Abstract

Design and simulation of speed control of three phase

induction motor using power electronics converter
 List of symbols and abbreviations
AC Alternate Current

BJT Bipolar Transistor

CFI Current Fed Invertor

CT Current Transformer

DC Direct Current

F Frequency

FC Fixed Capacitor

GTO Gate Turn Off

HP Horse Power

Hz Hertz

IGBT Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor

IM Induction Motor

KW Kilo Watt

MCT M

MOSFET Metal Oxide semiconductor Field Effect Transistor

NS Synchronous Speed

NR Rotor speed

PC Personal Computer

PID Proportional Integrator Derivative

PT Potential Transformer

PWM Pulse Width Modulation

RR Rotor Resistance

RS Stator Resistance

S Sleep

SPWM Sine Pulse Width Modulation

TCR Thyristor Control Reactor

TRIAC T

V Voltage

VFD Variable Frequency Drive

VSD Variable Speed Drive

VVVF Variable Voltage Variable Frequency

 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background
Induction motors are the most widely used motors for appliances, industrial control, and
automation; hence, they are often called the workhorse of the motion industry. They are robust,
reliable, and durable. When power is supplied to an induction motor at the recommended
specifications, it runs at its rated speed. However, many applications need variable speed
operations. For example, a washing machine may use different speeds for each wash cycle.
Historically, mechanical gear systems were used to obtain variable speed.
Recently, electronic power and control systems have matured to allow these components to be
used for motor control in place of mechanical gears. These electronics not only control the
motor’s speed, but can improve the motor’s dynamic and steady state characteristics. In addition,
electronics can reduce the system’s average power consumption and noise generation of the
motor.
Earlier only dc motors were employed for drives requiring variable speeds due to ease
of their speed control methods. The conventional methods of speed control of an
induction motor were either too expensive or too inefficient thus restricting their
application to only constant speed drives. However, modern trends and development of speed
control methods of an induction motor have increased the use of induction motors in
electrical drives extensively.
Induction motor control is complex due to its nonlinear characteristics. While there are different
methods for control, Variable Voltage Variable Frequency (VVVF) or V/f is the most common
method of speed control. This method is most suitable for applications without position control
requirements or the need for high accuracy of speed control. Examples of these applications
include heating, air conditioning, fans and blowers.
The squirrel cage motor has a rotor with a winding consisting of conducting bars embedded in
slots in the rotor iron and short-circuited at each end by conducting end rings. An inverter
converts dc voltage from the input to ac voltage at the output. The PWM inverter output ac
voltage can be controlled in both magnitude and frequency. This control of voltage and
frequency is needed as it allows the user to vary the current, torque and speed of the induction
motor at various loads.
The complete system consists of an ac voltage input that is put through a diode bridge rectifier to
produce a dc output which across a shunt capacitor, will in turn, feed the PWM inverter. The
PWM inverter is controlled to produce a desired sinusoidal voltage at a particular frequency,
which is filtered by the use of an inductor in series and capacitor in parallel and then through to
the squirrel cage induction motor. The voltage and frequency that the inverter supplies, is
controlled by the control system which takes its input from the induction motor parameters to
produce required speed.
3-phase AC induction motors can be operated either directly from the mains or from adjustable
frequency drives. The applications for these motors cover almost every stage of manufacturing
and processing. Applications also extend to commercial buildings and the domestic environment.
They are used to drive pumps, fans, compressors, mixers, agitators, mills, conveyors, crushers,
machine tools and cranes. It is increasingly common practice to use 3-phase squirrel cage AC
induction motors with variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF) converters for variable speed
drive (VSD) applications.
The reliability of squirrel cage AC induction motors, compared to DC motors, is high. The only
parts of the squirrel cage motor that can wear are the bearings.
Electrical Energy already constitutes more than 30 % of all energy usage on Earth. And this is set
to rise in the coming years. Its massive popularity has been caused by its efficiency of use, ease
of transportation, ease of generation, an environment -friendliness. Part of the total electrical
energy production is sued to produce heat, light, in electrolysis, arc-furnaces, domestic heating
etc. Another large part of the electrical energy production is used to be converted into
mechanical energy via different kinds of electric motors-DC Motors, Synchronous Motors and
Induction Motors.
Induction Motors are often termed the “Workhorse of the Industry”. This is because it is one of
the most widely used motors in the world. It is used in transportation and industries, and also in
household appliances, and laboratories. The major reasons behind the popularity of the Induction
Motors are:
i. Induction Motors are cheap compared to DC and Synchronous Motors. In this age of
competition, this is a prime requirement for any machine. Due to its economy of procurement,
installation and use, the Induction Motor is usually the first choice for an operation.

ii. Squirrel-Cage Induction Motors are very rugged in construction. There robustness enables
them to be used in all kinds of environments and for long durations of time.
iii. Induction Motors have high efficiency of energy conversion. Also they are very reliable.
iv. Owing to their simplicity of construction, Induction Motors have very low maintenance costs.
v. Induction Motors have very high starting torque. This property is useful in applications where
the load is applied before starting the motor.
Another major advantage of the Induction Motor over other motors is the ease with which
its speed can be controlled. Different applications require different optimum speeds for the motor
to run at. Speed control is a necessity in Induction Motors because of the following factors:
i. It ensures smooth operation.

ii. It provides torque control and acceleration control.

iii. Different processes require the motor to run at different speeds.

iv. It compensates for fluctuating process parameters.

v. During installation, slow running of the motors is required.

All these factors present a strong case for the implementation of speed control or variable speed
drives in Induction Motors.

Induction Motors: A Brief History

The seeds for the development of the Induction Motor were sown with Faraday’s discovery of
the Laws of Electromagnetic Induction in 1831 and with Maxwell’s formulation of the laws of
electricity in 1860. The Induction Machine was independently developed by Galileo Ferrari in
1885 and by Nikola Tesla in 1886. Ferrari’s model had a rotor made up of a copper cylinder.
Tesla used a ferromagnetic cylinder with a short-circuited winding. However, the underlying
principles and basic design philosophies of both models were similar. George Westinghouse
licensed Tesla’s patents and developed a practical Induction Motor in 1892. To this date,
apart from the vast improvements in performance and refinements in design, the basics of
the Induction Machine remain the same.In1896, General Electric and Westinghouse signed a
cross-licensing agreement for the Squirrel Cage design of the Induction Motor, and by 1900, it
was all set to become the industrial staple. By 1910, locomotives in Europe were fitted with
Induction Motors and were able to attains speeds in excess of 200 km/hr.How ever,faster
strides in the development of DC Motors made it overtake Induction Motors when it came
to usage in the industry or in transportation. The latter again made a comeback in 1985 with the
development of Power Electronics-based drives, especially IGBT-based PWM Inverters for
efficient frequency-changing. The following are some of the recent developments in Induction
Motor drives:

i. Better analytical models for design and research purposes.

ii. Better magnetic and insulation materials and cooling systems.
iii. Availability of design optimization tools.
iv. IGBT-based PWM Inverters for efficient frequency changing with low losses and
high
v. Power density.
vi. New and better methods for manufacturing and testing.
vii. High speed and high power applications.
viii. With a widespread presence in all kinds of industries, households and in
transportation, the

V/f Control of Induction Motor Drive: An Introduction

There are various methods for the speed control of an Induction Motor. They are:

i. Pole Changing

ii. Variable Supply Frequency Control

iii. Variable Supply Voltage Control

iv. Variable Rotor Resistance Control

v. V/f Control

vi. Slip Recovery

vii. Vector Control

Of the above mentioned methods, V/f Control is the most popular and has found widespread
use in industrial and domestic applications because of its ease-of-implementation. However,
it has inferior dynamic performance compared to vector control. Thus in areas where
precision is required, V/f Control are not used. The various advantages of V/f Control are as
follows:

i. It provides good range of speed.

ii. It gives good running and transient performance.

iii. It has low starting current requirement.

iv. It has a wider stable operating region.

v. Voltage and frequencies reach rated values at base speed.

vi. The acceleration can be controlled by controlling the rate of change of supply frequency.

vii. It is cheap and easy to implement.

