MATTER AND ENERGY

REFERENCE MANUAL Document Code: RM-MFI-PED-026

Revision No. : 1
Matter and Energy Date Effective : 25 May 2015

TABLE OF CONTENTS

i. Course Outline

MODULE 1 3
MATTER AND ITS CLASSIFICATION 3

Matter 4
Classification Of Matter 4

Physical States Of Matter 5

Properties Of Matter 5
Changes In Matter 6
Activity 1 7
Experiment #1 9
Conversion Factors 15
Activity 2 17
Experiment #2 18
Experiment #3 22
Experiment #4 26
The Kinetic Molecular Theory 32

Important Gases on Earth 33

Oxygen 33
Hydrogen 34

The Gas Laws 35

Boyle's Law 35
Charles's Law 36
Gay Lussac's Law 36
Combined Gas Law 36
The Ideal Gas Law 37
Activity 3 38
Experiment# 5 40

The Liquid State Of Matter 42

Water (The Most Essential Liquid On Earth) 43

Water's Physical Properties 43
Water's Chemical Properties 44
Sources Of Water 44

Water Pollution 45
Sources Of Water Pollution 45
Treatments For Water Pollution 46
Experiment #6 49

Solid State Of Matter 54

Magnetism 55
Origin Of Magnetism 56
Types of Magnetism 56
Applications Of Magnetism 57
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Activity#4 59

Work, Power, Energy 60

Force 60
Work 60
Activity #5 62

Types Of Mechanical Energy 63

Potential Energy 63
Kinetic Energy 63
Forms And Sources Of Energy 63

Energy Transformation And Conservation 64

Law Of Conservation Of Energy 64
Activity#6 65
APPENDIX 66

ii. Definition of Terms

iii. References

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MODULE 1
MATTER AND ITS CLASSIFICATION

Objectives:

1. Learn the states of matter

2. Classify matter.
3. Know the properties and changes in matter.

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MATTER

Matter is defined as anything that occupies space and has mass. Matter is all around us. The entire
universe is consists of matter and energy.

Matter may be quite invisible to the eye, it may also appear continuous and unbroken. However, it is
actually discontinuous and is composed of discrete, tiny particles called atoms. The particulate nature
of atom will become evident when we study atomic structure and the properties of gases.

In our daily lives, we seek to bring order into the different things that surround us. To do this, we
classify things according to their similarities. In the library, books are grouped by subjects and then
by author. Department stores organize their merchandise by the size and style of clothing, as well as
by the type of customers. Theaters classify their seats by price and location. Chemists also classify
things according to properties they can observe. They are also interested in identifying the tiniest
part of a substance. In this chapter, we will classify matter according to their properties and structure
of molecules.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Pure Substance is a kind of matter with a definite, fixed composition and is either element or
compound.

Mixture is a material containing two or more substances and can be either homogenous or
heterogeneous. They are variable in composition.

Homogenous matter is uniform in appearance and has the same properties throughout.

Heterogenous matter consists of two or more physically distinct phases.

Element is a fundamental substance that cannot be broken down by chemical means into simpler
substance. They are the building blocks of all substances. Examples: Oxygen (O), Hydrogen (H),
Sodium (Na), Chlorine (Cl), etc.

Compound is a substance that contains two or more elements chemically combined in definite
proportion by mass. Examples: NaCl (Sodium Chloride), H2O (water), HCl (Hydrochloric acid) etc.

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PHYSICAL STATES OF MATTER

Matter exists in three physical states: solid, liquid, gas.

A solid has definite shape and volume, with particulates that cohere rigidly to each other. The
arrangement of molecules in a substance determines the characteristics form of a solid, whether It is
hard and rigid like a diamond or a soft crumbly like sulfur.

A liquid has a definite volume, but not a definite shape; it only assumes the shape of the container.
The particles cohere firmly, but not rigidly. The molecules cluster together in a random manner, yet
are free to move in relation to each other.

While a gas, has definite volume and no fixed shape, the molecules in a gas are generally far apart
from each other so that particles move independently of one another.

