Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Progress in Aerospace Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paerosci

A review of acoustic dampers applied to combustion chambers in

aerospace industry
Dan Zhao n, X.Y. Li
Division of Aerospace Engineering, School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
639798, Singapore

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In engine combustion systems such as rockets, aero-engines and gas turbines, pressure fluctuations are al-
Received 18 March 2014 ways present, even during normal operation. One of design prerequisites for the engine combustors is stable
Received in revised form operation, since large-amplitude self-sustained pressure fluctuations (also known as combustion instability)
14 November 2014
have the potential to cause serious structural damage and catastrophic engine failure. To dampen pressure
Accepted 10 December 2014
fluctuations and to reduce noise, acoustic dampers are widely applied as a passive control means to stabilize
Available online 23 December 2014
combustion/engine systems. However, they cannot respond to the dynamic changes of operating conditions
Keywords: and tend to be effective over certain narrow range of frequencies. To maintain their optimum damping
Acoustic dampers performance over a broad frequency range, extensive researches have been conducted during the past four
Engine system
decades. The present work is to summarize the status, challenges and progress of implementing such
Propulsion
acoustic dampers on engine systems. The damping effect and mechanism of various acoustic dampers, such
Aeroacoustics
Combustion instability as Helmholtz resonators, perforated liners, baffles, half- and quarter-wave tube are introduced first. A
Passive control summary of numerical, experimental and theoretical studies are then presented to review the progress made
so far. Finally, as an alternative means, ‘tunable acoustic dampers’ are discussed. Potential, challenges and
issues associated with the dampers practical implementation are highlighted.
& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.1. Brief description of the damping mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
1.2. Other passive control approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
1.3. Active control approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
2. Description of combustion-excited oscillations and acoustic dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.1. Unsteady combustion as an efficient sound source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2.2. Acoustic dampers applied in engine systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.2.1. Helmholtz resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.2.2. Acoustic liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
2.2.3. Quarter- and half-wave tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
2.2.4. Baffles and other damping approaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3. ‘Tunable’ acoustic dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.1. Tunable Helmholtz resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.2. Tunable acoustic liners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.3. Challenges and issues associated with acoustic dampers implementation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4. Discussion and conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (D. Zhao).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paerosci.2014.12.003
0376-0421/& 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130 115

1. Introduction liquid-fueled rocket motors. Thus it has become common practice

to adjust the design of the fuel supply system or to add acoustic
Combustion systems such as rocket motors and aero-engines dampers to the liquid-fueled rocket motors. However, it is worth
are associated with acoustic pressure fluctuations even during noting that implementing acoustic dampers may enhance com-
normal, stable operation of engine systems [1–7]. These pressure bustion system stability but may also affect combustion perfor-
fluctuations are typically quite random. The corresponding fre- mance and combustor heat loads [4,1].
quency spectrum is continuous in nature. However, in unstable The most commonly used acoustic dampers include Helmholtz
combustion systems, large concentrations of acoustical energy resonators, perforated liners, quarter-and half-wave tubes, and
appear at some frequencies (corresponding to the combustor re- baffles [31,8,32,33]. As all of these are relevant to the present
sonance ones) in the spectrum. The easily recognized peaks (har- work, we will now introduce briefly their damping mechanisms
monics or non-harmonics) are different from the spectrum of the one by one. Detailed discussion on their implementation and
stable systems with random noise [8–10,3]. For engine combus- performance is reported in the following sections.
tors, stable operation is one of design prerequisites [2,11], since
large-amplitude self-sustained pressure fluctuations (also known 1.1. Brief description of the damping mechanism
as combustion instability) have great potential to cause serious
damage and catastrophic engine failure. However, no engine type
or propulsion system can be considered inherently ‘stable’ [12].
Helmholtz resonators.
There are many factors affecting engine stability, for example the Helmholtz resonators (HRs) have been widely used as acoustic
configuration of the engine-feed systems, injector, and thrust dampers to dampen combustion-excited oscillations
chamber as well as operating conditions. Therefore, it is important [34,23,8,35]. A schematic of a typical set-up is shown in Fig. 3
to address the issue of mitigating self-sustained pressure fluctua- (a). It consists of a volume connected to the combustor by
tions as well as engine performance during the early stages of means of a short neck. At resonance, a large volume of fluid in
engine design. Otherwise, required modifications might become the cavity compresses and expands periodically, while a mass
too difficult to implement [13,14]. of the fluid in the neck oscillates. This can be explained by
Combustion systems are associated with the burning of the studying the relation between the pressure perturbation p′ (t)
mixture of fuel and oxidizer/air. Unsteady combustion is an effi- at the neck and the cavity volume flow rate Q ′ (t) of the re-
cient acoustic source. It generates acoustic pressure waves. These sonator with a cavity volume V. For harmonic disturbances i.e.
^
pressure waves propagate within the combustor, and partially exp{jωt} , the density change in the cavity ρ^c (ω) = Q (ω)/jωV is
reflect from boundaries to arrive back at the combustion zone, due to the mass flowing into the cavity [36]. It is also related to
where they can cause more unsteady heat release. This feedback the pressure fluctuation in the cavity as
can result in the pressure oscillation amplitudes successively in- ^
c 2 Q (ω)
creasing, which is what is meant by a combustion instability [15– p^c (ω) = c02 ρ^c (ω) = 0
19]. Eventually, some nonlinearity in the combustion system will V jω (1)
limit the amplitude of the oscillations. Whether or not an in- where c0 is the speed of sound. According to the momentum
stability occurs depends on the nature of the coupling between the conservation law in the neck, the pressure difference between
unsteady heat release and acoustic waves, as shown in Fig. 1. the neck ends equals the rate of momentum change as
Self-sustained combustion oscillations occur frequently in
many types of combustion systems, including aero-engine after- ^
jωleff Q (ω)
burners [20], ramjets [21], stationary power gas turbines [22,23], Δp^ (ω) = p^i (ω) − p^c (ω) =
S (2)
boilers and furnaces [24]. However, the present work focuses on
reviewing how to improve the stability of aeroengines as shown in where S and leff are the cross-sectional area and the effective
Fig. 2(a) and rocket motors [25,26], as shown in Fig. 2(b). length of the neck respectively. After substituting for p^c (ω), it
In a few instances, aerial vehicles and rockets are lost during can be shown that
flight tests due to combustion instability. However, combustion ^
Q (ω) ωS
stability [1,27–29] issues can be resolved during the engine de- =
p^i (ω) ⎛ 2 c02 S ⎞
velopment stage. There are two general approaches to stabilize ⎜ω − ⎟ jl
⎝ Vleff ⎠ eff (3)
combustion systems. One is to modify the propellant supply sys-
tem. The other is to change the combustor geometry. These two The damper resonates at a frequency of
approaches have been widely used in different types of propulsion
systems [30]. For solid rockets, it is general practice to change c02 S
ωres =
the propellant composition or to modify the geometry of the Vleff (4)
propellant grain. However, it is difficult to alter the reactants in
Near this frequency very small pressure disturbances can lead
to large mass variations. The acoustic damping effect provided
by a Helmholtz resonator at its resonant frequency depends
on the bulk geometry of the resonator. It has been shown
[37,2] that the maximum damping occurs by tuning/varying
the resonator geometry so that the resonant frequency ωres is
close to the oscillation frequency that is to be mitigated in the
combustor.
Factors such as neck shapes are also found to have an
influence on the resonator damping effect; for example
rounded (see Fig. 3(b)) and square shaped necks [38] produce
significantly different acoustic responses [11]. Furthermore, it
is found that installing a perforated plate at the resonator neck
Fig. 1. Schematic of a simplified combustion system. can dramatically increase the acoustic damping [39].
116 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130

