Tafila Technical University

Department of Mechanical Engineering

Metrology Science
Dr. Ahmad Mostafa
2nd semester 2019/2020
1. Introduction
Metrology: is the field of science concerning measurement, by which different types of physical
variables, are measured and quantified with a specific unit.

Metrology is concerned with:

1. Assigning an accurate and precise value to a physical variable.
2. Establishment, reproduction, protection, maintenance, and transfer or conversion of units
of measurements and their standards
3. Providing a basis for judgements about process information, quality assurance, and
process control.
4. Providing proper operation and maintenance of a product or system
5. Investigating the causes of measuring errors and subsequently eliminating them.

Inspection: is defined as a procedure in which a part or product characteristic, such as a dimension,

is examined to determine whether it conforms to the design specification.

Measurement is an integral part of inspection. How?

1- Many inspection methods rely on measuring techniques that measure the actual dimensions
of a part
2- Other inspection methods employ gauging methods.

Gaging method does not provide any information about the actual value of the characteristic,
but it is faster when comparing to measuring technique. The dimensions are determined through
permissible limits.

Inspection essentially focuses on the following:

1. Ascertain that the part, material, or component conforms to the established or desired
standard.
2. Accomplish interchangeability of manufacture.
3. Sustain customer satisfaction by ensuring that no defective product reaches the customers.
4. Provide the means of finding out inadequacies in manufacture.
5. Purchase good-quality raw materials, tools, and equipment that govern the quality of the
finished products.
6. Coordinate the functions of quality control, production, purchasing, and other departments
of the organizations.
7. Take the decision to perform rework on defective parts, that is, to assess the possibility of
making some of these parts acceptable after minor repairs.

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA METROLOGY SCIENCE 1|CHAPTER 1

Accuracy: is the degree of agreement of the measured dimension with the true magnitude.
Accuracy indicates the quality of measurements.
Precision: is the degree of repetitiveness of the measuring process.

Precise but Accurate but Precise and Neither precise

not accurate not precise accurate nor accurate

- Accuracy is when individual measurements are distributed around the mean value
- Precision is the agreement of these values with each other

Other terms associated with accuracy:

- Sensitivity: Is the ability of the measuring equipment to detect small variations in the
measured quantity.
- Consistency: when successive readings of the measured quantity obtained from the
measuring instrument are the same all the time.

Max
In practice, while designing the measuring equipment, the
desired accuracy to cost considerations depends on the
quality and reliability of the product and inspection cost. The
side figure shows the relationship between accuracy and Cost
inspection cost.

Min
The objectives of metrology and measurements include the
Max Accuracy Min
following:
1. Comprehensive evaluation of newly designed and developed components
2. To ensure uniformity of measurements
3. To achieve better component tolerances
4. To ensure cost-effective inspection and optimal use of available facilities
5. To adopt quality control techniques to minimize scrap rate and rework
6. To establish inspection procedures from the design stage
7. To calibrate measuring instruments regularly in order to maintain accuracy in measurement
8. To resolve the measurement problems that might arise in the shop floor
9. To design gauges and special fixtures required to carry out inspection
10. To investigate and eliminate different sources of measuring errors

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA METROLOGY SCIENCE 2|CHAPTER 1

2. General measurement concepts
The three basic elements of measurements are:
1- Measurand: A physical quantity, such as length, weight and angle to be measured.
2- Comparator: To compare the measurand with a known standard for evaluation
3- Reference: The physical quantity or property to which quantitative comparisons are to be
made
Reference

Measurand Comparator Measured

quantity

3. Calibration of measuring instruments

Calibration: is the procedure used to establish a relationship between the values obtained by
measuring equipment and the corresponding values realized by standards under specific conditions
(using calibration curve).

Output Max. Error

Input

 Calibration is a mean of achieving traceability, which indicates that results must be

meaningful.
 Traceability: It is a process of validation of the measurements with original and/or
national standards.

Calibration procedure involves a comparison of particular instrument with:

1- A primary standard
2- A secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the calibrated instrument
3- a known input source

Flowmeter example

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA METROLOGY SCIENCE 3|CHAPTER 1

4. Errors in measurements:
Error is the difference between the true value and the mean value set of readings on the same
component and it can be absolute or relative.