There is the fourth state of matter often referred to as plasma, is a form of matter that is not on
earth but common in the universe .The sun and the stars consist mainly of plasma. Plasma is a form
of matter composed of hot gases and has electrically charged particles.

COMPARISON OF THE THREE STATES OF MATTER

SOLID LIQUID GAS

PROPERTIES OF MATTER

Each substance has a set of properties that are characteristic of that substance and give it a unique
identity. Properties are “personality traits” of substances-are classified as either physical or chemical.

Physical properties are the inherent characteristics of a substance that can be determined without
altering its composition. They can be perceived by our senses such as sight, smell, touch, and taste.
Common physical properties are color, size, taste, odor, state of matter (solid, liquid, gas), density,
boiling point, melting point.

Chemical properties describe the ability of substance to form new substances, either by reaction with
other substances or by decomposition.

Let us consider chlorine as an example, a few of the physical and chemical properties of chlorine.
Physically, chlorine is a gas about 2.4 times heavier than air. It is yellowish green in color and has a
disagreeable odor. Chemically, chlorine will not burn, but will support the combustion of certain other
substances. It can be used as a bleaching agent. When chlorine combines with the metal sodium, it
forms a salt called sodium chloride. These properties, among others, help us characterized and
identify chlorine.

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Physical Properties of Some Common Substances

Boiling Point Density

Substances State Color Melting Point (0C)
(0C) (g/cm3)
Neon Gas Colorless -249 -246 0.0009
Oxygen Gas Colorless -218 -183 0.0014
Ethanol Liquid Colorless -117 78 0.789
Chlorine Gas Greenish-yellow -101 -34 0.0032
Mercury Liquid Silvery-white -39 357 13.5
Bromine Liquid Red-brown -7 59 3.12
Water Liquid Colorless 0 100 1.00
Sulfur Solid Yellow 113 445 2.07
Sucrose Solid White 185 d* 1.59
Sodium
Solid White 801 1413 2.17
chloride
*d, decompose on heating

CHANGES IN MATTER
Matter can undergo two types of changes, physical and chemical. Physical changes are changes in
physical properties (such as size, shape, and density or changes in state of matter without
accompanying change in composition. The changing of ice into water and water into steam are
physical changes from one state of matter into another without formation of new substance. When a
clean platinum wire is heated in a burner flame, the appearance of the platinum changes from silvery
metallic to glowing red. This change is physical because the platinum can be restored to its original
metallic appearance by cooling and more importantly, the composition of the platinum is not changed
by heating and cooling.

In a chemical change, new substances are formed that have different properties and composition
from the original material. The new substances need not resemble the new material in any way.
When a clean copper wire is heated to a burner flame, the appearance of the copper changes from
coppery metallic to glowing red. Unlike the platinum wire, the copper wire is not restored to its original
appearance by cooling but becomes instead a black material. This black material is a new substance
called copper (II) oxide. It was formed by chemical change when copper combined with oxygen in
the air during the heating process. The unheated original copper wire was 100% copper, but the
copper (II) oxide is 79% copper and 21% oxide.

In all chemical changes, matter either absorbs energy or releases energy. Chemical changes can
produce different forms of energy. For example, electrical energy to start an automobile is produced
by the chemical change in the lead storage battery. Light energy is produced in the chemical change
that occurs in a light stick. All the energy needed for our life processes (breathing, muscle contraction,
blood circulation, and so on- is produced by chemical changes occurring within the cells of our body.

On the other hand, energy is used to cause chemical changes For example, a chemical change
occurs in the electroplating of metals when electrical energy is passed through a salt solution in
which the metal is submerged. A chemical change occurs when the radiant heat from the sun is
used by green plants in the process of photosynthesis. Chemical changes are often used primarily
to produce energy rather than to produce new substances. The heat generated by the combustion
of fuel is more important than the new substance formed.

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ACTIVITY 1
Instructions: Choose the letter of the correct answer. Write the letter on the space beside the number.
Detach this page and submit it to your instructor.