Fig. 2. (a) Perspective view of a turbofan aeroengine with perforated liners installed in the combustion chamber. (b) Cutaway view of a rocket combustion chamber with
longitudinal injector-face baffles and acoustic liner implemented. Taken from Harrje and Reardon [2].

Fig. 3. (a) Schematic of a typical Helmholtz resonator. (b) 3D drawing of a Helmholtz resonator with a cylindrical cavity.

There are two different damping mechanisms associated with

Helmholtz resonators: linear and nonlinear. When the ampli-
tude of incident pressure waves is small, the damping is a
linear one, which is associated with thermal and viscous velocity(m/s): 0.50 1.57 2.64 3.71 4.79 5.86 6.93 8.00
boundary layer losses. The nonlinear one involves energy 0.05
conversion from acoustical energy to produce vortex shedding 0.04
and ‘jet’, when the incident pressure wave amplitude is large.
Thus the damping of combustion-excited oscillations arises 0.03
y(m)

primarily due to the thermo-viscous and/or vortex shedding 0.02

losses, that result from the periodic motion of the air
[37,40,41] through the resonator neck. The relative contribu- 0.01
tion of these two mechanisms depends on the acoustic 0
Strouhal number. 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14

Perforated liners: x(m)

Another type of acoustic dampers is the perforated plate/liner, Fig. 5. Velocity contour of acoustically-excited flow through an in-duct orifice.
which has received wide-spread interest for stabilizing Taken from Ji and Zhao [50,51].

Fig. 4. (a) Schematic of a typical perforated plate. (b) 3D drawing of a cylindrical acoustic liner with circular orifices.
 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130 117

Fig. 7. Example forms of baffles/rods used in solid propellant rockets. Taken from
Culick [1].

properties of the combustion system. It can be used to miti-

gate both longitudinal and transverse modes, as shown in
Fig. 6. Schematics of a half-wave (a) and quarter-wave tube (b). Taken from Sohn
Fig. 8, depending on the baffle implementation. It is shown
and Park [33].
[1,2,54] that the vortices generated at the baffle edges dis-
sipate acoustical energy and thus increases the acoustic
damping. One of the earliest baffles used in a liquid-fueled
rocket engine system might be a resonance rod [54]. The
combustion systems [42–44]. It is a metal sheet with perfo- damping performance of such baffle will be discussed further
rated orifices fitted along the bounding wall of the combustor in the following section.
[45]. A typical perforated plate and a cylindrical acoustic liner
are illustrated in Fig. 4(a) and (b) respectively. They are fre-
quently arranged in layers. In practice, cooling air flows 1.2. Other passive control approach
through the perforated holes (known as a bias flow) to pre-
vent the liners from being damaged by high temperature. Combustion-excited oscillations occur in different types of
The damping mechanism mainly involves vortex shedding combustion chambers. The generation mechanisms of such oscil-
[46–51] generated over the rims of the perforated holes, as lations are different. Thus various passive control approaches are
shown in Fig. 5. When incident sound waves interact and developed in addition to the acoustic dampers discussed above.
destabilize with shear layers formed at the orifice rims, vortex One of the control approaches is to inject coaxial flows to suppress
rings are formed and the sound energy is converted into combustion oscillations driven by vortex shedding in dump
kinetic energy being dissipated by the surrounding fluid. combustors [55], where large-scale vortices trigger the self-
Generally, the fluctuating aperture volume flux 8 ′(t)=
^ (ω) exp(jω/c t) is related to the stagnation enthalpy differ- sustained oscillations. In addition, a secondary heat source such
8 0
as an electrical heater could be used as another simple ‘passive
ence across the aperture via Rayleigh conductivity [52,53].
control’ approach to mitigate combustion-excited oscillations
And it is given in dimensionless form [48] as
[56]. Experiments are being conducted to evaluate the perfor-
^ mance of using a secondary heater on stabilizing a combustion
8 (ω)
KR = − jρ 0 ω = γ (ω) + jδ (ω) system [57].
Δp^ (ω) (5)

the real part of Rayleigh conductivity describes the reactance 1.3. Active control approach
and the imaginary part denotes the impedance, which gives
rise to the acoustic damping effect. Here ρ0 denotes the mean Stabilizing combustion systems can also be achieved by ap-
density of the air flow through the orifice. plying active control techniques. It involves using a dynamic ac-

