on Earth, most farmers
today are growing only species of plants and farming only species of
animals that are easy to produce in large numbers. Meanwhile,
thousands of other species are becoming extinct.
For example, in the Philippines, there were once thousands of varieties
of rice; now fewer than 100 are grown there. In China, 90 percent of the
wheat varieties grown just a century ago have disappeared. Experts
believe that over the past century, we have allowed more than half of
the world’s food varieties to disappear.
Saving the Seeds
One solution to this problem is to collect and preserve the seeds of as
many different plant varieties as we can before they disappear. The idea
was first suggested by Russian scientist Nikolay Vavilov. In the 1920s
and ’30s, he collected around 400,000 seeds from five continents. More
recently, others are continuing the work he began.
In the U.S. state of Iowa, Diane Ott Whealy wanted to preserve historic
plant varieties, like the seeds her great‐grandfather brought to the U.S.
from Germany more than a hundred years ago. She and her husband
started a place called Heritage Farm, where people can store and trade
seeds.
More importantly, the people at Heritage Farm don’t just store the
seeds; they plant them. By doing this, they are reintroducing foods into
the marketplace that haven’t been grown for years. These food species
are not just special in terms of appearance or flavor. They also offer
farmers food solutions for the future, from the past.
Why Do They Sing?
Darling says that only male humpbacks sing, but for unknown reasons. It
was previously thought that they sang to attract females, but scientists
showed this was incorrect when they played recordings of whale songs
in the ocean and the female whales did not respond. Another idea is that
male humpbacks compete with each other using songs, just as other
male animals on land do using their antlers or tusks.
Researchers have also found that humpback whale songs are different in
different parts of the world, perhaps like whale national anthems. They
may also be like hit tunes on the radio, changing over time—from one
year to the next, or even over a single breeding season.
There is still so much the scientists don’t know, and years of study lie
ahead for whale researchers like Jim Darling. “Why do I do it?” he
wonders aloud. “Human beings like puzzles. I want to know. Period.”
Another member of the research team, photographer Flip Nicklin, recalls
a special moment he had while interacting with a humpback. While he
was snorkeling some distance from the huge animal, it approached him
until it was just a few meters away. It then gently carried Nicklin toward
its eye with a flipper, as if examining him. Apparently, the urge to
understand a different species goes both ways.
A Closer Look
In 2005, scientists under the direction of Egyptian archeologist Zahi
Hawass used new and more effective X‐ray technology to study the
mummy. They discovered that the damage to Tut’s chest was caused by
Howard Carter, and the hole in Tut’s skull was made when embalmers
were preparing the body for burial. While this ruled out one theory, that
of murder, it still doesn’t tell us exactly how he died.
Then, in 2008, Hawass and his team analyzed Tut’s DNA. They found that
he suffered from flat feet as well as a bone disease that would have
made it difficult for him to walk. When they analyzed the DNA of the
mummies in other tombs nearby, they made some shocking discoveries.
They found Tut’s father and mother, who had similar DNA, were actually
brother and sister. The DNA they passed on to Tut may have left him
highly vulnerable to disease. Did an infection that started in his fractured
leg—added to the bone disease—cause his death? No one knows for
sure. But Hawass and his team hope they will someday have an answer
to this age‐old mystery.
A Bloody Discovery
In fact, the newest scientific information indicates Ötzi was cruelly
murdered. In June 2001, an X‐ray of the body showed a small dark shape
beneath Ötzi’s left shoulder. It was the stone head of an arrow that had
hit him from behind. CT scans showed that this caused an injury that
killed him very quickly.
Then, in 2003, an Australian scientist discovered the blood of four other
people on Ötzi’s clothes. Was Ötzi killed in a bloody fight? It is unlikely, as
Ötzi’s other injuries, on his hand and head, had already started to close.
This may mean there had been a fight, but it happened much earlier.
Perhaps Ötzi was being chased when he died? In 2010, scientists took
the mummy out of the cold and examined him again. They discovered
that just before his death, he had a big meal of bread and goat meat.
Would someone being chased stop to eat a large meal? The scientists
don’t think so. More likely, he was attacked while resting. He may have
thought he had escaped and was safe. Today, the research continues,
proving some theories false while opening the door to others. Ötzi, it
seems, has more to tell us about his life and the time in which he lived.
A Dangerous Job
Since I was a boy, I have always looked down open manholes with
curiosity, so I welcomed the opportunity to explore and write about the
world beneath New York City. With a group of 11 “sandhogs”—the
nickname for the workers who build New York’s underground—I boarded
a slow, shaky elevator lit by a single light bulb. Slowly we went down a
shaft dug through 200 meters of rock. The sandhogs were building a new
tunnel to bring water into the city. The present tunnel system carries
more than 5.6 billion liters of water every day. That’s enough water to fill
more than 2,200 Olympic‐sized swimming pools.