Absolute error: is defined as the difference between the measured and true values
𝐸 = 𝑉𝑚 − 𝑉𝑡
E is known as the absolute error, vm is the measured value and vt is the true value.
Relative error: Is the ratio of the error to the true value to the measured quantity
𝐸
%𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = × 100
𝑉𝑡
We can conclude that the instrument is more accurate when the error magnitude is low. However,
errors can be taken off by calibration.
Two broad categories of errors in measurement have been identified: systematic and random
errors.
4.1. Systematic or Controllable Errors
A systematic error is a type of error that deviates by a fixed amount from the true value of
measurement.
 These types of errors are can be assessed and minimized by extensive analysis.
 Systematic errors cannot be eliminated by taking a large number of readings and then
averaging them out.

Sources of systematic errors:

1- Calibration errors
2- Consistently reoccurring human errors (Parallax effect)
3- Defective equipment
4- Loading errors
5- Limitations of system resolution
6- Environmental errors

Calibration Error
Actual response

Human Error (Parallax effect)

β Ideal response
1
Vm θ
1
1 lincorrect lcorrect

Error

Vt 𝒍𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕
𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 =
Vm = β×Vt + Error 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒄𝒐𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒕

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA METROLOGY SCIENCE 4|CHAPTER 1

In environmental errors, the most significant ambient condition affecting the accuracy of
measurement is temperature.
 An increase in temperature of 1 ºC results in an increase in the length of C25 steel by 0.3
μm, and this is substantial when precision measurement is required.
 In order to obtain error-free results, a correction factor for temperature has to be provided.

𝜹𝒕 = 𝜶 × 𝒍 × (𝑻𝒎𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆𝒅 − 𝑻𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒅 )
where,
δt: The deformation due to thermal expansion
α: Coefficient of thermal expansion
l: Measured lengh
Tmeasured: Temperature at measurement
Tstandard: Temperature at which calibration was done

Example:
A steel ruler of 30 cm, calibrated at 20°C, was used to measure a component in a relatively hot
environment of 60°C. What would be the error % in the measurements if αsteel=11.7×10-6 °C-1.

4.2. Random Errors

Random errors identified when a series of repeated measurements are made on a component under
similar conditions, and the values or results of measurements vary.
 When these repeated measurements are plotted, they follow a normal or Gaussian
distribution and scatter around a mean value
 Random errors can be statistically evaluated, and their mean value and standard deviation
can be determined.

If n measurements are made using an instrument, denoted by v1, v2, v3, …, vn, then arithmetic
mean is given as:

and standard deviation σ is given by the following equation:

Example:
The marks of 8 students in a class are: 2, 4, 4, 4, 5, 5, 7 and 9. Find the mean and standard deviation
of these values.

Sources of random errors:

1- Disturbance to the equipment
2- Insufficient system sensitivity
3- Fluctuating experimental conditions

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA METROLOGY SCIENCE 5|CHAPTER 1

 Figure 1.1: Relationship between systematic and random errors versus measured values

Differences between systematic and random errors

Systematic error Random Error
Not easy to detect Easy to detect
Cannot be eliminated by repeating measurements Can be minimized by repeating measurements
Can be assessed easily Statistical analysis required to assess
Minimized systematic errors mean high accuracy Minimized random errors mean high precision
Can be reduced by calibration Calibration has no effect
Inaccuracies are in the same direction Inaccuracies can be negative or positive

5. Methods of measurements:
1- Direct methods: In this method, the quantity to be measured is directly compared with the
primary or secondary standard.
 Scales, vernier callipers, micrometers, bevel protractors, etc., are used in the direct
method.
2- Indirect methods: In this method, measurement of the quantity is carried out directly and
then the value is determined by using a mathematical relationship.
 Some examples of indirect measurement are Brinell hardness measurements.
2𝐹
𝐵𝐻𝑁 =
𝜋𝐷(𝐷 − √𝐷2 − 𝑑 2 )
3- Fundamental or absolute methods: In this case, the measurement is based on the
measurements of base quantities used to define the desired quantity.
 An example is the absolute temperature scale.
4- Comparative method: In this method, as the name suggests, the quantity to be measured
is compared with the known value of the same quantity or any other quantity practically
related to it.
 The most common examples are dial indicators.
5- Transposition method: This method involves making the measurement by direct
comparison, wherein the quantity to be measured (V) is initially balanced by a known value