Quarter-/half-wave tube: tuator such as a loudspeaker or fuel supply valve to modify some
A quarter- and half-wave tubes [33,32,11] as shown in Fig. 6 input to combustion systems. Depending on the form of actuation,
are another type of acoustic dampers. Their damping me- they may alter the dynamics of energy source or increase the
chanism is mainly due to resonance-induced thermo-viscous surface/boundary loss. For example, modulating the fuel flow rate
and/or vortex shedding effects, which is similar to Helmholtz into the combustor will principally cause the unsteady energy
resonators. The quarter- or half-wave tube geometry para- source to be ‘stabilized’ (if the actuation has been designed cor-
meters such as the length lres and diameter dres affect the tube rectly). Active control can be applied in open-loop or closed-loop
damping performance, since they are related to their resonant configuration. In open-loop, the control action does not depend on
frequencies. When the frequencies of combustion-excited os- the combustor response, while for closed-loop (feedback) control
cillations are close to the resonant ones of these tubes, the as shown in Fig. 9, the controller drives the actuator in response to
oscillations can be effectively dampened due to viscous effect. a sensor measurement. The sensor (e.g. a microphone, pressure
The resonant frequencies of the tubes are given as transducer or photomultiplier) continuously ‘senses’ the condition
2π c 0 of the unstable combustion system. This information is used by the
ωres = controller to determine an actuation signal, which is fed into the
5 (lres + Δl) (6)
actuator. The actuator ‘perturbs’ the state of the system in a
where Δl denotes open end correction. 5 is a constant. For a manner that either prevents the onset or dampens the combus-
half-wave tube, 5 = 2 and 5 = 4 for a quarter-wave one. tion-excited oscillations. The design of the controller i.e. the re-

Baffles and other damping approaches: lationship between the sensor and the actuator signal is crucial in
A ‘baffle’ [11,1,2] is a structure placed in a rocket combustion ensuring that instability is suppressed. Detailed reviews of feed-
chamber to dampen unwanted oscillations, as shown back control techniques are reported in the previous works
in Fig. 7. Generally, the baffle modifies the acoustic resonance [58,13].
118 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130

0.5

−0.5

−1

Fig. 8. Normalized pressure contour plots of the solution of Helmholtz equation in a cylindrical combustor with coordinates (r , θ , z ), i.e. p(r,θ,1)/max(p(r,θ,1)) (a) mode(2,1,1),
(b) mode(3,1,1), (c) mode(2,2,1) and (d) mode(3,2,1).

dρ ∂ρ dp ∂ρ ds 1 dp ∂ρ ds
= + = +
dt ∂p s
dt ∂s p de c 2 dt ∂s p dt (8)

For a perfect gas ρ = p/RT = γp/c 2, ∂ρ /∂s|p = − ρT (γ − 1)/c 2 = − ρ /c p .

Eq. (8) can then be rewritten as

dρ 1 dp ρ (γ − 1) ds 1 dp (γ − 1)
= − T = − Q
dt c 2 dt c2 dt c 2 dt c2 (9)

where Q = ρT ds/dt = Q 0 + Q′ (t) is the heat addition per unit vo-

Fig. 9. Typical active feedback control system scheme. lume. It consists of a mean Q 0 and fluctuating part Q′ (t). The mean
part is used to heat up the working fluid. However, the fluctuating
part is an efficient sound source.
2. Description of combustion-excited oscillations and acoustic The mass and momentum equations over the control volume
dampers [60,62–64], when linearized with respect to the perturbation
quantities, can be written as
2.1. Unsteady combustion as an efficient sound source
∂ρ′ ∂u ′
+ ρ0 i = 0
In order to gain insight on the generation mechanism of com- ∂t ∂xi (10)
bustion-excited oscillations and to study the damping effect of
acoustic dampers, thermodynamic analysis of heat-to-sound en- ∂ui ′ ∂
ρ0 + (p′δij − S) = 0
ergy conversion is conducted. It is known that unsteady combus- ∂t ∂xi (11)
tion is a monopole-like sound source [59,36]. It produces acoustic
where S denotes the ‘friction’/damping (e.g. viscous stress) effect.
pressure waves efficiently [60]. This could be explained by con-
By substituting linearized Eq. (9) into Eq. (10), multiplying Eq. (10)
sidering a control volume of fluid with heat added. If the internal
with c02 ρ′, Eq. (11) with ui ′ and addition, an energy conservation
energy of the fluid mixture is denoted by e, then the first law of
equation is obtained namely,
thermodynamics [56,61] considering energy conservation can be
described by ∂ ⎡1 1 c02 ρ ′ 2 ⎤ ∂ ∂S (γ − 1)
⎢ ρ 0 ui ′ 2 + ⎥+ (p′δij ui′ ) − ui′ = p′Q′
∂t ⎢⎣ 2 2 ρ 0 ⎥⎦ ∂xi ∂xi γ p0 (12)
de ds pd(ρ−1)
=T − Integrating Eq. (12) over the control volume leads to
dt dt dt (7)
⎡ c 2 ρ′ 2 ⎤
Since ρ (p, s) is related to the pressure p and specific entropy s, it
∂
∂t
∫V ⎢⎢⎣ 21
0
ρ0
1
+ ρ 0 u′ 2⎥ d= =
2 ⎥⎦
∫V (γ γ−p 1) p′Q′d= − > − D
can be shown that 0 (13)
 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130 119

where dissipated due to thermal and viscous or other damping effects.

Eq. (20) suggests that the combustion system stability can be
>= ∭ ∂∂xi (p′δij ui ′ )dxi D= ∭ − ui′ ∂∂S
xi
dx i
(14)
enhanced by introducing acoustic dampers, i.e. increasing the
damping effect D.
It can be seen from Eq. (13) that the term on the left hand side
describes the classical acoustical energy , a as defined as 2.2. Acoustic dampers applied in engine systems
⎡ c 2 ρ′ 2 ⎤
,a = ∫V ⎢⎢⎣ 21
0
γρ 0
1
+ ρ 0 u′ 2⎥ d=
2 ⎥⎦
The approach of implementing acoustic dampers is strongly
(15) weighted toward stabilizing the combustion process in the aero-
engine, rocket and gas turbine combustion literature. And the
, a consists of a kinetic part i.e. , ka = ρ0 u′ 2/2 and a potential part
approach has been proven to be very effective when properly
, ap = c02 ρ′ 2 /2γρ0 . designed. However, this is not to imply that the acoustic damper
The first term on the right-hand-side of Eq. (13) as defined as design is easy or has no uncertainties. However, given the cost of
, e: retrofitting a combustion system to achieve stability, implement-
ing acoustic dampers may be worthwhile. These dampers are re-
,e = ∫V (γ γ−p 1) p′Q′ d= (16)
viewed next.
0