1.2 Problem statement

Demand for efficient, steady reliable energy is increasingly high with increasingly high speed
requirements to boost economic development of the country. Investment, running and
maintenance costs need to be kept as minimal as possible in any industrial application enabling
future advancements in technology through savings made. Ethiopia is a hub for integration and
economic development in East and Central Africa requiring constant supply of energy to keep it
afloat with the competing market. This starts with energy savings in industrial applications
through power savings. Energy is necessary in any country’s economy for it to compete
favorably in ever competitive world. Adjustable speed of the three phase induction motors are
widely used in industries. Also three phase induction motors have different advantages, such as
they are very simple in construction, extremely rugged, low cost, reliable, high efficiency and
so on. The main problems of such motors are;

 The speed cannot be varied without sacrificing some of its efficiency.

 The speed decrease with increase in load.
 The speed is not easily controlled.
Due to those problems our project deals with analysis and design of speed control of
three phase induction motors to solve such problems.

1.3 Objective of the Project

1.3.1 General objective

The main objective of this project is to control the speed of three phase induction motor at
efficient performance. Voltage and frequency input to induction motor are to be controlled to
achieve desired speed response.

1.4.2 Specific objective

The specific objectives of our project are:

 To control speed of three phase induction motor using power electronics converter of
PWM inverter.
 Design of converter Control Circuit.
  Develop matlab code for closed loop control of three phase induction motor.
 To show Simulation of the system.

1.5 Methodology Used in This Project

For successful completion of this project some steps will be followed to carry out different tasks.
 Problem identification: clearly stating of the problem about this area .
 Literature Reviewing: This includes reading books and documents on related areas.
 System modeling: Combining different components to describe the system.
 System analysis and simulation: This indicates how the system behaves using matlab.
 Proposing Solution: designing speed control of three phase induction motor for
wisely used.

