Discourse Analysis Hajra Qayum BS English 7 th Semester

Formal Links In Discourse

Halliday and Hasan (1976) call formal link as grammatical cohesion. They divide cohesive
component in terms of grammatical cohesion and lexical cohesion. Grammatical items are
reference, substitution, ellipsis, and conjunction to establish grammatical cohesion.

1. Reference

Reference deals with a semantic relationship (1976, p. 31). It is the relation

between an element on the text and something else by reference to which it is
interpreted in the given instance. Reference is divided into three types: personal,
demonstrative, and comparative reference. Each of which is discussed further
below.
a. Personal Reference

Personal reference is reference by means of function in the speech

situation, through the category of person (1976, p. 37). For example:

You may ask permission to Jane first, not bring all cats of hers soon. If
they have any accident, she will be angry with you.

In the example, “she” and “they” are personal pronouns, which refer to
“Jane” and “Jane’s cats”. For word, “hers” is a possessive pronoun, which points
to “Jane”.
b. Demonstrative Reference

Demonstrative reference is reference by means of location, on a scale of

proximity (near, far, neutral) (1976, p. 37). It is essentially a form of verbal
pointing such as this, that, these, those, here, there, now, then, and the.

For example: A dog is walking on the road. No one knows what happen. Suddenly the
dog falls with bloody there.

In the example above,” the” is demonstrative reference which refers to

“A”, while “there” is demonstrative reference which refers to “road”.
c.
Comparative Reference

Comparative reference is indirect reference by means of identity or

similarity (1976, p. 37). There are two kinds of comparison: general comparison
and particular comparison. Two things may be the same, similar or different.
General comparison is expressed by such items as same, equal, identical, such,
similar, likewise, different, identically, similarly, differently and the like.

For example: That is the same story as the one we heard yesterday
That is a similar story to the one we heard yesterday
That is a different story from the one we heard yesterday

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 Discourse Analysis Hajra Qayum BS English 7 th Semester
Particular comparison expresses comparability between things in respect
of a particular property. The property in question may be a matter of quantity or of
quality. Such items as more, less, fewer, better and the like express particular
comparison. The example is illustrated in the following sentence.

I have never seen a more brilliant performance than last night.

 Kinds of reference

Based on the fact, that the reference always points to another element for
its interpretation, Halliday and Hasan (1976) classify reference into two kinds:
Endophoric reference and Exophoric reference. Each is described as follows:

Endophoric reference

An endophoric (textual) reference points to a thing as identified in the

surrounding of or within the text.
Endophoric reference may be anaphoric or
cataphoric.

Anaphoric reference

Endophoric reference can be anaphoric if it points to a preceding

item. The examples of anaphoric are below:

I see John is here. He read a book.

Cataphoric reference

In contrast to anaphoric, cataphoric reference occurs when the identity of

someone or thing is revealed later. However, the example can be seen in the
following sentence:
It is the same motorcycle as we bought last night.

Exophoric reference

An exophoric (situational) reference refers to another element outside the

text. It is the context of situation. The example is:

Do not do that here. I want to go sleep.

The demonstrative “that” in the example refers to something outside the

text. Its interpretation depends of the context on the text. It is impossible for
someone to interpret its meaning unless he knows the context of the text.

2. Ellipsis

Ellipsis, the omission of words or part of sentences, is closely related to

substitution. Ellipsis can be described by “substitution by zero” (Halliday and
Hasan, 1976, p. 89).

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 Discourse Analysis Hajra Qayum BS English 7 th Semester

 Kinds of Ellipses

There are three kinds of ellipsis that will be explained below:

a. Nominal Ellipsis

Nominal ellipsis is ellipsis within the nominal group (1976, p. 147), for
example:
A: How did you enjoy your holiday?
B: (My holiday was) very fantastic.

b. Verbal Ellipsis

Verbal ellipsis is ellipsis within the verbal group (1976, p. 167), for
example:

A: Is Alice going to play?

B: She should (play).

c. Clausal Ellipsis

Clausal ellipsis is the omission of the clause (1976, p. 197), for example:
A: Who is going to go shopping?
B: My sister (is going to go shopping).

3. Substitution

Substitution is a relation between linguistic items, such as words or

phrases; whereas reference is a relation between meanings. Substitution, on the
other hand, is a relation within the text. A substitute is a sort of counter which is
used in place of the repetition of a particular item (Halliday and Hasan, 1976, p.
89).
The most common substitutes used in English are:
1.One 2.Do 3.So

 Types of Substitution

Three types of substitutions will be explained below:

a. Nominal Substitution

It refers to relation established by the presence of a noun or a noun phrase

(1976, p. 91). This consists of one and ones which always function as ahead of
nominal group, and can substitute only for an item which is itself head of nominal
group. To clarify this type, the example is provided below:

I’ve met some strange people in my life. But this one was perhaps the
strangest.