describes the energy exchange within the control volume V be- 2.2.1. Helmholtz resonator
tween pressure waves and heat input. The second term > de- In most industrial applications [34,8], the design of Helmholtz
scribes the mechanical work done by the fluid supporting an ex- resonators is finalized by experimental ‘cold-’ or ‘hot-flow (firing)’
ternally induced normal stress p′ and moving with velocity ui ′. The tests. This is primarily because the resonator fluid can include
last term D is associated with thermal and viscous dissipation. combustion products and purge cooling gas, making the speed of
If the damping term S is neglected, substituting Eq. (9) into sound uncertain. These difficulties make the design of the re-
Eq. (10) differentiating Eq. (10) with respect to time t, taking di- sonators a time consuming process. The practical issues concern-
vergence of Eq. (11), an inhomogeneous combustion-driven ing the use of Helmholtz resonators on gas turbines were ad-
acoustic wave equation is obtained namely, dressed and discussed by Dupére and Dowling [34] and reviewed
by Richards et al. [8]. It is shown that Helmholtz resonators with a
⎛ ⎞
1 ∂ 2p′ 1 γ − 1 .′ large neck area, large volume, short neck and low temperature are
2
− ρ 0 ∇· ⎜⎜ ∇p′⎟⎟ = Q (t)
c0 ∂t 2 ⎝ 0
ρ ⎠ c02 (17) required in order to achieve high power absorption over a broad
frequency range.
where overdot denotes the time derivative. Eq. (17) describes a Bellucci et al. [23] utilized Helmholtz resonators to stabilize an
.
general combustion-driven acoustic wave equation. Q ′ (t) describes ALSTOM GT11N2 gas turbine system. They used experimental test
the time rate of heat addition from an unsteady heat source. It can results to establish the parameters for a nonlinear Helmholtz re-
be seen that the unsteady combustion is an efficient monopole- sonator model. The model was then used to design actual re-
like sound source. sonators applicable to industrial combustors. By installing several
Substituting Eqs. (15) and (16) into Eq. (13) and integrating it resonators on the combustors, good attenuation over a broad
over one period leads to frequency range was achieved as shown in Fig. 10. It can be seen
t+; t+; t+; that the implementation of Helmholtz resonators leads to p′/p0
∫t , e dt = , a t + ∫t [ > + D] d t
(18) reduced by approximately 40%. A similar experimental investiga-
tion was conducted by Gysling et al. [35].
Eq. (18) reveals that the input thermal energy is partially con- Selamet et al. [66–68] conducted a series of numerical studies
verted into acoustical energy, partially dissipated by thermal and on various geometric Helmholtz resonators. Circular concentric
viscous effect, and partially used to produce mechanical work. and asymmetric resonators were studied first. 2D and 3D bound-
When there is no heat addition, Q′ = 0, and the working fluid is ary element (BEM) simulations were conducted. They then studied
quiescent (stagnant and uniform) and frictionless, Eq. (13) can be Helmholtz resonators with extended neck or absorbing materials.
simplified into the classical acoustic energy balance equation:
∂
∂t
,a = − > = − ∫S I·n dS (19)
0
p’/p

where I = p′u′ is the acoustic intensity. S is the surface enclosing

the control volume with outer normal n . Here the Gauss theorem
is used to transform ∫V (∇·I) dV into the surface integral ∫S (I·n) dS .
Eq. (19) can be used to calculate the acoustic power generated by
0
heat addition.
When |∠p′Q′| < 90°, i.e. p′ and Q′ are in phase, then the energy Measurement
exchange rate , e > 0 . Self-sustained combustion oscillations may Simulation
be produced, depending on the system overall damping and dis-
p’/p0

sipation. This is known as ‘Rayleigh criterion’ [65]. To stabilize

combustion systems, it is necessary to ensure a critical condition
as given as
t + 2π / ω t + 2π / ω 0
St
∫t , e dt < ∫t [ > + D] d t
(20)
Fig. 10. Comparison of measured pressure spectrum from an ALSTOM GT11N2 gas
That is to say the heat exchange over one period must be less than turbine without (a) and with (b) Helmholtz resonator implemented. Taken from
the sum of that used to generate mechanical work and that Bellucci et al. [23].
120 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130

It was shown that without changing the cavity dimensions, the measurement and specialized direct numerical simulations (DNS)
resonator damping performance may be modified considerably by [53].
adding the fibrous material or changing the length of the neck. The majority of modelling work has been carried out in the
Tang and Sirignano [69] developed a generalized Helmholtz re- frequency domain. Howe [48] modelled the acoustic energy dis-
sonator model. It was based on the ‘jet’ flow model manifesting sipated by the periodic shedding of vorticity for a single orifice in a
the nonlinearity of the orifice flowing upon the passage of a high high Reynolds-number flow using Rayleigh conductivity.
intensity acoustic wave. The model can also be used to study the Following Howe's research, Jing and Sun [72,73] experimentally
damping effect of a quarter-wave tube. The nonlinear damping and numerically investigated the effect of the orifice thickness and
effect of a Helmholtz resonator was theoretically studied by sev- the bias flow rate, showing that an appropriate bias flow rate can
eral group researchers [37,70,71]. It is shown that viscous damping significantly increase damping and that the orifice thickness is
and energy loss associated with the dissipation of the kinetic en- crucial. Their results were consistent with those of Howe in the
ergy of the ‘jets’ which are periodically formed at both ends of the limit to zero thickness [48].
orifice/neck contribute to the damping mechanism. However, the In comparison with theoretical modeling [52,74], time-domain
latter mechanism is amplitude dependent. numerical simulations [75,53,76] become more and more popular.
This is most likely due to the availability of high performance
2.2.2. Acoustic liners computers and the development of more efficient computational
Acoustic liners have received wide-spread interest for stabi- methods. Tam et al. [76] carried out direct numerical simulation
lizing propulsion systems. They are used more widely in aero- (DNS) of a single aperture, showing that vortex shedding was the
engines than in any other application [8]. When they are part of dominant damping mechanism for large-amplitude incident
the engine inlet design, acoustic noise radiated forward of aircrafts waves. Fig. 11 shows the time evolution of the vortex shedding and
can be dramatically reduced. When they are applied to cover all or the vorticity-involved damping mechanism.
part of the lateral boundary of a combustor, combustion-excited Sbardella et al. [77] developed a 1D acoustic liner model, which
oscillations can be significantly dampened. However, there are two was coupled with 2D duct flow equations. The model can solve
main problems arising with the installation of such liners in multi-frequency problems. It was shown that the model can pre-
combustors. One is to tune such a pressure oscillation in the un- dict the sound attenuation with or without mean grazing flow.
wanted frequency range so that they are attenuated, and the other Reichert and Biringen [78] proposed a time-domain approach
is cooling. A good discussion of the cooling problem and its which introduced a source term to the momentum equations, and
practical solution for liquid rockets was reported by Harrje and assessed the effect of a bias flow. They found that with an opti-
Reardon [2]. mum bias flow rate, the liners damping efficiency was significantly
The acoustic liners are associated with millimeter-size perfo- improved over that with no bias flow. This finding, shared by Follet
rated holes. Since the holes are too small to simulate accurately et al. [79], has supported the idea of optimizing the bias flow rate
in most computational codes, and therefore the analysis of to improve the liners’ damping performance. Mendez and
such liners is currently restricted to theoretical modelling, Eldredge [80] conducted compressible large-eddy simulations