As we descended, it got dark and the air got cool. I looked up into
darkness and down into deeper blackness, then the elevator stopped,
and everyone got out. Then came the hard part, climbing another 10
meters down a long, slippery metal ladder. At the bottom was a dark
tunnel filled with dust and smoke. Sandhogs were using explosives like
dynamite to cut through the solid rock. The tunnel extends slowly—only
four meters a day—and with each day come new dangers. Sandhogs live
in constant fear of being hurt by sharp pieces of exploded rock. Their
bodies are covered in such scars.
A River of Sewage
On another trip below the city, sewer worker Jeff Kwami showed me how
the city’s sewage is kept flowing smoothly. We went down a manhole
wearing plastic bodysuits, gloves, and tanks of air. Everything around us
was wet and slippery, as we climbed carefully down 12 meters and then
stopped on a narrow concrete step. In front of me was a fast‐moving
river of sewage nearly two meters wide. It smelled awful. I asked Kwami,
“What happens if you fall in and you’re not attached to a rope?” He said
if you didn’t pull yourself out, you’d drown in the sewage. But unlike the
dangers sandhogs face, such situations are rare. As we move through the
sewer, Kwami seems calm and confident, but it’s still a terrifying thought.
Later, as we left the darkness and danger below, Kwami joked, “See any
alligators?” Over the years, there have been stories about giant alligators
living in the sewers. I tell Kwami that in 1935, the New York Times
reported an alligator was pulled from a sewer. He still didn’t believe it,
and we laugh together as we climb back to the surface.
Threats to Coral Reefs
Various human activities can cause great harm to the world’s coral reefs.
For example, reefs can be damaged when the coral is taken for use in
building materials, jewelry‐making, or to fill aquariums.
Illegal fishing methods like blast and cyanide fishing also harm the reefs.
These methods can help fishermen get a good catch, but their negative
effects on the reefs are significant. Blast fishing involves setting off
bombs in the water to kill as many fish as possible. The blasts kill most
living things nearby and cause damage to the reef’s structure.
In cyanide fishing, fishermen release liquid cyanide, a very dangerous
and deadly chemical, into the reef. As a result, the fish become stunned.
This makes them easy to collect. The fishermen can then sell them for
big money to the aquarium market, or for consumption in restaurants.
Meanwhile, the reef is damaged by the cyanide which kills large numbers
of coral polyps, and by the fishermen who break apart the reef looking
for the stunned fish.
Another threat to a reef is water pollution. When floods in Australia
covered the Great Barrier Reef with dirty freshwater, the quality of the
water changed, and chemicals killed the reef life. This is happening to
many reefs around the world. In addition, due to global warming, many
reefs have become sick, turning white in a process known as coral
bleaching.
Shark Attack
Over a hundred shark attacks happen each year. Of these, one third are
said to be great white attacks. As a result, great whites are often
categorized as “man‐eaters” and thought to hunt and kill humans.
However, this is factually inaccurate, since great whites rarely kill their
human victims. In fact, a person has a greater chance of being killed by
lightning than by a great white. With frightening jaws that hold around
300 teeth arranged in several rows, a great white could very easily kill a
person. Yet, surprisingly, most great white victims live to tell the tale.
Shark researchers are trying to comprehend the reasons great whites
attack people, and why most of those people manage to escape a
horrible death.
One of the most common explanations for great white attacks is that
great whites don’t see well. It is thought that they often mistake a
person for a seal or a sea lion—a very tempting snack to a great white.
But there is reason to doubt this. Some research now shows that great
whites can actually see, and identify seals, very well. When attacking
seals, great whites shoot up to the surface and bite with great force.
However, when they approach humans, they often move in slowly and
bite less hard. “They take a bite, feel them over, then move on,” says
Peter Klimley, author of The Secret Lives of Sharks.
The Benefits of Climate
Despite the Netherlands’ dominance of the flower market, there are
many places with a better climate for growing flowers, and the climate of
Ecuador is almost perfect. Mauricio Dávalos is the man responsible for
starting Ecuador’s flower industry. “Our biggest edge is nature,” he
claims. “Our roses are the best in the world.” With predictable rainy
periods and 12 hours of sunlight each day, Ecuador’s roses are renowned
for their large heads and long, straight stems. Every year, Ecuador sells
about 500 million flowers to the U.S. alone. The industry has brought
employment opportunities and a stronger economy to regions of the
country. “My family has TV now. There are radios,” says Yolanda Quishpe,
20, who picked roses for four years.