Problem Literature Data Collection

identification Review

Develop System
Simulation
Model
Software
Design

Figure1.1 block diagram of working methodology

1.6 Scope of the project
 Design a circuit diagram for controlling the speed of three phase induction motor.
 Developing matlab code of the system.
 Simulation using MATLAB software.
 CHAPTER TWO
LITURATURE REVIEW
K.Harada and M.Nagao [1979]; have published a paper on Poly phase converter for induction
motor control using the stator core saturation. In this they have presented a new control system
for an induction motor drive by a converter. The commutation of the converter is performed by
the stator core saturation of the motor even if the magnetic characteristic of the stator core is
not of a sharp saturation. In order to compensate the effect of the slow saturation of the stator
core, the base currents of the main transistors are supplied by independent DC sources. They
have shown and justified that with the use of poly phase converter for the induction motor
drive, the whole system is considerably simplified in comparison with conventional PWM
control device made of a transistor inverter.
Murray.L.M and Paresh.C.Sen [1979]; in the same year have published a paper on control
loop study of induction motor drives using DQ model. In this they have presented a systematic
study of the various control loops in a current source inverter-induction motor drive and their
effects on the dynamic response and stability of the system. A dq model of the induction motor is
also presented in this, which consists of induction motor and the inverter power supply with
current feedback.
Allan.B.Plunkettet.al[1979] ; in the same year have proposed an alternative method of
induction motor drive i.e. synchronous control of a static AC induction motor drive. The
conventional method of speed control of induction motor utilizes regulation of stator
current and motor slip frequency in order to maintain system stability. The alternative scheme
utilizes the inverter frequency as the necessary system stabilizing control, while the current
amplitude merely adjusts the motor steady-state flux level. The stabilization is achieved by
regulating the phase angle between motor current and motor flux. This causes the inverter firing
pulses to synchronize to the motor counter electromotive force and is the dual of the voltage-fed
induction motor wherein additional current is inherently provided to align the motor counter
electromotive force to the inverter.
Paresh.C.Sen et.al [1981]; have proposed a microprocessor based control of an induction motor
with flux regulation. In this they have developed the speed control system of an induction motor
drive using a Motorola 6800 microprocessor and they have shown that motor current-slip
frequency relationship for constant flux control is nonlinear and is difficult to implement using
hardwired logic circuitry, so such a nonlinear function can be conveniently implemented by
using a microprocessor control system by storing the nonlinear function as a look-up table in the
computer memory. From the test model and experimental results, they have justified that
microprocessor-control system is flexible and it allows a wide range of operating speeds.
Bimal K Bose [1982]; has presented a technology status review on adjustable speed drives. In
this the author has discussed about the technology of solid state adjustable speed ac drives since
from its launch in the year 1960. The salient technical features of ac drives technology, including
power semiconductor devices, machines, converters, controls and performance of the integrated
drive system are discussed in length.
Bimal K Bose and H.A.Sutherland [1983] ; have published a paper on high performance
pulse width modulator for an inverter fed drive system using a microcomputer. Intel 8086
microcomputer based pulse width modulator is described in this paper which receives digital
voltage and frequency commands independently at the input and generates precision three phase
PWM waves at the output which can be used to drive a transistor or thyristor inverter for ac
drive systems.
Kenji Kubo et.al [1983 ]; have published a software based speed regulator for motor drives
which executes all regulatory processing using only microprocessor and the developed software
for it. They have shown that the developed regulator can be applied to both AC and DC motor
drives by developing the necessary software programs.
Franz.C.Zach and Hans Ertl [1983]; have discussed about the efficiency optimal control of
AC drives using PWM inverters in. In this paper the authors have discussed about the different
PWM techniques and they have shown that by the use of the selected harmonic elimination
method in the PWM inverters, the AC motor controller can be operated close to efficiency
optimal control in which the overall system efficiency increases.
Seung K Sul and T.A.Lipo [1990 ]; in the same year have published a paper on the design and
performance of a high-frequency link induction motor drive operating at unity power factor.
In this they have presented a new three phase to three phase power conversion topology based
upon a 20-KHz single phase voltage link. By simulation and experimental results they have
shown that by using the same converter for the ac input side as well as the output side, power
can be transferred in either direction and with the use of current regulator and suitable
feedback control, the power factor at the input to the converter can be adjusted to unity.
Shahriar Mohammadi [1993]; has discussed about fixed pulse width modulation pattern for
speed control system of three phase induction motor. He has analyzed the regular PWM and
fixed PWM by using the computer simulation. In the fixed pulse width modulation, parallel
proportional, integral, differential (PID) error amplifier is used to optimize and minimize the
response time of the controller.
Iordanis Kioskeridis and Nikos Margaris [1996 ]; have proposed a loss model controller to
minimize the losses in induction motor adjustable speed drives. The proposed controller model
determines the optimal air-gap flux required for the motor drive system that minimizes the losses
in scalar control of induction motor, its implementation does not require the knowledge of the
loss model. The proposed loss minimization controller does not affect the cost of the drive and it
can be used in both open and closed speed loop drives.
Zhenyu Yu et.al [1997]; have published paper on review of three PWM techniques. In this they
have discussed the advantages of PWM based switching power converter over linear power
amplifier and the implementation of three commonly used PWM techniques. The sinusoidal
PWM technique, space vector PWM technique and hysteresis PWM technique are discussed in
length and are implemented with TMS320C240 digital processor.
Alfredo Munoz-Garcia et.al [1998]; also proposed and developed a new induction motor
V/f control method capable of high performance regulation at low speeds using only low-cost
open loop current sensors. In this method the stator current is measured and compensation is
given for both stator resistance drop and slip frequency. A comparison of simulation and
experimental results are presented and it is shown that good open-loop speed regulation is
achieved by the proposed method and it can be easily implemented in existing V/f drives by
modifying only the software.
Mehmet Cunkas et.al [2000]; have designed and developed a circuit for protection of AC
motors against low voltage, high voltage, high current, voltage and current unbalance, high
winding temperature and single phasing by using PIC 16C84 microcontroller. For this they
have connected CT’s and PT’s in each phase of induction motor for the continuous monitoring
of data and the winding temperature is measured and they are compared with the reference
values by means of a software in the microcontroller. When low voltage, high voltage, high
current, voltage and current unbalance, high winding temperature and single phasing are sensed,
the microcontroller gives signals and the system opens its normally soft starter after a trip delay.
They have made a provision for the transmission of data such as current, voltage, temperature
which are acquired by the microcontroller to the central PC by means of RS232C series
communication line. In this way motor data are monitored continuously on system monitor
Slobodan.N.Vukosavic et.al [2003]; proposed practical digital-signal processor based algorithm
for the online efficient optimization of induction motor drives. The algorithm is developed by
combining the good features of the search control and loss-model-based control, while
simultaneously eliminating their major drawbacks. In the proposed algorithm, the minimum loss
operating point is decided from a functional approximation of the motor and the power converter
losses, in the form of a suitably defined loss function. The loss function parameters are obtained
online from input power measurement and with the optimum flux value calculation and a
dedicated identification routine acting in conjunction with the common drive control functions.
Hassan Beggar Bostan Abad et.al [2005]; have developed induction motor speed controller
with constant flux using fuzzy logic. By using artificial intelligence technique, the electrical
motor controller is implement and it is implemented without mathematical model. By
experimental setup they have shown that by using fuzzy logic/ artificial intelligence technique,
efficiency, performance and reliability of drives is increased and volume, weight and cost of the
drive is reduced.
K.Sandeep kumar and K.Pritam Satsangi [2007]; have designed and developed the variable
speed drive of induction motor for constant torque using V/F method and 89C54 microcontroller.
In this closed loop control the actual speed of the motor is compared with the reference
speed and the difference in speed is adjusted by changing firing angles of switching devices in
the inverter. The developed variable speed drive system is tested for changing in load
conditions and from the results they have shown that, with the use of microcontroller, the
developed system is more flexible when compared with other traditional methods.
J. Liu et.al [2009]; have proposed an effective scheme of induction motor control without using
stator sensor. It consists of speed calculation algorithm and voltage/frequency control.
The proposed controller is implemented on a 2KW induction motor using DSP320F2812
from the results it is seen that the system has good characteristic in steady state and during
transient conditions.
Prasad Shrawane [2010]; has proposed open and closed loop control of induction motor using
Volt-per-Hertz controller. The author has developed a Simulink based simulation for open loop
and closed loop control of induction motor using V/f method. A detail stud of the simulation is
done first with open loop and then with the closed loop with the application of slew rate. The
open and closed loop results are presented and from the results they have shown that the slew
rate reduces the transient time period, which is better for the life of the machine. The steady state
error is reduced to zero but it has taken longer time in the closed loop method.
Hamdy A.Ashour1 and Yasser.G. Dessouky [2011]; This paper presents analytical and
experimental performance and control of a three phase induction motor fed from a single-phase
supply via a single capacitor. The transient and steady state analysis are predicted using d-q
model representation whose frame is chosen stationary. The value of capacitance to provide
minimum unbalance ratio is theoretically calculated and is experimentally implemented
using Fixed Capacitor-Thyristors Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR) scheme applied for large
induction motors. The speed is controlled using a TRIAC coupled in series with the supply. The
dynamic model is introduced and both simulated and experimental waveforms are predicted.
This is applied for a fractional horsepower fan drive.
Madivalappa. B(2014); Describe devices that controls the speed, Variable frequency drive uses
power electronics to vary the frequency of input power to motor, thereby controlling motor
speed. AC motor drives are widely used to control the speed of pumps, blower speeds, machine
tool speeds, conveyor systems speeds and other applications that require variable speed
with variable torque. A modern industrial power system may include variable frequency drive
(VFD) loads at several locations. The complete system consists of an ac voltage input that
is given through a diode bridge rectifier to produce a dc output which is across a shunt
capacitor. This will feed the PWM inverter. The PWM inverter is controlled to produce a
desired sinusoidal voltage at a particular frequency, which is further filtered by the use of an
inductor in series and capacitor in shunt and then through squirrel cage induction motor. The
design and analysis of a three phase induction motor drive using IGBT‟s at the inverter
power stage with volts hertz control (V/F). A 5HP, 3-phase, 400V, From 17 Hz to 50Hz
induction motor is used as load for the inverter. But this system consists rectifier ckt, filter ckt
and inverter ckt that results complex system which reduce the efficiencies of the induction
motor.
Chandana Sooji1 et al [2016]; the speed of a three phase induction motor can be controlled
either by using armature voltage control technique or by adding external resistance in the rotor
circuit manually. The paper deals with developing a power electronic based control system
which allows to control the speed of three phase induction motor by overcoming the drawbacks
of conventional techniques. In this technique, chopper circuit is so developed such that as
duty cycle of the chopper is increased the speed of the three phase induction motor should be
increased. Initially, the name plate details of three phase slip ring induction motor whose speed is
to be controlled is noted and by conducting No-Load Test and Locked rotor Test on the motor
the equivalent electrical circuit is developed. The same is simulated on the MATLAB/Simulink
platform with chopper controlled external resistance. The complete system is executed for
different duty cycles of chopper to evaluate the control parameters and performance parameters
of system. It is found that the high chopper frequency tend to improve the performance of three
phase slip ring induction motor drive such as, rotor rectified current, rotor phase current, speed
smoothing with reducing the torque pulsation and ripple of rotor rectified current whereas
increase in the duty cycle of chopper, the speed of the three phase induction motor is found to be
increased. So we conclude that, the proposed technique of speed control is optimum compared to
conventional techniques of speed control of three phase slip ring induction motor. Further the
same system could be upgraded to wireless speed control platform by providing control signal to
circuit from remote place
 CHAPTER THREE

3-PHASE AC DRIVES, SYSTEM COMPONENT AND OPERATION

3.1Three-Phase Induction Motor

3-phase AC induction motors can be operated either directly from the mains or from adjustable
frequency drives. The applications for these motors cover almost every stage of manufacturing
and processing. Applications also extend to commercial buildings and the domestic environment.
They are used to drive pumps, fans, compressors, mixers, agitators, mills, conveyors, crushers,
machine tools and cranes. It is increasingly common practice to use 3-phase squirrel cage AC
induction motors with variable voltage variable frequency (VVVF) converters for variable speed
drive (VSD) applications. The reliability of squirrel cage AC induction motors, compared to DC
motors, is high. The only parts of the squirrel cage motor that can wear are the bearings.