A B

A B

A B

A B

A B

Fig. 11. Evolution of vortex shedding (left column) and pressure fluctuations (right column) during one period, as the sound wave incident to an in-duct orifice is set to
f¼ 318.32 Hz. Taken from Ji and Zhao [49].
 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130 121

(LES) on a single or multiple orifices to study the aeroacoustics power absorption coefficient as shown in Fig. 12(a), which de-
characteristics. Burak et al. [81] also used LES to solve linearized scribes the fraction of incident waves being absorbed.
Navier–Stokes equations to study the damping performance of an The other is by measuring transmission loss coefficient as
acoustic liner in the presence of grazing flow. Zhang and Bodony shown in Fig. 12(b), which denotes the fraction of the acoustical
[53] used DNS to investigate the acoustics behavior of a honey- energy that is transmitted downstream of the lined section. It can
comb liner. They found that the orifice boundary layer played a be seen that the liners' damping effect depends strongly on the
critical role in affecting the nonlinearity. forcing frequency and the damping measure defined. Recently Tam
The numerical simulations described above attempt to solve
et al. [88] conducted experiments to study the grazing flow effect
the Navier-Stokes equations by using finite volume (FV) or finite
on the damping performance of acoustic liners. They showed that
difference (FD) methods. As an alternative computational tool,
the acoustic liner could generate self-noise, which might result
lattice Boltzmann method (LBM) could be used to model and si-
mulate complex physics in fluids [82] and aeroacoustics, such as from a feedback resonance mechanism driven by a Kelvin–Helm-
jet [83], cavity [84] and airfoil [85] noise. Unlike the conventional holtz instability wave of the free shear layer spanning the open-
numerical schemes, LBM is intended to solve the discrete lattice ings of the liner cavity. Furthermore, the drag was found to in-
Boltzmann equation (LBE) by using the pseudo-particle based crease by about 4% for an acoustic liner with a 10% open area ratio
technique [83–85,49,50]. The LBE controls the particles associated in comparison to the turbulent boundary layer drag over a flat
with collision and propagation over a discrete lattice mesh. Thus wall.
LBM is thought to be one of the particle techniques. And it pos-
sesses the required accuracy to capture the weak acoustic pressure 2.2.3. Quarter- and half-wave tube
fluctuations [83–85]. Ji and Zhao [49,50] used the lattice Boltz- In order to evaluate the acoustic damping characteristics of a
mann method to simulate the acoustic damping effect of an in- half- and quarter-wave tube, a series of numerical and experi-
duct circular orifice. mental studies were conducted by Sohn and Park [33,32]. They
Experimental investigations focus on measuring the liner im- showed that a quarter wave tube had a much larger damping ca-
pedance or power absorption coefficient [74,86], since it is easier pacity than a half-wave one with the same diameter as shown in
to measure in comparison with the flow field near the tiny orifice. Fig. 13(a), although they were associated with the same damping
Ingard and Labate [87] experimentally visualized that the incident mechanism. However, a Helmholtz resonator has the largest
sound amplitude, frequency, the orifice diameter and thickness
damping capacity in comparison with the quarter-and half-wave
affected the induced motion of the fluid near the orifice. Hughes
tubes, as shown in Fig. 13(b) and (c). This is most likely due to the
and Dowling [46] showed that the sound incident on a perforated
increased vortex shedding and resonance effect of the resonator
liner with a bias flow might be completely absorbed, if the flow
speed and the liner geometry were chosen properly. Jing and Sun's cavity.
experiments [72] confirmed that the orifice thickness and the bias Oschwald et al. [89] applied multiple quarter-wave tubes to
flow Mach number played dominant roles in affecting the liners’ dampen the pressure oscillations in a cylindrical combustor. Both
damping performance. Eldredge and Dowling [52] measured the hot-flow/firing and cold-flow tests were conducted. It was shown
variation of the damping performance of a double-layer liner with that the addition of the acoustic dampers to the combustor lead to
the incident sound frequency. The damping performance was de- eigenfrequencies of the coupled system different from that of a
fined and evaluated in two different ways. One is by measuring the pure cylindrical resonance volume.

1 1
Power Absorption Δ

0.8 0.8
Transmission Loss

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2 unsimplifed model

Eldredge’s model
experimental data
simplified model
0 0
0 140 280 420 560 700 0 200 400 600
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 12. The variation of power absorption with forcing frequency in a lined duct with a double-liner for (a) Mh1 = 0.03 and Mu ¼ 0.046. (b) The variation of transmission loss
with forcing frequency in a lined duct with a double-liner for M¯ u = 0.
122 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130

Fig. 13. Variation of power absorption coefficient in the model enclosure with a single half-, quarter-wave tube and a Helmholtz resonator. Taken from Sohn and Park [33,32].