____1. A sample of matter has an indefinite shape and takes the shape of its container. This sample
must be in which phase?

a. gas
b. liquid
c. either gas or liquid
d. none of them

____2. Matter is usually defined as anything that

a. has a constant weight unless subdivided

b. has a specific volume, but in any shape or size
c. occupies space and emits energy in the form of visible light
d. occupies space and has mass

____3. To which group does iron belong?

a. elements
b. compounds
c. mixtures
d. bases

____4. Which of the following is NOT a physical change?

a. ripening of fruits
b. freezing
c. grinding of mercury and iodine
d. dissolving salt in water

____5. Which does NOT belong to the group?

a. rusting of iron
b. digestion of bread
c. hardness of steel
d. combustion of gasoline

____6. A mixture

a. is always homogeneous
b. is always heterogeneous
c. may be homogeneous or heterogeneous
d. none of the choices given

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____7. If you cannot decompose a pure substance into anything simpler, the substance is a (an)

a. element
b. compound
c. mixture
d. isotope

____8. The application of chemistry is

a. Nuclear chemistry
b. Applied chemistry
c. Organic chemistry
d. Inorganic chemistry

____9. What is the phase of water in the clouds?

a. gas
b. liquid
c. solid
d. plasma

____10. Which does NOT belong to the group?

a. alloy
b. vinegar
c. concrete
d. air

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EXPERIMENT #1
COMMON LABORATORY OPERATIONS AND TECHNIQUES

Objectives:

Given the necessary materials, you should be able to:

1. Perform the different laboratory operations and techniques; and

2. Observe safety measures while doing them.

Reagents:

Lead nitrate Hydrochloric acid Sodium chloride

Materials:

beaker tripod iron ring

spatula filter paper Erlenmeyer flask
triple beam balance iron ring graduated cylinder
pipette wire gauze narrow- mouthed container
aspirator bulb evaporating dish glass rod
test tubes test tube holder
iron stand reagent bottles

Procedure:

A. Filtration and Decantation

Practice filtration and decantation by following these steps:

1. Get 2 test tubes and put 5 mL of lead nitrate solution in each test tube.

2. Add 5 mL of HCl to each beaker/test tube.

3. Set the first test tube aside for the precipitate to settle.

4. Filter the content of the second beaker/test tube through a filter paper set on a funnel.

Note: Steps in folding a filter paper, please refer to appendix.

5. Decant the liquid in the first test tube.

6. Compare the extent of separation of solid and liquid in both cases.

B. Evaporation

1. Dissolve 2.5 g of sodium chloride in 5 mL of water in an evaporating dish.

2. Apply heat and evaporate to dryness.

3. Observe what happens.

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C. Heating Liquids

1. Practice heating a liquid by following these steps.

2. Fill a test tube with one fourth full of water.

3. Hold it with a test tube holder.

4. Follow the safety precautions given in the concept.

D. Handling Liquid Solutions

1. Practice transferring liquid by following these steps:

2. Get a beaker. Fill it up with water.

3. Get another narrow-mouthed container or Erlenmeyer flask.

4. Use a glass rod held against the lip of the beaker while pouring the water into the
other container.

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 REFERENCE MANUAL Document Code: RM-MFI-PED-026
Revision No. : 1
Matter and Energy Date Effective : 25 May 2015

Name:_______________________________ Date Performed:_______________________

Subject/Section:_______________________ Instructor:____________________________

Group No_____________________________ Rating:_______________________________

Worksheet 1

COMMON LABORATORY OPERATIONS AND TECHNIQUES

Data and Results

a. Compare the extent of separation of solid and liquid in filtration and decantation. Which
of the two methods of separation is more effective?

b. What substance was left in the evaporating dish? Which one evaporated? Explain.

c. Enumerate the different safety precautions you have observed in heating the liquids.

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d. Why did you use the glass rod in transferring liquids from one container to another?

Conclusion:

Application:

1. Why are unused chemicals not returned in the container?

2. In separating mixture components, when can we use filtration?

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When can we use decantation?

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STANDARD FOR MEASUREMENTS

Objectives:

1. Understand units of measurements

2. To understand SI, Metric, and English Systems of units
3. To convert from one system to another

Doing an experiment in chemistry is very much like cooking in the kitchen. It is very important to
know the ingredients and exact amounts of each in order to have a tasty product. In chemistry we
begin by learning the metric system and the proper units for measuring mass, volume, length, and
temperature.