3.2 Basic construction

The induction motor comprises 2 electromagnetic parts:

 Stationary part called the stator
 Rotating part called the rotor, supported at each end on bearings
The stator and the rotor are each made up of: An electric circuit, usually made of insulated
copper or aluminum, to carry current
A magnetic circuit, usually made from laminated steel, to carry magnetic flux
i) The stator:-The stator is the outer stationary part of the motor, which consists of:
• The outer cylindrical frame of the motor, which is made either of welded sheets steel, cast iron
or cast aluminum alloy. This may include a flange for mounting.
• The magnetic path, which comprises a set of slotted steel laminations pressed into the
cylindrical space inside the outer frame. The magnetic path is laminated to reduce eddy currents,
lower losses and lower heating.
ii) The rotor:- This is the rotating part of the motor. As with the stator above, the rotor consists
of a set of slotted steel laminations pressed together in the form of a cylindrical magnetic path
and the electrical circuit. The electrical circuit of the rotor can be either: Wound rotor type,
which comprises 3 sets of insulated windings with connections brought out to 3 slip rings
mounted on the shaft. The external connections to the rotating part are made via brushes onto the
slip rings. Consequently, this type of motor is often referred to as a slip-ring motor. Squirrel cage
rotor type, which comprises a set of copper or aluminum bars installed into the slots, which are
connected to an end-ring at each end of the rotor. The construction of these rotor windings
resembles a ‘squirrel cage’. Aluminum rotor bars are usually die-cast into the rotor slots, which
results in a very rugged construction. Even though the aluminum rotor bars are in direct contact
with the steel laminations, practically all the rotor current flows through the aluminum bars and
not in the laminations.

3.3 Principles of operation

When the stator winding is energized by a three-phase supply, a rotating magnetic field is set-up
which rotates around the stator at synchronous speed Ns. This flux cuts the stationary rotor and
induces an electromotive force in the rotor winding. As the rotor windings are short circuited a
current flows in them. Again as these conductors are placed in the stator’s magnetic field, this
exerts a mechanical force on them by Lenz’s law. Lenz’s law tells us that the direction of rotor
currents will be such that they will try to oppose the cause producing them. Thus a
torque is produced which tries to reduce the relative speed between the rotor and the
magnetic field. Hence the rotor will rotate in the same direction as the flux. Thus the relative
speed between the rotor and the speed of the magnetic field is what drives the rotor.
Hence the rotor speed Nr always remains less than the synchronous speed Ns. Thus
Induction Motors are also called Asynchronous Motors. In the simplest type of three-phase
induction motor, the rotating field is produced by three fixed Stator windings, spaced 120° apart
around the perimeter of the stator. When the three stator windings are connected to the three-
phase power supply, the flux completes one rotation for every cycle of the supply voltage. On a
50 Hz power supply, the stator flux rotates at a speed of 50 revolutions per second, or 50 × 60 =
3000 rev per minute. The speed at which the stator flux rotates is called the synchronous speed
and, as shown above, depends on the number of poles of the motor and the power supply
frequency.
120 f
Ns═ rev/min
p
(3.1)
Where NS = Synchronous rotational speed in rev/min
f = Power supply frequency in Hz
p = Number of motor poles
Since the rotor bars are short circuited by the end-rings, current flows in these bars will set up its
own magnetic field. This field interacts with the rotating stator flux to produce the rotational
force. To produce torque, the rotor must rotate at a speed slower or faster than the synchronous
speed. Consequently, the rotor settles at a speed slightly less than the rotating flux, which
provides enough torque to overcome bearing friction and windage.
Induction motors are also referred to as asynchronous motors because the rotor speed is not in
synchronism with the rotating stator flux. The amount of slip is determined by the load torque,
which is the torque required to turn the rotor shaft.
At no-load, the rotor torque is required to overcome the frictional and windage losses of the
motor. As shaft load torque increases, the slip increases and more flux lines cut the rotor
windings, which in turn increases rotor current, which increases the rotor magnetic field and
consequently the rotor torque. Typically, the slip varies between about 1% of synchronous speed
at no-load to about 6% of synchronous speed at full-load.
Actual rotational speed is,
(Ns−N )
Slip ═ S ═ pu
NS
(3.2)
And actual rotational speed is
N═NS (1-s) Rev/min (3.3)
Where NS= Synchronous rotational speed in rev/min
N= Actual rotational speed in rev/min
s = Slip in per-unit

3.4 The equivalent circuit

This helps clarify what happens in the motor when stator voltage and frequency are changed or
when the load torque and slip are changed. The stator current IS, which is drawn into the stator
windings from the AC stator supply voltage V, can then be predicted using this model.
Figure3.2 The equivalent circuit of an AC induction motor
Where V = Stator supply voltage RS = Stator resistance
ES = Stator induced voltage XS = Stator leakage reactance at 50 Hz
ER = Rotor induced voltage RR = Rotor resistance
NS = Stator turns XR = Rotor leakage reactance
NR = Rotor turns XM = Magnetizing inductance
IS = Stator current
IR = Rotor current
IM = Magnetizing current
RC = Core losses, bearing friction, windage losses.
The main components of the motor electrical equivalent circuit are:
Resistances: - represent the resistive losses in an induction motor and comprise,
 Stator winding resistance losses (RS)
 Rotor winding resistance losses (RR)
 Iron losses, which depend on the grade and flux density of the core steel
 Friction and windage losses (RC)
Inductances: - represent the leakage reactance. These are associated with the fact that not all the
Flux produced by the stator windings cross the air-gap to link with the rotor windings and not all
of the rotor flux enters the air-gap to produce torque.
 Stator leakage reactance (XS)
 Rotor leakage reactance (XR)
 Magnetizing inductance (XM which produces the magnetic field flux)
In contrast with a DC motor, the AC induction motor does not have separate field windings. As
shown in the equivalent circuit, the stator current therefore serves a double purpose:
• It carries the current (IM) which provides the rotating magnetic field
• It carries the current (IR) which is transferred to the rotor to provide shaft torque.
The equivalent circuit can be simplified even further to represent only the most significant
components, which are:
• Magnetizing inductance (XM)
RR
• Variable rotor resistance ( )
S

Figure3. 3 The total stator current IS represents the vector sum of equivalent ckt

The reactive magnetizing current IM, which is largely independent of load and generates the
rotating magnetic field. This current lags the voltage by 90° and its magnitude depends on the
Stator voltage and its frequency. To maintain a constant flux in the motor, the V/f ratio should be
kept constant.