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 Discourse Analysis Hajra Qayum BS English 7 th Semester
The word “one” in the second sentence is the example nominal
substitution the word “strange people” respectively.

b. Verbal Substitution

Verbal Substitution occurs when there is a substitution of a verb or verb

phrase by a dummy word (1976, p. 122). The verbal substitute in English is “do”
which functions as head of a verbal group, in the place that is occupied by the
lexical verbs; and its position is always final in the group. Here is the example of
verbal substitution.

A: have you called the doctor?

B: I have not done it yet, but I will do it

The word “done” and “do” in B, substitute the word “called” in A.

c. Clausal Substitution

Clausal Substitution occurs when there is an item (dummy word)

substitutes a clauses (1976, p. 130). The presupposed item is not an element
within the clause but an entire clause. Here is the example:
Every one seems to think he is guilty. If so, no doubt he will offer to resign.

The word” so” substitutes for “he is guilty”.

4. Conjunction

Conjunction cohesion is a semantic relation that indicates how the

subsequent sentence or clause should be linked to the preceding or the following
(part of the) sentence (1976, p. 226).

 Types of conjunction

There are four types of conjunction:

a. Additive Conjunction

Additive conjunction: and, and also, nor, and.........not, or, or else,

furthermore, in addition, besides, alternatively, incidentally, by the way, for
instance, like wise, similarly, on the other hand, etc.

She was opening the door, and putting you out from hot.
My friend says he does not know your book. Further, I believe that he
denies about it.

In the examples of additive conjunction above, “and’ and’ further”

presuppose the presence of elements that complete the previous elements (1976, p.
242).
b. Adversative Conjunction

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 Discourse Analysis Hajra Qayum BS English 7 th Semester
Adversative conjunction: yet, though, only, but, however, nevertheless, in
fact, actually, as a matter of fact, on the other hand, instead, at least, rather, in any
case, anyhow, at any rate, etc (1976, p. 242). As the example:

I did a mistake to my best friend. Yet, I get apologize from him.

I’d love to join it. Only I don’t know how to play.

The adversative conjunctions “yet” and “only” presuppose the presence of

the elements that are contrary to the expectation of the previous elements.

c. Causal Conjunction

Causal conjunction: so, then, therefore, consequently, because of, as a

result, in consequence, for, because, then, in that case, otherwise, in this regard, in
this respect, etc (1976, p. 242). For example:

Mr. George likes to burn any plants. Consequently, damage and flood
cannot be rejected.

In the examples of causal conjunction, the conjunctions “because of” and

“consequently “indicate a cause and effect relation.

d. Temporal Conjunction

Temporal conjunction includes then, next, after that, previously, finally,

until then, first........then, soon, at once, next time, meanwhile, other then, in
conclusion, up to now, briefly, to sum up, etc (1976, p. 242).

The car was repaired. Afterwards, we were able to continue our journey.

Other Formal Links are:

 Parallelism
It is the use of components in a sentence that are grammatically the same;or similar in their
construction,sound ,meaning or meter.This method adds balance and rhythm to sentence giving
ideas a smoother flow and thus persuasiveness because of the repetition it employs.
Literature Examples:
 A tale of two cities
 The tiger…

It is a device which suggests the connection, simply because the form of one sentence
or clause repeats the form of another (1989, p. 15).
For example:

Best friend cares without see the condition, gives without hesitation, and understands
without explanation.

The form of the verb cares, gives, and understands, is simple present tense so the sentence
above is parallel.

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 Discourse Analysis Hajra Qayum BS English 7 th Semester
Functions of parallelism

The use of parallel structure in speech or writing allows speaker and writers to maintain
consistency within their work and create a balance flow of ideas.
Effective parallelism creates symmetry in sentence and adds force to your writing.it
emphasizes the likeness between two or more ideas.it is an effective technique to [provide
structure and order in your speech.

 Verb Form

It means that the form of verb in one sentence can limit the choice of the verb form in the
next. In the sentence, it seems that there is a degree of formal connection between
them, a way in which the first tense conditions all the other (1989, p. 15).
For example:

Sherin was sleeping when her friend came.

John had drunk the tea before he went to his friend’s house.

The examples above show that because ‘was sleeping’ is past continuous tense so
the verb after (came) should be simple past tense. The second example shows that
‘had drunk’ is past perfect tense so the verb after (went) should be past tense.

Conclusion

 The formal links presence does not automatically make a passage coherent,
and their absence does not automatically make it meaningless.
 It should be clear that the correctness and the effect of some expressions
cannot only be judged within the sentence, but must be judged in connection
with other sentences in the discourse as well.