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA METROLOGY SCIENCE 6|CHAPTER 1

 (X) of the same quantity; next, X is replaced by the quantity to be measured and balanced
again by another known value (Y). If the quantity to be measured is equal to both X and
Y, then it is equal to V = √XY.
 An example of this method is the determination of mass by balancing methods and
known weights.
6- Coincidence method: in this method the quantity to be measured and the reference are
determined by careful observation of the coincidence of certain lines and signals.
 Measurements on Vernier caliper and micrometer are examples of this method.
7- Deflection method: This method involves the indication of the value of the quantity to be
measured directly by deflection of a pointer on a calibrated scale.
 Pressure measurement is an example of this method.
8- Complementary method: The value of the quantity to be measured is combined with a
known value of the same quantity. The combination is so adjusted that the sum of these
two values is equal to the predetermined comparison value.
 An example of this method is determination of the volume of a solid by liquid
displacement.
9- Substitution method: This method involves the replacement of the value of the quantity
to be measured with a known value of the same quantity, so selected that the effects
produced in the indicating device by these two values are the same.
 The Borda method of determining mass is an example of this method.
10- Contact method: In this method, the surface to be measured is touched by the sensor or
measuring tip of the instrument.
 Examples of this method include measurements using micrometer, vernier calliper,
and dial indicator
11- Contactless method: there is no direct contact with the surface to be measured.
 Examples of this method include the use of optical instruments.
12- Composite method: The actual contour of a component to be checked is compared with
its maximum and minimum tolerance limits. Cumulative errors of the interconnected
elements of the component, which are controlled through a combined tolerance, can be
checked by this method.
 The use of a GO screw plug gauge to check the thread of a nut is an example of
this method.

Example:
The resistance of a copper wire, R, is determined from the following relationship R=Ro[1+α(T-
20)], where Ro is measured as 6Ω±0.3 percent at 20°C, α is the temperature coefficient of
resistance of 0.004°C-1±1 percent and T is the temperature of the wire 30°C±1. Calculate the wire
resistance and its error uncertainty.

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA METROLOGY SCIENCE 7|CHAPTER 1

6. Standards of measurements
6.1. Subdivisions of standards
The standards are subdivided into the following four groups:
 Primary standards
For defining the unit precisely, there shall be one and only one material standard. Primary
standards are preserved carefully and maintained under standard atmospheric conditions so that
they do not change their values. This has no direct application to a measuring problem encountered
in engineering. These are used only for comparing with secondary standards. International yard
and international metre are examples of standard units of length.
 Secondary standards
These are derived from primary standards and resemble them very closely with respect to design,
material, and length. Any error existing in these bars is recorded by comparison with primary
standards after long intervals. These are kept at different locations under strict supervision and are
used for comparison with tertiary standards. These safeguard against the loss or destruction of
primary standards.
 Tertiary standards
Tertiary standards are reference standards are used as the first standards for reference in
laboratories and workshops. These standards are replicas of secondary standards and are usually
used as references for working standards.
 Working standards
These are used more frequently in workshops and laboratories. When compared to the other three
standards, the materials used to make these standards are of a lower grade and cost. These are
derived from fundamental standards and suffer from loss of instrumental accuracy due to
subsequent comparison at each level in the hierarchical chain.

The classification of measurement standards and their purpose is listed in Table 1.1 and the
hierarchical classification of standards is shown in Figure 1.2.

Table 1.1 Classification of standards based on purpose

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA METROLOGY SCIENCE 8|CHAPTER 1

 Figure 1.2: Hierarchical classification of standards

6.2. Disadvantages of Material Standards

1- Material standards are affected by changes in environmental conditions such as
temperature, pressure, humidity, and ageing, resulting in variations in length.
2- Preservation of these standards is difficult because they must have appropriate security to
prevent their damage or destruction.
3- Replicas of material standards are not available for use at other places.
4- They cannot be easily reproduced.
5- Comparison and verification of the sizes of gauges pose considerable difficulty.
6- While changing to the metric system, a conversion factor is necessary.

DR. AHMAD MOSTAFA METROLOGY SCIENCE 9|CHAPTER 1