Xm= jωLm= j(2 πf ) ( 3.4)

V
Xm= (3.5a)
j(2 πf ) LM
V
ℑ=K ( ) (3.5b)
f
Where k=constant
The active current IR, which produces the rotor torque depends on the mechanical loading of the
machine and is proportional to slip. At no-load, when the slip is small, this current is small. As
load increases and slip increases, this current increases in proportion. This current is largely in
phase with the stator voltage.
The figure below shows the current vectors for low-load and high-load conditions.
Figure0-4.3 Stator current for low-load and high-load conditions

3.4 Electrical and mechanical performance

The angle between the two main stator components of voltage V and current IS, known as the
power factor angle represented by the angle φ and can be measured at the stator terminals. The
stator current is the vector sum of the magnetizing current IM, which is in quadrature to the
voltage, and the torque producing current IR, which is in phase with the voltage. Consequently,
the total apparent motor power S also comprises two components, which are in quadrature to one
another,
S=P+ jQ KVA (3.6)
And active power P can be calculated by
P ═ √ 3∗V∗IR KW (3.7)
Or
P ═ √ 3∗V∗IS∗COSφ KW (3.8)
Reactive power Q, can be calculated by
Q=√ 3∗V ∗ℑ KVAr (3.9)
Or
Q=√ 3∗V ∗IS∗Sinφ KVAr (3.10)
Where S = Total apparent power of the motor in kVA
P = Active power of the motor in kW
Q = Reactive power of the motor in kVAr
V = Phase-phase voltage of the power supply in kV
IS = Stator current of the motor in amps
𝜑= Phase angle between V and IS (power factor =cos𝜑)
Not all the electrical input power PI emerges as mechanical output power PM. A small portion
can be expressed in terms of the speed as follows. Not all the electrical input power PI emerges
as mechanical output power PM. A small portion of this power is lost in the stator resistance (3 I 2

Rs) and the core losses (3I M 2RC) and the rest crosses the air gap to do work on the rotor. An

additional small portion is lost in the rotor (3I 2 R R). The balance is the mechanical output power
PM of the rotor. The magnetizing path of the equivalent circuit is mainly inductive. At no load,
when the slip is small (slip s=0); the equivalent circuit shows that the effective rotor resistance

RR
tends to infinity. Therefore, the motor will draw only no-load magnetizing current. As the
S

RR
shaft becomes loaded and the slip increases, the magnitude of decreases and the current rises
S
sharply as the output torque and power increases. This affects the phase relationship between the
stator voltage and current and the power factor cos Ø. At no-load, the power factor is low, which
reflects the high component of magnetizing current. As mechanical load grows and slip
increases, the effective rotor resistance falls, active current increases and power factor improves.
The torque–speed curve can be derived from the equivalent circuit and the equations above. The
output torque of the motor can be expressed in terms of the speed as follows:
2
T M ═ 3∗s∗V (3.11)
¿¿
This equation and the curve in Figure 3.4 below, shows how the motor output torque TM varies
when the motor runs from standstill to full speed under a constant supply voltage and frequency.
The torque requirements of the mechanical load are shown as a dashed line.
Figure 3.4 Torque-speed curve for a three-phase AC induction motor
A: is called the breakaway starting torque
B: is called the pull-up torque
C: is called the pull-out torque (or breakdown torque or maximum torque)
D: is the synchronous speed (zero torque)
At starting, the motor will not pull away unless the starting torque exceeds the load breakaway
torque. Thereafter, the motor accelerates if the motor torque always exceeds the load torque. As
the speed increases, the motor torque will increase to a maximum Tmax at point C. On the
torque–speed curve, the final drive speed (and slip) stabilizes at the point where the load torque
exactly equals the motor output torque. If the load torque increases, the motor speed drops
slightly, slip increases, stator current increases, and the motor torque increases to match the load
requirements. The range CD on the torque–speed curve is the stable operating range for the
motor. If the load torque increased to a point beyond TMax, the motor would stall because, once
the speed drops sufficiently back to the unstable portion ABC of the curve, any increase in load
torque requirements TL and any further reduction in drive speed, results in a lower motor output
torque. The relationship between stator current IS and speed in an induction motor, at its rated
voltage and frequency, is shown in figure 3.5 below.
Figure 3.5 current speed characteristics of a three-phase induction motor.
3.5 Induction motor drives
Three-phase induction motors are used in adjustable speed drives and have three phase stator and
rotor windings. Stator winding are supplied with balanced three-phase ac voltages which induce
voltages in the rotor windings due to transformer action.
The speed and torque of induction motors can be varied by one of the following means;
• Stator voltage control
• Rotor voltage control
• Frequency control
• Stator voltage and frequency control
• Stator current control
• Voltage, current and frequency control
Of the above mentioned methods, V/f Control is the most popular and has found widespread use
in industrial and domestic applications because of its ease-of-implementation. However, it has
inferior dynamic performance compared to vector control. Thus in areas where precision is
required, V/f Control are not used. The various advantages of V/f Control are as follows:
i. It provides good range of speed.
ii. It gives good running and transient performance.
iii. It has low starting current requirement.
iv. It has a wider stable operating region.
v. Voltage and frequencies reach rated values at base speed.
vi. The acceleration can be controlled by controlling the rate of change of supply frequency.
vii. It is cheap and easy to implement.
To meet the torque-speed duty cycle of a drive, the voltage, current and frequency control are
used.

3.6 Voltage and frequency control

If ratio of voltage to frequency is kept constant, the flux in equation (14) remains constant and
thus maximum torque, which is independent of frequency, can be maintained constant. At a low
frequency, however, the air gap flux is reduced due to drop in stator impedances and voltage has
to be increased to maintain the torque level. This type of control is therefore known as volts/hertz
control. The Volts per Hertz control method, the most popular technique of Scalar Control,
controls the magnitude of such variables as frequency, voltage or current. The command and
feedback signals are DC quantities, and are proportional to the respective variables. The purpose
of the Volts per Hertz control scheme is to maintain the air-gap flux of AC induction motor in
constant, achieving higher run-time efficiency. In steady-state operation, the machine air-gap
flux is approximately related to the ratio Vs/fs, where Vs. is the amplitude of motor phase
voltage and fs is the synchronous electrical frequency applied to the motor. The control system is
illustrated in Figure 3-4.The characteristic is defined by the base point of the motor. Below the
base point, the motor operates at optimum excitation due to the constant Vs/fs ratio. Above this
point, the motor operates under-excited because of the DC Bus voltage limit. A simple
closedloop Volts per Hertz speed control for an induction motor is the control technique targeted
for low-performance drives. This basic scheme is unsatisfactory for more demanding
applications, where speed precision is required. Torque-speed characteristics for volts/hertz
control are as shown in the figure below
Figure3. 6Torque-speed characteristics with volts/hertz control
Speed Closed-Loop System

To improve system performance, a closed-loop Volts per Hertz control was introduced. In this
method, a speed sensor measures the actual motor speed and the system takes this input into
consideration. A number of applications use the closed-loop Volts per Hertz method because of
its simple and relatively good speed accuracy, but it is not suitable for systems requiring servo
performance or excellent response to highly dynamic torque/speed variations.
Figure 3.7 illustrates the general principle of the speed PI control loop.