Although we often use mass and weight interchangeably in our daily lives, they have quite different
meanings in chemistry as well as in physics.

Mass is the actual amount of matter in a body. The mass of an object is a fixed and unchanging
quantity that is independent of the object’s location.

Weight of an object is the measure of the earth’s gravitational attraction for that object. Unlike mass,
weight varies in relation to the position of an object on Earth or its distance from Earth.

Volume is defined as the space occupied by matter. The most commonly used instruments for volume
is the graduated cylinder, volumetric flask, burette, pipette, and syringe. Volume for different shapes
of objects are expressed in different equations like the volume of rectangular objects are expressed
by:

V= l x w x h

Where: l = length
w = width
h = height

Density (d) is the ratio of the mass of a substance to the volume occupied by that mass. It is the
mass per unit volume and is given by the equation:

d= m/V

Length or distance are fundamental units usually measure in cm (centimeter), m (meter) for metric
system: and in (inches), yd (yard) for English system.

Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness of a matter. It is the intensity of heat, or how hot
a system is, regardless of its size.

The Metric system- or SI (System International) is a decimal system of units for measurements of
mass, length, volume and time and other physical quantities. The metric system uses factors of 10
to express larger or smaller numbers of these units, prefixes are added to the names of the units.
Some of the prefixes used are listed below:

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Prefix used in code Prefix for written unit Multiplier

da deka 10
h hector 100
K kilo 1000
M mega 1e6
G giga 1e9
T tera 1e12
P peta 1e15
E exa 1e18
d deci 1e-1
c centi 1e-2
m milli 1e-3
mu micro 1e-6
n nano 1e-9
p pico 1e-12
f femto 1e-15
a alto 1e-18

Some of the units used and conversion factors which are useful in the measurement of matter are
given below;

CONVERSION FACTORS
LENGTH
(English -Metric) (Metric –English)
1 inch (in) = 2.54cm 1 cm = 0.3937 in
1 foot (ft) = 0.3048 m 1 m = 3.281 ft
1 yard (yd) = 0.9144 m 1 km = 0.6214 mile
1 mile = 1.6093 km 1 m = 39.37 in

MASS
1 ounce (oz) = 7000 grains = 28.35 grams
1 pound (lb) = 16 oz
1 pound (lb) = 0.4536 kg
1 ton (British) = 2240 lb = 1016 kg
1 ton (US short = 2000 lb = 907 kg
ton)
1 kg = 1000 grams
1 gram = 1000 mg
1 metric ton = 1000 kg = 2205 lb
1 gram = 0.0353 oz
1 kg = 15.43 grains
1 mg = 0.015 grain

VOLUME
1in3 = 16.387 cm3
1 ft3 = 28.32 liters
1 ft3 = 1778 in3
1 yd3 = 0.7646 m3
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1 pint (imperial) = 34.659 in3 = 0.568 liters

1 gallon (US) = 3.785 liters
1 gallon = 4 quarts
1 liter = 1.06 quarts
1 m3 = 35.31 ft3
1 liter = 0.0353 ft3
1 liter = 1.761 imperial pint
1 liter = 1000 mL
V Rectangular solid = Lxwxh
V Cylindrical solid = ¶ r2 h
V Spherical solid = 4/3 ¶ r3

TEMPERATURE
0
C = 5/9 (0F - 32)
0
F = (9/5 X 0C) + 32
K = 0C + 273

HEAT
1 BTU = 252 calories

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ACTIVITY 2
A. Convert the following units (answers should be in 4 significant figures)

1. 1.58 L. =______ mL.

2. 122.6 mg. =______ g.

3. 0.058 cm. =______ m.

4. 1.25 mg. =______ kg.

5. 408 mL. =______ L

6. 12.66 cm3 =______ mL.

7. 2.04kg. =______ g

8. 100mm =______ km.

9. 110lb =______ kg

10. 5ft. 8in =______ cm

11. 3mg =______ lb.