2.2.4. Baffles and other damping approaches with simple axisymmetric dump combustors has been conducted
Besides the acoustic dampers discussed above, baffles can also at the Naval Air Warfare Center Weapons Division. Detailed re-
be used to dampen combustion-driven oscillations by the obstacle views of the vorticity-driven combustion instability and passive
of baffle hub-and-blades in a combustion chamber [2,4]. They are control techniques can be found in reference [90].
as reliable as other acoustic dampers. Laudien et al. [11] proposed As an alternative potential means, the active control approach
an experimental procedure to assess the effectiveness of both [13,58,91,92] remains in the design and preliminary test stage,
acoustic resonator and baffles on stabilizing a model combustor at although recent works suggest that it has many attractive features.
room temperature. Fig. 14(a) shows their experimental setup. They It can be applied to many types of combustion systems and can be
measured the decay rate α per cycle of acoustic oscillation for the made to be effective over a wide range of operating conditions,
first five tangential modes of the model combustor. Here α is de- particularly if adaptive control is used. However, there are many
fined as a measure characterizing the damping effect as illustrated difficulties associated with the design and implementation of the
in Fig. 14(b). They found that the decay rate α is increased with the active control approach. Choosing an adequate control actuator
baffles or resonators applied, especially for lower tangential provides a particular challenge [58]. An actuator requires mod-
modes. Note that the values for the decay rate measured at the ifications to either the combustor or the air/fuel supply system.
room temperature will not be the same as those in a real engine Moreover, its frequency response and its durability must match
with flame and flow confined. However, as a qualitative indication, the frequency of the combustion-excited oscillations, limiting the
cold-flow (room-temperature) measurements are very useful. range of applications, which are practical. Designing an effective
In combustion chambers, particularly when flow occurs past and robust controller [13,58] is complicated by the frequent
blunt flame-holders and rearward-facing steps, shedding of large- changes in operating conditions and the different nature/me-
scale vortices is a well known phenomenon. Unsteady heat addi- chanism of combustion-driven oscillations in different types of
tion associated with such large-scale vortices interaction with industrial combustors. Finally, additional energy (corresponding to
chamber acoustics is believed to be one of the main causes of the secondary fuel injection) might be continually added to the sys-
self-sustained pressure oscillations. Coaxial flow can also be used tem, which means that there is the possibility of making com-
to dampen vortex-driven combustion instabilities, where large bustion systems more unstable [91,92].
scale vortices trigger the instability. Schluter [55] numerically
studied the performance of implementing coaxial flow to stabilize 3. ‘Tunable’ acoustic dampers
a combustion system with low Mach number flow. It was shown
that the swirled coaxial flow can destroy large scale structures and Ideally, a good way of stabilizing combustion systems would
suppress the periodic flow response. A series of experimental tests combine both active and passive control features. This can be
 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130 123

Nagaya et al. [97] used two rotating inner cylinders to achieve

changes in the HR neck area. According to Eq. (4), the neck area
variation gives rise to the resonance frequency change and so the
damping effect of the resonators. They used a FFT (fast Fourier
transform) analysis to determine the noise signatures so that the
resonators damping is tuned/optimized to simultaneously at-
tenuate two dominant frequencies. Little et al. [98] described an
electro-rheological fluid valve which can be used to change the
neck area to provide continuous tuning. Zhao and Morgans [86]
applied two tunable Helmholtz resonators with variable neck
areas to stabilize an unstable combustion system. Experiments
were conducted on a Y-shaped Rijke tube with such tunable re-
sonators, as shown in Fig. 15. The neck areas of both resonators can
be varied by means of ‘iris’ valves, which open and close like a
camera lens. On implementing the procedure of tuning the neck
areas, both unstable modes are stabilized, and stability is main-
tained for large changes in operating condition, as shown in
Fig. 16. This confirms that the tunable Helmholtz resonators have
the potential for use in real combustion systems exhibiting mul-
tiple unstable modes.
Altering the resonator geometry can also be achieved by
varying the cavity volume. This has been investigated and applied
fairly extensively. Both Matsuhisa et al. [99,100] and Wang and
Dowling [101] used a piston to change the cavity volume, so that
the phase of the sound pressure in the HR volume was a quarter
cycle out of phase with that inside the duct at the HR location.
Both studies achieved significant sound reductions. DeBedout et al.
[102] developed a two-stage control algorithm for tuning the
cavity volume. The first stage implemented ‘coarse tuning’ and
obtained an initial guess of the optimum volume by using the
measured frequency together with the lumped parameter model
of a HR. The second stage implemented ‘fine tuning’ based on a
gradient descent method, which minimized the pressure ampli-
tude. The resonator cavity volume was changed by rotating an
internal radial wall inside the cavity. The international patent of
McDonald and Hutchins [103] used an adjustable resonator in
which both the cavity volume and the neck length were varied
Fig. 14. (a) Experimental setup of a rocket chamber, (b) defined decay rate α. Taken simultaneously according to the phase relationship between the
from Laudien et al [11].
pressure in the resonator cavity and the duct system. Yamanaka
and Shioda [104] achieved a varying volume by moving a piston
inside of the HR. They simultaneously tuned two HRs to two se-
achieved by designing ‘tunable’ acoustic dampers [93,86]. A con-
parate frequencies present in an experimental combustion system,
trol system is used to actively tune acoustic dampers in response
using a FFT algorithm to track these frequencies.
to changes in operating conditions. The feature of tunability
Tuning the neck length of a Helmholtz resonator has been
overcomes the main disadvantage of traditional passive control.
Moreover, actuation only needs to be on the time scale of the rarely proposed by researchers, even though this would also pro-
changes in operating condition, which is typically much slower vide frequency tuning. This is likely to be due to the fact that
than the time scale of the instability [86]. The required actuator varying the neck length is difficult to implement in an engine
bandwidth is therefore small, representing a major advantage over environment, and because sealing issues would arise.
active control. The durability requirements of the actuator are also A rather different approach is to continually oscillate the re-
reduced, since it is typically only active when operating conditions sonator geometry, and to tune some features (such as the phase) of
change, rather than continuously. A key feature of applying this oscillation [105–107,62]. This approach avoids the sealing is-
acoustic dampers, that it is not possible to worsen an instability, is sues that occur when the geometry dimensions are altered slowly,
also retained. Tunable acoustic dampers [86,94,95,74] therefore and also allows for a more compact system. However, it does re-
are associated with many of the advantages of active and passive quire movement on the time scale of the instability (the oscillation
control approaches. frequency is matched to the instability frequency1) and so does
introduce durability issues.
3.1. Tunable Helmholtz resonator Birdsong and Radcliffe [105] developed a HR model for volume
oscillation achieved using a vibrating back-plate, which showed
In the past few decades, researchers have begun investigating that both the resonant frequency range and the acoustic power
tunable Helmholtz resonators (HRs). The geometry change can be absorption of the resonator could be varied. Liu et al. [106,108]
achieved by varying the neck area. However, only a few in- performed numerical and experimental investigations of a
vestigations have been carried out. Esteve and Johnson [96] used
iris valves (which work like a camera lens) to change the neck 1
This could be classed as active control due to the dynamic input, but we will
radius of HRs. They tuned multiple HRs over a broad low fre- regard it as a special case of tunable Helmholtz resonator in the present work as it
quency range (40–160 Hz) and achieved a 7.5 dB noise reduction. concerns geometry changes of a passive control device.
124 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130

Fig. 15. The experimental apparatus in the Y-shaped Rijke tube: (a) Y-shaped Rijke tube with two tunable Helmholtz resonators attached and (b) the ‘iris’ valve used to vary
the neck area. Taken from Zhao and Morgans [86].