Figure3.7 Closed Loop Control System

Three possible circuit arrangements, for obtaining variable voltage and frequency in three-phase
Inverters are;
a. Fixed dc and PWM inverter drive.
b. Variable dc and inverter drive.
c. Variable dc from dual converter and inverter.
In case a, the dc voltage remains constant and the PWM techniques are applied to vary both the
voltage and frequency within the inverter. Due to the diode rectifier, regeneration is not possible
and the inverter generates harmonics into the ac supply.
In case b, the chopper varies the dc voltage to the inverter and the inverter controls the
frequency. The chopper reduces harmonic injection into the ac supply. In case c, the voltage is
varied by the dual converter and frequency is controlled within the inverter. It permits
regeneration but the input power factor of converter is low (especially at high delay angle).

3.7 Thyristor control of ac motors

The thyristor or SCR is a semiconductor device that is capable of controlling large currents.
The thyristor converter is used as a variable speed drive. The static variable frequency ac drive
uses a cage rotor induction motor or synchronous reluctance motor powered by a static frequency
converter. This gives a versatile and robust variable speed machine. Which has the advantages
over conventional variable speed drives of higher accuracy-better reliability, reduced
maintenance and higher efficiency.

3.8 Generation of variable frequency ac power

i. Rotating frequency converters
They are used principally in multi motor mill drives and in special applications where a high
operating frequency is chosen in order to permit the use of compact ac motors.
ii. Static frequency converters
They improve the performance and reliability if used in place of rotating frequency converters.
To obtain high frequency it is essential to use static switching devices which are either on off. In
the on condition, the device approximates to an ideal closed switch having zero voltage drops
across it and a current which is determined by the external circuit.
In the off condition, the device approximates an ideal open switch which has infinite impedance
and blocks the flow of current in the circuit. If the solid state switch can be triggered from the off
condition to on condition by a low power control signal, the device can be used in converter
circuits for generation of variable frequency alternating voltages.
The thyristor is ideal because of
1. Its availability in high power ratings.
A thyristor can be triggered into conduction by an external signal on the gate electrode and can
also be switched off by an external signal. Turn off or commutation can be achieved by
interrupting the anode current. If the thyristor operates on ac supply, natural commutation occurs.
In dc operated circuits, current does not go to zero naturally and forced commutation must be
used. This technique employs auxiliary charged capacitors to force the current in a conducting
thyristor to zero.
2. The thyristor is a more efficient switching device since the voltage drop in the on condition is
approximately 1volt.
3. Switching times of thyristor are of order of magnitude lower than those of thyratron. The
reduced turn- off times permits a significant reduction in auxiliary apparatus necessary to
achieve forced commutation.
4. The thyristor is also more rugged and durable device and is more compact, even with its
associated heat sink. Being a semiconductor, it has no warm up time and it eliminates the
filament heating supply of thyratron.

3.9. Pulse Width Modulated (PWM) inverter

An inverter is a DC-to-AC converter, whose function is to change a dc input voltage to

asymmetrical ac output voltage of desired magnitude and frequency. Output voltage could be
fixed or variable at a fixed or variable frequency.
A variable output voltage is obtained by varying the input ac voltage and maintaining the gain of
the inverter constant; or the dc voltage is fixed and a varying output voltage obtained by varying
the gain of the inverter which is accomplished by pulse-width-modulation (PWM) control within
the inverter. The inverter gain may be defined as the ratio of ac output voltage to dc input
voltage.
Output voltage waveforms of ideal inverter are sinusoidal but practical waveforms of practical
inverters are non-sinusoidal and contain certain harmonics.
For low and medium power applications, square wave or quasi square wave voltages may be
acceptable; and for high power applications, low distorted sinusoidal waveforms are required.
With the availability of high-speed power semiconductor devices, harmonic content of output
voltage waveforms can be minimized.
Inverters, single and three- phase, use controlled turn-on and turn–off devices (BJT’s,
MOSFET’s, IGBT’s, MCT’s, GTO’s, etcetra) or forced commutated thyristors. These inverters
use PWM control signals for producing an ac output voltage.
A voltage fed inverter (VFI) is one with a constant input voltage, while a current fed inverter
(CFI) is one with a constant input current. A variable dc linked inverter is one with controllable
input voltage.

3.10 Three phase inverters

They are used for high power applications and a three-phase output can be obtained from a
configuration of six switching devices as shown in the figure below

Figure3.7 Three-phase inverter

Two types of control signals can be applied to the switching devices;
• 180° conduction
• 120° conduction
i. 180-Degree conduction.
Each switching device conducts for 180°. Three switches remain ON at any instant of time.
When Q1is switched on, terminal, A, is connected to the positive terminal of dc input voltage.
When Q4is switched on, terminal A, is brought to the negative terminal of input dc voltage. Six
modes of operation exist and each lasts 60° in conduction. The switches are numbered in the
sequence of firing or gating (123, 234, 345, 456, 561, and 612). The gating signals are shifted
from each other by 60° as shown in the figure below.
 Figure 3.8 gating signals for 180° conduction

The load may be connected in wye or delta. For a delta connected load, the phase currents are
obtained directly from the line-to-line voltages. With phase currents known, line currents can be
determined. For wye-connected load, the line to neutral voltages must be determined to find the
line (or phase) currents. Three modes of operation exist in a half cycle,

Figure3.8 Three Phase Inverter with y connected load

 π
Mode 1 for 0≤ωt≤
3
R
Req=R+ =1.5 R (3.14)
2
Vs 2 Vs
Ia= = (3.15)
Req 3 R
R Vs
Van=Vcn=Ia = (3.16)
2 3
−2 Vs
Vcn=IaR= (3.17)
3
π 2π
Mode 2 for ≤ ωt ≤
3 3
During this mode,
R
Req=R+ =1.5 R (3.18)
2
Vs 2 Vs
Ib= = (3.19)
Req 3 R
2Vs
Vcn=IbR= (3.20)
3
−IbR −Vs
Vbn=Vcn= = (3.21)
2 3
2π
Mode 3 for ≤ ωt≤π
3
R
Req=R+ =1.5 R (3.22)
2
Vs 2 Vs
I 3= = (3.23)
Req 3 R
IcR Vs
Van=Vbn= = (3.24)
2 3
−2 Vs
Vcn=̵ IcR= (3.25)
3
The phase voltages are shown in figure b. The instantaneous line-to-line voltage, Vab, expressed
π
in Fourier series, with the recognition that Vab is shifted by, rad, and that the even harmonics
6
being zero,
∞
4 vs nπ π
Vbn= ∑ cos sin n(ωt+ ) (3.26)
n=1,3,5… nπ 6 6
Vbc and are obtained by phase shifting Vab in equation (3.26),above 120 degree and 140 degree
respectively
∞
4 vs nπ π
Vbc= ∑ cos sin n(ωt- ) (3.27)
n=1,3,5… , nπ 6 2
∞
4 vs nπ 7π
Vca= ∑ cos sin n(ωt- )
n=1,3,5… , nπ 6 6
(3.28)
Note:
Triplen harmonics (n=3, 9, 15….) will be zero, from equations (3.27) and (3.28) of the line-to-
line voltages.
The line-to-line rms voltage,
2π
1 3 2
VL=[
∫ Vs2 d (ωt )¿
1/2
=√ Vs=0.8165Vs (3.29)
π 3
0