12. 0.058cm =______ m

13. 187dg =______ g

14. 125cm =______ mi

15. 45.8hr =______ sec

B. Complete the Table

ºC ºF ºK
0 ___ ___
___ 25 ___
___ ___ 313
54 ___ ___
___ 185 ___
___ 99 ___
40 ____ ____

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EXPERIMENT #2
MEASUREMENTS

Objectives:

Given the necessary materials, you should be able to measure the mass, volume, and densities of:

a .regularly- shaped solids

b. an irregularly- shaped solid, and
c. an unknown liquid;

Materials:

graduated cylinder pebbles

triple beam balance rectangular block of wood
ruler unknown liquid
solid cylinder water

Procedure:

a. Regularly - shaped objects

1. Get a block of wood and determine its mass by using a triple beam or platform balance.
Record.

2. Using a ruler, measure the length, width and thickness of the block of wood. Compute and
record it as the volume of the object using this formula: V = L x W x H

3. Compute for the density using D = m / V

4. Get a cylindrical object and determine its mass.

5. Using a ruler, measure the diameter and height of the cylinder.

6. Calculate the volume using the formula: V = π r2 h or V= πd2h/4

7. Solve for the density. Record

b. Irregularly- shaped object

1. Get the pebbles and determine its mass by using a beam balance. Record.

2. Fill a graduated cylinder with 20 mL of water.

3. Record the initial reading (V1) of the water.

4. Carefully place the pebbles in the cylinder containing water and record the rise in the level
of water.

5. Get the difference. This is your object’s volume (V). Record.

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6. Compute for the density.

c. Unknown liquid sample

1. Get the mass of an empty graduated cylinder.

2. Fill it with the unknown liquid sample. Get the mass of the graduated cylinder with the
unknown liquid sample.

3. Get the difference between steps 1 and 2. This is the mass of the liquid. Record.

4. Get the reading of the liquid on the graduated cylinder. Record this as the volume of the
liquid.

5. Calculate the density of the unknown liquid.

6. Compare your answer with the value from the Table of Density.

7. Identify the liquid.

8. Accuracy is the nearness of the calculated value to the standard value. It is usually
expressed in percentage error. Solve for the percentage error using;

`% Error = (standard value – experimental value) / standard value x 100

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Name:_______________________________ Date Performed:_______________________

Subject/Section:_______________________ Instructor:____________________________

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Worksheet 2

MEASUREMENTS

Data and Results

Irregularly-Shaped
Quantity Regularly-Shaped Objects Unknown Liquid
Object

Cylinder = ______ g
m = ______ g(block of wood)
m = ___ g Cylinder + liquid = ___ g
Mass
m = ______ g(solid cylinder)
Liquid = _____ g

L = ______ cm
V1 = _______ mL
W = ______ cm
V2 = _______ mL
Volume V = 20mL
H = ______ cm
V = _______ mL
(pebbles)
V = ______ cm3 (block of wood)

d = _______ cm (solid cylinder)

h = _______ cm (solid cylinder)

V = _______ cm (solid cylinder)

D = ____ g/cm3 (block of wood) D =_______g/mL

D= _____ g/cm3
Density
(pebbles)
D = _____ g/cm3 (solid cylinder) Name of the liquid=

Guide Questions:

1. Why is it necessary to set the zero point of the balance before making a reading?

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2. What could you do to obtain accurate readings in measuring volumes of liquids and
irregularly - shaped objects?

Conclusion:

Application:

1. A 4-cm cube is found to have a density of 0.95 g/cc. Calculate its mass in grams?

2. A student immersed 8.20 g of unknown metal sample in a graduated cylinder containing 15

mL of water. He noted the water level to rise to 23.2 mL. From these data, find the volume
of the unknown metal.

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EXPERIMENT #3
THE BUNSEN BURNER

Objectives:

Given the necessary materials, you should be able to:

1. Identify the parts of a Bunsen burner and

2. Manipulate and use the burner properly.

Materials:

2 porcelain crucibles crucible tong

Bunsen burner match
Nichrome wire

Procedure:

1. Identify the parts of the Bunsen burner. Study their functions.

2. Attach the rubber tubing of the burner to a gas outlet.

Note: Wet it with water at the end of rubber tubing before inserting.