Fig. 17. (a) Schematic of the experimental setup. (b) Variation of power absorption
Δ with phase Ψ at 184 Hz.

back-plate. Zhao et al. [86] designed a Helmholtz resonator with

Fig. 16. (a)–(c) Damping effect of tunable Helmholtz resonators on the Y-shaped the cavity volume continually oscillating (at the same frequency as
Rijke tube: -○-, HR1, -  , HR2. (d) Pressure spectrum showing the typical damping that present in the system). This can be achieved by vibrating the
effect of the tunable Helmholtz resonators:— 1st limit cycle; - - - 2nd limit cycle; back-plate of the cavity volume via an electro-magnetic shaker, as
and …, after control.
shown in Fig. 17(a). Experimental tests showed that volume os-
cillation can either improve or deteriorate the acoustic damping of
Helmholtz resonator with a compliant piezoelectric composite the resonator, depending on the phase with which the back-plate
back-plate. It was shown that the damping frequency range of the is driven, as shown in Fig. 17(b).
resonators could be expanded. Zaikin and Rudenko [109] devel- They also developed a nonlinear numerical model of a Helm-
oped a nonlinear model of a Helmholtz resonator with a movable holtz resonator with an oscillating volume to simulate the ex-
wall, based on Newton's second law. By matching the boundary periments and to gain insight into how to obtain maximum
conditions at the movable wall, the model showed that the re- damping. Excellent agreement between the numerical and ex-
sonant frequency of the resonator could be altered by vibrating the perimental results is found. It is also shown that the effective
 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130 125

^
Fig. 18. (a) Bode diagram of the transfer function Q h (ω)/p^h (ω) of a Helmholtz resonator with an oscillating volume. (b) Schematic of electrical analogy of a Helmholtz
resonator with an oscillating volume.

frequency range of such tunable resonator is increased dramati- frequency at which they perform best can also be varied and so the
cally. Applying a volume-oscillating Helmholtz resonator to sta- damping effect, as shown in Fig. 19.
bilize a combustion system with a premixed turbulent flame The damping effect is characterized by the pressure amplitude.
confined is then numerically investigated by Zhao and Li [95]. The Howe [110] demonstrated that choosing an appropriate Strou-
resonant frequency of the tunable resonator at which it offers hal number of the bias flow in the orifice can result in a large
maximum damping, as shown in Fig. 18(a), is shifted due to the proportion of acoustic energy being absorbed. Jing and Sun [72,73]
volume oscillation. Here, the tunable resonator is analyzed by also showed that an appropriate bias flow rate can maximize the
using the electrical analogy approach, as shown in Fig. 18(b). acoustical energy being absorbed by liners. Eldredge and Dowling
[52] systematically studied an axial pipe system with a double-
3.2. Tunable acoustic liners liner attached in both numerical simulations and experiments, and
showed that about 80% of the incoming sound energy can be ab-
The damping effect of acoustic liners can also be tuned due to sorbed by a perforated liner at some frequencies, provided the bias
the fact that their damping effects are strongly dependent on the flow rate is chosen appropriately and the liner is well-located.
vortex shedding generated over the rim of perforated holes. The Heuwinkel and Enghardt [111] recently showed that oscillating the
excited vorticity has been shown to be related to several para- cavity encasing the liner by attaching loudspeakers had great po-
meters, such as the bias flow rate [72,79], the downstream length tential for increased absorption of sound energy. Besides this,
of the liner [52], the orifice geometries and the cavity volume there have been almost no studies on tuning perforated liners as a
encasing the liners [72,78]. Thus by varying these parameters, the means of extending the operating range of their effectiveness.
126 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130

Fig. 19. Variation of predicted pressure amplitude with Mh1 and Ld. Taken from Zhao et al. [74].

Fig. 20. Schematics of ‘tunable’ perforated liner. Taking from Zhao and Dowling
[74].

Recently, Zhao et al. [74] conducted experimental tests to tune

two parameters to maximize the damping effect of a double-layer
perforated liner. It involved varying both a combustor length
parameter and the bias flow rate (the mean flow through the holes
of the liner) simultaneously. A multiple-parameter tuning scheme
was developed. And it was implemented in a cold-flow acousti-
cally driven pipe system, as shown in Fig. 20.
Optimal liner performance in terms of power absorption coef-
ficient Δ was achieved over a broad frequency range, as shown in
Fig. 21. Δ is defined as
^ ^
|R d (ω) |2 + |R u (ω) |2
Δ = 1.0 − .
^ ^
|Iu (ω) |2 + |Id (ω) |2 (21)
^ ^
where R (ω) and I (ω) are Fourier transform of reflected and in- Fig. 21. (a) Variation of forcing frequency with time (simulating the operating
cident waves to the lined section (see Fig. 2 of the work [74]). condition change), (b) and (c) real-time tuning downstream pipe length, and bias
flow Mach number respectively, and (d) variation of power absorption coefficient.
In general, acoustic dampers offer a practical means of stabi-
lizing combustion systems. The design and implementation of
However, the cooling flow affects the performance of the dampers.
such dampers on suppressing combustion-excited oscillations are
The second one is the space issue. Generally, the space available
reviewed and summarized in Table 1.
for applying such acoustic dampers in the combustion system is
3.3. Challenges and issues associated with acoustic dampers limited. In order to effectively use the space and to reduce the
implementation effect of pressure fluctuations on the combustion process, opti-
mum design is needed. The third one is to conduct ‘firing’ or ‘hot-
The implementation of conventional acoustic dampers is as- flow’ tests and retrofit the dampers. It is an accepted practice to
sociated with four main challenges. One is the cooling problem. It conduct cold-flow tests to predict the performance of the acoustic
can be solved by directing a ‘cooling’ flow through the dampers. dampers. The cold-flow measurement as a qualitative indication is
 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130 127

Table 1
Summary of acoustic dampers applied for stabilizing combustion systems.