The rms nth component of line voltage is,

4 Vs nπ
VLn= cos
√ 2 nπ 6
(3.30)
Which for n=1 gives,
4 Vscos 30
VLn= = 0.7797Vs
√ 2π
(3.31)
The rms value of phase voltages is,
VL √ 2 Vs
Vp= = =0.4714Vs
√3 3
(3.32)
ii. 120-degree conduction
In this type of control, each switching device conducts for 120°. Only two switches remain on at
a time. The gating signals are as shown in figure below.
 Figure 3.9 gating signals for 120° conduction
There are six modes of operation as well, and the gating sequence is, 61, 12, 23, 34, 45, 56,
and 61.
π
Mode 1 for 0≤ ωt ≤
3
Switching devices 1 and 6 are on.
Vs Vs
Van= ,Vbn= , Vcn=0
2 2
π 2π
Mode 2 for ≤ωt≤
3 3
Switching devices 1 and 6 are on.
Vs −Vs
Van= ,Vbn=0 , Vcn=
2 2
2π
Mode 3 for ≤ ωt ≤ π
3
Switches 2 and 3 are on.
Vs −Vs
Van=0 ,Vbn= , Vcn=
2 2
The Phase voltages expressed in Fourier series are,
∞
2 vs nπ π
Van= ∑ cos sin n(ωt) ) (3.33)
n=1,3,5… , nπ 6 6
∞
2 vs nπ π
Vbn= ∑ cos sin n(ωt - ) (3.34)
n=1,3,5… , nπ 6 2
∞
2 vs nπ 7π
Vcn= ∑ cos sin n(ωt- ) (3.35)
n=1,3,5… , nπ 6 6
The line a-to-b voltage, Vab=√3Van, with a phase advance of 30°. There is a delay of π/6 rad
Between turn-off of Q1and turn-on of Q4.

3.12 Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) switching scheme

General Theory of PWM (Pulse Width Modulation)
PWM (Pulse Width Modulation) technology was put forward based on an important conclusion
in the sample control theory that when two groups of pulses with the same impulse area but
different waveforms are input to an inertial link, the effectiveness of these two groups of
impulses are the same. The main principle of PWM technique can be briefly described as:
Through ON/OFF control on the semiconductor switching components, a series of pulses with
the same amplitude and different width are generated on the output port to replace the sinusoidal
wave or other wave forms required. The duty cycle of the output waveform needs to be
modulated by a certain rule and as a result both the output voltage and output frequency of the
inverter can be regulated. To produce a sinusoidal output voltage waveform at a desired
frequency, a sinusoidal control signal at the desired frequency is compared with a triangular
waveform. The frequency of triangular wave forms establishes the inverter switching frequency
which is kept constant with its amplitude, Vtri
The control signal,Vcon, is used to modulate the switching duty ratio and has a frequency, f,
which is the desired fundamental frequency of inverter output voltage.
Amplitude modulation ratio is given by,
ma=Vcon/Vtri (3.36)
Frequency modulation ratio is given by,
Mf=fs/f (3.37)
Thus, the peak amplitude of the fundamental frequency component is given by,
Vo=ma*Vd/2 (3.38)
Therefore the amplitude of the fundamental component varies linearly with ma(provided ma≤1).
For mf≤9(which is always the case except in high power ratings), harmonic amplitudes are
almost independent of mf, though mf defines the frequency at which they occur.
SPWM (Sinusoidal PWM)
Basic Principle
Among all PWM schemes, SPWM is one of the most popular and simple methods utilized in
power inverter and motor control fields. Its main features can be summarized as sine-triangle
wave comparison. As shown in Figure 4, a sine wave (modulated wave, magenta) is compared
with a triangle wave (carrier wave, green) and when the instantaneous value of the triangle wave
is less than that of the sine wave, the PWM output signal (orange) is in high level (1). Otherwise
it is turned into the low level (0). The level switching edge is produced at every moment the sine
wave intersects the triangle wave. Thus the different crossing positions result in variable duty
cycle of the output waveform.
 Figure3.10 SPWM Waveform Generation
Modulation Index

When the amplitude of the modulated sine wave is larger than that of the carrier triangle wave,
over modulation occurs. Once the sine wave reaches the peak of the triangle, the PWM pulses
will obtain the maximum width so the modulation will enter the state of saturation. Therefore the
item “Modulation index” (represented by m) defined by the ratio of the amplitude of the
modulated wave to that of the carrier wave is introduced to describe the modulation state. When
0<m<1, the linear relationship between the input and PWM output voltage is maintained. If the
value of modulation index exceeds 1, this linear mode cannot be kept anymore and the special
control strategy for over modulation is required.

3.13 Selection of switching frequency and frequency modulation ratio.

Because of the relative ease in filtering harmonic voltages at high frequencies, it is desirable to
use a high switching frequency as possible, except for one drawback; switching losses in inverter
switches increase proportionally with the switching frequency fs. Normally fs, is either less than
6 kHz or greater than 20 kHz.
In 50-60 Hz type applications such as ac motor drives Mf≤9, for switching frequencies less than
2 kHz. mf will be larger than 100 for fs¿20kHz.
The desirable relationship between v triand v con waveforms are dictated by how large mf is.
For synchronous PWM, triangular waveform frequency varies with desired inverter frequency.
For example;
If f=65.42 Hz and mf =15, then, f s = 15*65.42 = 981.3 Hz

3.14 THREE-PHASE RECTIFIERS.

Three phase rectifier circuits are preferred to single phase circuits because of their lower ripple
content in the waveforms and a higher power handling capability. A filter is usually connected at
the dc side of the rectifier.
Idealized circuit with Ls=0 is as shown in figure below;

Figure 3.10 uncontrolled three-phase rectifier.

The current Id flows through one diode in the top group and one from the bottom group. The
diode with its anode at the highest potential will conduct (from the top group), and the other two
become reverse biased. In the bottom group, the diode with its cathode at the lowest potential
will conduct and the other two become reverse biased.
3.15 Inverter gate control circuit
Two 555 Ic timer are required for gate control of an inverter. These are astable mode and
monostable modes.
3.16 sensors
The closed-loop control schemes require sensing of physical quantifies to generate a useable
feedback signal which may be compared with the input reference. The control signal is often a
10 volt d.c. signal or is converted to digital form if required. A few sensors provide direct digital
output. Current may be measured by the voltage drop across a small resistor but is more
commonly sensed using a Hall-effect transducer, which produces a voltage proportional to the
electromagnetic field (of flux density B) created by the current being measured. Speed may be
measured using a D.C. macho generator, but digital devices are now more common. The output
is a train of pulses produced when poles or optical lines pass a detector. The count of pulses or
time between pulses provides a direct digital measure of shaft speed. A similar form of sensor is
used for digital position-sensing. In an 'incremental' encoder, the passage of a transparent disc.