3. Rotate the collar to close the air holes completely.

4. Light the match before opening the gas outlet. Turn on the gas cock and light the burner by
bringing the lighted match to the edge of the barrel. Do not light directly at the top because
the sudden rush of gas might blow off the flame.

5. The flame produced is luminous. Observe the size, shape and color of the flame.

6. With the use of the crucible tongs, hold a clean porcelain crucible on top of the flame. Observe
the bottom of the crucible.

7. Slowly rotate the collar to open the air inlet. The flame produced is non-luminous. It consists
of distinct zones or cones.

8. Repeat procedure no. 6. Observe the bottom of the crucible.

9. Get a piece of nichrome wire and bend the end into a tiny loop. Hold the nichrome wire in the
different parts of the flame. Observe

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Name:_______________________________ Date Performed:_______________________

Subject/Section:_______________________ Instructor:____________________________

Group No_____________________________ Rating:_______________________________

Worksheet 3

THE BUNSEN BURNER

Data and Results

Type of Flame Luminous Non-Luminous

Color of Flame

Degree of Hotness

Condition of Air Hole

Guide Questions:

1. What is deposited at the bottom of the porcelain crucible when a luminous flame is
applied?

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2. What is deposited at the bottom of the porcelain crucible when a non- luminous flame is
applied?

3. With the use of the nichrome wire, which part of the flame is hot? very hot?

4. What flame is more desirable for laboratory work? Why?

Conclusion:

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Application:

1. Draw the and label the parts of a Bunsen Burner connect it to the flame below.

2. List down at least five safety measures you have observed when using a burner

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EXPERIMENT #4
CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Objectives:

Given the necessary materials, you should be able to:

1. Observe and describe the properties of some substances;

2. Identify the substances as element, compound, or mixture based on their properties; and
3. Separate components of mixtures.

Reagents:

sulfur sugar
alcohol iodine crystals
sodium chloride carbon disulfide
magnesium ribbon iron filings

Materials:

2 watch glasses 1 set test tubes in a rack

10- mL graduated cylinder 50- mL beaker
Bunsen burner stirring rod
mortar and pestle a pair of scissors
crucible tongs deflagrating spoon or metal cap
test tube brush magnet
stopwatch thermometer

Procedure:

1. Place 1 g of iron filings and sulfur powder in two separate watch glasses.

2. Make a careful list of their properties like odor, color, and response to magnetic attraction

3. Mix the sulfur and iron filings in a mortar and grind. Divide the mixture into two equal
parts.

4. For the first half of the mixture, place it in a deflagrating spoon or metal cap.

5. Heat gently at first and then strongly for about two minutes. Cool. Examine the product.
What is formed after heating?

Caution: Do not inhale the smoke.

6. Examine the second half of the mixture of iron filings and sulfur from procedure #3. Can
you distinguish the iron from the sulfur?

7. Try to separate the compounds with a magnet. Can you separate them?

8. Place the mixture of iron filings and sulfur in a test tube and add 2 mL of carbon disulfide.
Observe.
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Reminder: Carbon tetrachloride is a flammable liquid. Keep it away from the flame.

9. Dissolve 5 grams of NaCl in 20 mL of water contained in a beaker and heat the solution.
Determine its boiling point.

Reminder: The bulb of the thermometer must be immersed in the solution but must not touch the
bottom of the beaker.

10. Take the boiling point at 5 minute interval.

11. Boil 20 mL of water separately. Get the boiling point. Is there any difference with the
boiling point of water with NaCl?

12. Take 2 inches of newly -cut magnesium ribbon. Observe its properties.

13. Cut an inch of the magnesium ribbon then ignite it.

14. Place the product of combustion in a watch glass and compare its properties with the other
half of the ribbon.

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Name:_______________________________ Date Performed:_______________________

Subject/Section:_______________________ Instructor:____________________________

Group No_____________________________ Rating:_______________________________

Worksheet 4

CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

Data and Results

a. List down all the elements, compounds, and mixtures used/encountered in this experiment.