Reference Experiment/model (E/M) Damper type (H/L/QH/B/O) Tunable/fix (T/F) Firing/cold test (F/C)

Oberg [114] E and M Q F F

Sohn and Park [33] E&M H&Q F C
Park and Sohn [32] M QH F C
Zhao et al. [93] E&M H T C
Zhao and Morgans [86] E&M H T F
Dupere and Dowling[34] M H/Q F C
Gysling et al. [35] E&M H F F
Bellucci et al. [23] E&M H F F
Birdsong and Radcliffe[105] M H T C
Esteve and Johnson [96] E H T C
DeBedout et al. [102] E&M H T C
Yamanaka et al[104] E H F F
Laudien et al[11] E H/Q-H/B F C
Schluter [55] M O F
Tam et al. [76] E H/L F C
Zhao et al. [74] E L T C
Noiray et al. [115] E L F F
Zhao and Li [62] M H T F
Rehman and Eldredge [44] M L F F
Eldredge and Dowling [52] M L F C
Acker and Mitchell [116] M H/Q F F
Harrje and Reardon [2] E&M H/L/Q/B-H F F
Keller [117] E&M L F F
Searby et al. [89] M Q-H F C
Bothien et al. [118] E&M H F F
Rupp et al. [43] E L F F
Lewis and Garrison [119] E H T C
Tran et al. [120] E L F F
Richards et al. [8] E L/H/Q-H F F

useful. However, the damping characteristics of such dampers will combustion system and ‘tune’ the damper's damping. Mea-
not be the same as those applicable under operating conditions at sured signals at pressure nodes introduce significant error for
high temperature and with flow. Thus ‘firing/hot-flow’ test and control due to the low signal-to-noise (SNR), which can result
‘damper retrofit’ are needed, which is costly and time-consuming. in an unsuccessful ‘stabilizing’ effect. Thus multiple sensors
Last but not the least is the position and number of acoustic might be needed in case of a sensor being placed at a pressure
dampers to be implemented. The position and number of such node position. In addition, pressure sensors cannot be placed
dampers play important roles, in particular for annular aeroengine near the flame region due to high temperature.
combustors exhibiting circumferential modes (see Fig. 8).2 The
Identification algorithm:
damper should not be located near a pressure node, as here the The ‘sensed’ information is used to determine the ‘optimum’
acoustic pressure amplitude is so small that there is insufficient actuation signal, which is fed into the damper. For this, a robust
driving force for ‘resonance’ and little damping is provided. When algorithm is needed, which can choose the reference signal
circumferential mode-shapes are present in annular combustors, with large SNR. With the development of control theory, such
attempts to position resonators at pressure antinodes can be fru- algorithms are available. Two typical examples are illustrated in
strated by the repositioning (rotation) of the node to the new re- the previous section.
sonator location. Thus, it is essential to use multiple dampers and

Actuator selection and placement:
to position these relative to one another carefully [112]. Similar There are different types of tunable acoustic dampers. Each
problems are associated with the implementation of baffles. There type of acoustic dampers is involved with various parameters
to be tuned. Two central questions are: (1) What type of tun-
are less well-defined criteria available for defining how many
able dampers should be applied? (2) Which parameter should
baffles are needed, i.e. the necessary baffle spacing or baffle length
be chosen? The one feasible to tune or the one more effective
required to achieve engine stability. In addition, the baffles may
on damping combustion-excited oscillations?
degrade combustion efficiency and the heat loads to the baffles
may be prohibitive. Thus it usually causes manufactural problems
In summary, ‘tunable’ acoustic dampers open up new possibi-
since they are installed additionally inside a combustion system.
lities for effectively stabilizing combustion systems. However in
When tunable acoustic dampers are implemented in practical
order to apply such dampers in practical propulsion systems, more
combustion systems, the ‘hot-flow’ test and ‘dampers retrofit ’
validation tests are needed.
might be unnecessary due to the feature of tunability. However,
the ‘cooling’ issue is still present. In addition, there are three main
issues associated with the implementation of such tunable dam- 4. Discussion and conclusions
pers, which involve a control system:
Combustion systems such as rocket motors, aeroengines and

Sensor selection and placement: gas turbines are associated with acoustic pressure fluctuations,
A sensor is needed to continuously ‘sense’ the condition of the even during stable operation. Unsteady combustion is an efficient
sound source. It may produce large-amplitude self-sustained os-
2
Aero-engines and many gas turbines typically have combustors with an an- cillations (also known as combustion instability). Some engine
nular geometry. systems are more susceptible to combustion instability. Since
128 D. Zhao, X.Y. Li / Progress in Aerospace Sciences 74 (2015) 114–130

stable operation is one of the design prerequisites for engine References

combustors, the paper reviews the status of applying acoustic
dampers to mitigate combustion-excited fluctuations. Four of the [1] F.E.C. Culick, Unsteady Motions in Combustion Chambers for Propulsion
most commonly used types of acoustic dampers are (1) Helmholtz Systems. Technical Report, AG-AVT-039, 2006 (Chapter 8).
[2] D.T Harrje, F.H. Reardon, Liquid Propellant Rocket Combustion Instability.
resonators, (2) perforated liners, (3) baffles, and (4) quarter-/half- NASA SP-194, NASA Special Publication 194, 1972.
wave tubes. Their damping mechanisms are described first. A [3] T.C. Lieuwen, V. Yang, Combustion Instabilities in Gas Turbine Engines: Op-
erational Experience, Fundamental Mechanisms, and Modeling, AIAA Inc.,
detailed review of their working principles and practical applica-
USA, 2005.
tion is then conducted. These conventional acoustic dampers have [4] V. Yang, W. Anderson, Liquid Rocket Engine Combustion Instability, AIAA
many advantages, such as low maintenance and high durability. Inc., USA, 1995.
[5] C. Ji, D. Zhao, X. Li, Nonorthogonality analysis of a thermoacoustic system
However, they are typically only effective over certain narrow
with a premixed V-shaped flame, Energy Convers. Manag. 85 (1) (2014)
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