Power Load
Sources Motor
modulator
 Sensing
Sources
unit

Input
Command

Figure3.11 Block diagram of an electrical drive

A combination of prime mover, transmission equipment and mechanical Working load is called a
drive. An Electric Drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical
energy to mechanical energy to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for various
kinds of process control. The aggregate of the electric motor, the energy transmitting shaft and
the control equipment by which the motor characteristics are adjusted and their operating
conditions with respect to mechanical load varied to suit practical requirements is called as
electric drive.
Drive system=Drive + load
Load: usually a machinery to accomplish a given task. Eg-fans, pumps, washing machine etc.
Power modulator: modulators (adjust or converter) power flow from the source to the motion.
Motor: actual energy converting machine (electrical to mechanical)
Source: energy requirement for the operation the system.
Control: adjust motor and load characteristics for the optimal mode.
Power modulators: Power modulators regulate the power flow from source to the motor to
enable the motor to develop the torque speed characteristics required by the load.The common
function of the power modulator is,
  They contain and control the source and motor currents with in permissible limits during
the transient operations such as starting, braking, speed reversal etc.
 They converts the input electrical energy into the form as required by the motors.
 Adjusts the mode of operation of the motor that is motoring, braking are regenerative.
Power modulators may be classified as,
 Converters uses power devices to convert uncontrolled valued to controllable output.
 Switching circuits switch mode of operation.
 Variable impedance Converters
 CHAPTER FOUR

DESIGN OF THE SYSTEM

4.1 System Design Concept

The system is designed to drive a 3-phase AC induction motor. The application meets the
following performance specifications:

• Running on 3-phase AC IM motor control development platform at variable line voltage 115 -
230V AC

V/Hz speed closed-loop

The AC drive introduced here is designed as a system that meets the general performance
requirements in 4.1

Table 4-1.

4.2 Rectifier design

Three-phase full-wave rectification was chosen, and the choice of diodes was governed by the
expected load current I dc = 20 ampere, the peak inverse voltage, and the line to neutral voltage
which was assumed to be 120V at supply frequency 50 Hz. The average current of a diode in the
three-phase rectifier is,
I dc 20
I d= = = 6.7 ≈ 7.0 amps
3 3
(4.1)
The rms current is,
I dc 20
I rms = = = 14.14 amps
√2 √2
(4.2)
The peak inverse voltage, PIV, is the maximum voltage that can be safely applied across the
diode when reverse biased. Therefore,
PIV =√ 3∗Vm= √ 3∗√ 2∗Van=294 V (4.3)
The output ripple voltage V ac is found approximately from equation, (47) below. In this design,
the ripple voltage was considered negligible.
V rms( pp)
V ac =
2√2
(4.4)
The ripple factor RF is found from,
V ac
RF =
V dc
(4.5)
From the above specifications, the diode used is 1N5404, which had the following properties
I rrm = 300A
V rrm = 400V
V F = 0.6V

4.2 Inverter selection

IGBT:-Selected Rating: -
Based on the above expected load current:-
IGBT current= 20A
IGBT voltage =400V
IGBT gate current > 0.5Amp.

4.3 Motor rating selection

The selection is based on following consideration:-

 Size
 Power supply
For single phase induction motor 115v, 220v and 230v are require and For three phase induction
motor 208v, 380v and 400v are required.
Motor speed (RPM) mostly in between 1500 rpm and 1700rpm.
 Motor duty:- it is the amount of time that the motor operating under full load.
 Continues duty:- constant full load over 60 minutes at a time.
 Direction of motor
 Cost
 Maintenance
Based on the above consideration we select three Phase Squirrel Cage Induction Motor with
mechanical load arrangement
3 Phase
3 H.P (2.2kw)
20A
120V,
1500 rpm

4.4 Frequency control and generation of gating signals circuitry

Pulse width modulation was achieved by using two 555 timers configured as shown in the figure
4.1 below.
Figure 4.1 Pulse width modulation circuit using 555 timers.
The waveforms in the figure 4.1 below help to explain the way in which this method of control
operates. In each case the signal has maximum and minimum voltages of 5V and 0V. In
waveform 1a, the signal has a mark-space ratio of 1:1, with the signal at 5V for 50% of the time.
In waveform 1b, the signal has a mark-space ratio of 3:1, which means that the output is at 5V
for 75% of the time. In waveform 1c, the signal has a mark-space ratio is 1:3, giving an output
signal that is 5V for just 25% of the time. By varying the mark-space ratio of the signal over the
full range, it is possible to obtain any desired average output voltage from 0V to 5V.

Figure 4.1 PWM waveforms

4.5 Designing a PWM Circuit

The concept of PWM requires timing. Two 555 timer ICs and some potentiometers are used to
generate a PWM signal, and since PWM provides a digital, on/off signal, it is also easy to use a
PC or micro-controller to create the signal.
The circuit in figure 4.1, uses two 555 ICs and is a combination of two types of circuit. The first
is a free running multivibrator (astable) with an adjustable frequency. The output of this circuit
then triggers a pulse shaping (monostable) circuit which adjusts the width of the pulse. The
circuit produces a duty cycle in the range of approximately 0.3% to 97%.
The frequency preset (R2) of the 555 astable circuit allows the frequency of the signal to be
adjusted so that the duty ratio potentiometer (R4) can achieve its full range. Modulation
frequency is measured at pin 3 of the 555 astable.
The output of the monostable timer was then used to clock a five stage Johnson counter, which is
then connected as in the figure below, to generate three signals, 120 degrees out of phase. The
other three signals are the inverted outputs of the first three signals.

4.6 Clock pulse generator

Timer configuration used is as shown in the figure 4.2 below.

Figure 4.2 clock pulse generator

To maintain the phase displacement angle at 60°, a clock pulse was fed to the counter and the
frequency of the clock determines the output frequency of the inverter.
The output waveform is as shown in the figure 4.1 above.
Where,
T1 ≈ 0.7C( R A + R B) (4.9)
T2 ≈ 0.7 R B c
The output frequency,
1 1
f = T
= T 1+T 2
(4.10)
Thus,
1.44
f =
C( R A +2 R B )
(4.11)
The duty cycle,
R A + RB
D =
R A +2 RB
(4.12)
By making RB variable, output frequency can be made variable. Fixing the output frequency of
inverter at maximum frequency of 100 Hz, and a minimum frequency of 20 Hz, time period of
clock pulse for 100 Hz inverter frequency is,
1 1
T1= * =0.83ms
3 4∗100
(4.13)
Therefore maximum timer frequency,
1 103
f1 = T1
= = 1200 Hz
O.83
(4.14)
For minimum inverter frequency of 20 Hz, time period of clock pulse,
1
T2= = 4.17ms
3∗4∗20
(4.15)
Therefore minimum frequency of timer is given by,
10 3
f2 = = 240Hz
4.17
(4.16)
At f =1200 Hz, let RB = 0 and C = 0.1µF, then,

R A =¿
1.4 1.4∗106
= = 11.6kΩ
f ∗c 0.1∗1200
(4.17)
At the minimum frequency of 240 Hz,

RA 1.4∗106
+RB = = 58.3kΩ
0.1∗240
(4.18)
1
Implying that R B = (58.3 - 11.6) kΩ
2
Thus, R B can be varied from 0-24 kΩ.

CHAPTER FIVE

SYSTEM MODELING MODELING SIMULATION AND RESULT

DISCUTION
 CHAPTER SIX

CONCLUSSION AND RECOMANDATION

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