ELEMENTS COMPOUNDS MIXTURES

b. Observed properties of Iron filings and Sulfur

COLOR ODOR MAGNETIC ATTRACTION

IRON FILINGS

SULFUR

c. Can you distinguish between the iron filings and sulfur in the heated mixture?

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d. What is the product obtained?

e. When the elements combine chemically, do they retain their original properties? Explain.

f. Can you distinguish the iron from the sulfur in procedure #6?

Can you separate the iron from the sulfur using magnet?

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Which one is attracted?

g. Differentiate between the two kinds of mixtures from procedure #6 and #8.

h. Is there a difference between the boiling point of water in procedure #10 and the mixture
from procedure #11?

i. Identify the properties of magnesium based from procedure #12 and #14.

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Application:

1. Classify the following if the substance is an element, compound, or mixture. If it is a mixture:

tell whether it is a homogeneous or heterogeneous mixture.

SUBSTANCE CLASSIFICATION

a. air

b. carbon dioxide

c. smoke

d. halo-halo

e. vinegar

f. sugar and sand

g. diamond

h. copper sulfate and water

i. oxygen gas

j. cement

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THE GASEOUS STATE OF MATTER

Objectives:

1. To understand the kinetic molecular theory.

2. Learn the important properties of gases.

Our atmosphere is composed of mixture of gases, such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, argon,
ozone and traced amounts of others. These gases are essential to life, but they can also create
hazards to us. For example, carbon dioxide is important in photosynthesis in plants, but it is also
associated with the green house gases that cause the global warming.

In chemistry, the study of behavior of gases allows us to understand our surroundings and the effects
that gases have on our lives.

Here are some of the general properties of gases:

1. Arrangement of particles are widely separated

2. Particles moved freely

3. Can easily be diffused

4. Can be compressed easily

5. Low density

6. Mixability is high

THE KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY

Careful scientific studies of the behavior and properties of gases begun in 17th century by Robert
Boyle (1627-1691). He gathered data and investigation and formulated the general theory too]explain
the behavior and properties of gases. This theory is called the KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY (KMT).

The principle assumptions are as follows:

1. Gas particles are composed of tiny (submicroscopic) particles.

2. The distance between gas particles is large compared with the size of the particles
themselves.

3. Gas particles have no attraction with one another.

4. Gas particles move in straight lines in all direction, colliding with each other and with the
walls of the container creating “pressure”.

5. No energy is lost by the collision of gases. All collisions are perfectly elastic.

6. The average kinetic energy for particle is the same for all gases at the same temperature,
and its value is directly proportional to Kelvin temperature.
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The Kinetic Energy (KE) of particle is one half its mass times its velocity squared. Can be expressed
by the equation:

KE =1/2mv2

The movements of gas particles are affected by some factors such as pressure, volume and
concentration.

IMPORTANT GASES ON EARTH

Two of the most important gases on earth which are essential to life processes include oxygen and
hydrogen.

OXYGEN
Oxygen is by far the most abundant of the chemical elements on earth, comprising about 50% of the
earth’s crust, which includes the atmosphere. It occurs in both free and combined states. The air we
breathe contains about 21% oxygen. In the combined state, oxygen appears in many thousands of
compounds and is a constituent in the protoplasm of living things. It was discovered by Joseph Priestly
(English clergyman) in 1774.

Properties of Oxygen

1. Colorless, odorless, tasteless

2. It may be changed to a liquid at -183 ºC

3. It may be changed to a solid at -225ºC

4. Slightly heavier than air

5. Slightly soluble in water

6. Supports combustion

Preparation of Oxygen:

Oxygen maybe prepared by heating some of its compounds as shown in the equation:

2 KClO3 KCl + 3 O2

It can also be prepared when water reacts with sodium peroxide:

2 Na2O2 + 2 H2O 4 NaOH + O2

Another way of preparing oxygen is by electrolysis or passing electric current in water:

2 H2 O H2 + O2

Importance of Oxygen Gas

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When air is taken into the lungs, oxygen passes into the bloodstream, which carries this vital
substance to the body tissues. The foods we consume combines with oxygen, and this chemical
reaction produce energy and gives strength for physical activities.