To others, the increasingly international nature of the flower trade is
very bad news. In recent years, local growers in the U.S. faced huge
competition from international flower companies, and many lost their
businesses. Lina Hale, an independent rose grower in California, said her
father had predicted the situation in the 1980s. “I see a freight train
coming down the track,“ he warned her, “and it’s coming straight
towards us.”
A Promise in a Bottle
“Perfume,” says expert perfumer Sophia Grojsman, “is a promise in a
bottle.” That promise might be reflected in a perfume’s name: Joy1 or
Pleasure, for example. Millions of dollars are spent on the marketing of a
perfume so that customers connect luxury, attraction, or a certain
attitude to a fragrance.
Fragrances can have power over our thoughts and emotions. Scientists
believe memory and smell are closely connected in our brains, and that
certain aromas have the power to call up deep memories. Perfume
makers are especially aware of this and use aromas that touch us deeply.
In the perfume world, an essence is a material with its own special
aroma. Some are natural, and derived from flowers and plants, for
example. Others are synthetic2 copies of rare or difficult‐to‐obtain
essences. Perfume authority Harry Frémont says a good fragrance “is a
balance between naturals and synthetics. Naturals give richness and
roundness; synthetics, backbone and sparkle.”
Image and Marketing
In a Paris perfume store, a building of shining stone, metal, and glass,
famous perfumes are displayed and guarded like the works of art in the
nearby Louvre Museum.3 Salespeople are dressed smartly in black, and
each type of perfume is sold in a distinctively shaped bottle. In perfume
sales, the emphasis is on presentation at least as much as on the
product.
So, naturally, France’s main competitor in the global perfume market is
the United States, where image is all‐important. Celebrity‐branded
scents fill the market, each preceded by floods of print ads and TV
appearances designed to create hype. Even sports celebrities, like
baseball star Derek Jeter, are creating their own fragrance brands.
It is easy to be confused about which perfume to buy. Perfumer Annie
Buzantian offers this advice: You really can’t get an idea whether a
perfume works or not until you wear it. “It’s like the difference between
a dress on the hanger and a dress on your body,” says Buzantian. Though
Frémont adds, “Your first impression is often the right one.”
Pleasure Seekers
The studies confirm that teens are more likely to take risks and behave in
extreme ways. Fortunately, the news isn’t all negative. As brain scientist
B. J. Casey points out, the teen brain inspires such behavior in order to
help teens prepare for adult life.
One way the brain does this is by changing the way teens measure risk
and reward. Researchers found that when teens think about rewards,
their brains release more of the chemicals that create pleasure than an
adult brain would. Researchers believe this makes the rewards seem
more important than the risks, and makes teens feel the excitement of
new experiences more keenly than adults do.
Research into the structure of the teen brain also found that it makes
social connections seem especially rewarding. As such, teens have an
intense need to meet new people. Scientists suggest this is because as
teens, we begin to realize our peers may one day control the world we
live in. Because it is still developing, a teen brain can change to deal with
new situations. So, it connects social rewards with even more pleasure.
In this way, the brain encourages teens to have a wide circle of friends,
which is believed to make us more successful in life.
Drying Out
While the melting of glaciers may flood some areas of the Earth, global
warming is making the water disappear from other places. Many
scientists think the glaciers of the Himalayas and the Andes could
disappear in this century. As a result, millions of people in India,
Bangladesh, Bolivia, and Peru who depend on water from mountain
glaciers like Chacaltaya could find themselves in a critical situation. An
increasing number of heat waves and droughts worldwide also suggests
global warming is having an impact on humans right now, and that it
could change the face of the world in the future.
How can we avoid these terrible consequences? “We have to have a
serious and immediate shift in attitude,” says Laurie David, a producer of
the movie An Inconvenient Truth, which helped to raise awareness of the
problem. Many believe that an attitude of hope and a desire to stay
informed make a good beginning. As most would agree, an informed
public is clearly in a better position to help address this critical issue.
Scanning the Details
Using a powerful scanner1 designed for camera film, they were able to
capture detailed pictures of moths. Small moths present special
challenges. “One twitch of the finger and there goes a wing,” says Scheer.
“I try to drink less coffee when I’m working on [them].”
The scanner records so much information that a single moth can take 20
minutes to scan. A scan of just two small moths fills an entire CD. All that
information means the size of an image can be increased 2,700 percent
but still retain all the details and appear perfectly clear. You’d need a
microscope2 to see the details shown in Scheer’s prints.
Scheer’s work is not only a new form of art. He can also be congratulated
for making a valuable contribution to the record of moths where he lives.
He has helped identify more than a thousand different species. “Not
from Alaska or the Amazon,” Klingensmith says. “All from one backyard.”