Oxygen has many other functions. Coal and wood must have oxygen to burn and produce heat.
Oxygen in the air cause metals to corrode, wood to rot, paint to harden, gasoline to burn, iron to
rust, and many other chemical processes to take place.

HYDROGEN
Hydrogen is the ninth most abundant among the elements. Unlike oxygen, it is seldom found free in
nature. Studies indicate that large amount in the sun and many stars. In combination with other
elements, hydrogen is widely distributed. Henry Cavendish is given credit in the discovery of hydrogen
gas in 1776.

Properties of Hydrogen

1. Colorless, odorless gas

2. Lightest known substance

3. It liquefies at below -225º C

4. It solidifies at -259ºC

5. It is flammable

6. Does not support combustion

Preparation of Hydrogen

By action of water on metals:

2 Na + 2 H2O 2 NaOH + H2

Commercial preparation by natural gas:

CH4 + 2 H2O 4 H2 + CO2

By electrolysis method:

2H2O H2 + O2

Importance of Hydrogen

Much research is being done on the use of hydrogen as a possible replacement of gasoline and
gaseous fuels. Hydrogen itself is suitable for use in modified automobile engines and a number of
experimental cars are being developed. Other importance of hydrogen includes the preparation of
ammonia NH3, hydrogen chloride and methyl alcohol –three of the 50 top chemicals .Hydrogen is also
used as rocket fuel.

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THE GAS LAWS

Objectives:

1. To understand the different gas laws.

2. To solve problems on gas laws.

The gas laws will help us understand more about the nature of gases.

We have three variables by which we measure gases: pressure, volume, and temperature. Pressure
is measured as force per area. The standard SI unit for pressure is the pascal (Pa). However,
atmospheres (atm) and several other units are commonly used. The table below shows the
conversions between these units.

Units of Pressure
1 pascal (Pa) 1 N*m-2 = 1 kg*m-1*s-2
1 atmosphere (atm) 1.01325*105 Pa
1 atmosphere (atm) 760 torr
1 bar 105 Pa

BOYLE'S LAW

States that: the volume of the gas is inversely proportional to the pressure at constant temperature;

V α 1/ P, at constant T

Boyle's Law is useful when we compare two conditions of the same gas with no change in
temperature. No change in temperature means T1 = T2, so we can cancel the two temperatures in
the Complete Gas Law Formula and get:

P1 V1 = 1 P1 V1 = P2 V2
or
P2 V2 the usual Boyle's Law

P1 V1 = P2 V2

Boyle’s Law Problems

1. The volume of the lungs is measured by the volume of air inhaled or exhaled. If the
volume of the lungs is 2.400 L during exhalation and the pressure is 101.70 KPa, and the
pressure during inhalation is 101.01 KPa, what is the volume of the lungs during
inhalation?

V2 = [V1][P1] V2 = [2.400L][101.70KPa] = 2.412L

[P2] [101.01KPa]

2. The total volume of a soda can is 415 mL. Of this 415 mL, there is 60.0 mL of headspace
for the CO2 gas put in to carbonate the beverage. If a volume of 100.0 mL of gas at

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standard pressure is added to the can, what is the pressure in the can when it has been
sealed?

P2 = [V1][P1] P2 = [100.0 mL][101.3KPa] = 169 KPa

[V2] [60.0 mL]

CHARLES'S LAW

States that: the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the temperature at constant pressure;

V α T, at constant P

Again we start with the Combined Law to get Charles's Law, but now there is no change in the
pressure volume, so P1 = P2.

P1 V1 T1
=
P2 V2 T2

If you cancel out the two pressures, you get a form of Charles's Law that I consider easiest to
remember.
V1 V2
=
T1 T2

GAY LUSSAC'S LAW

Gay-Lussac's Law states that the pressure of a sample of gas at constant volume, is directly
proportional to its temperature in Kelvin:

P α T , at constant V
According to Gay-Lussac's Law:
P1 / T1 = constant

After the change in pressure and temperature,

P2 / T2 = constant

Combine the two equations:

P1 / T1 = P2 / T2

COMBINED GAS LAW

The following problems may be solved using the relationships described by either Charles’ or Boyles’
laws, together in the combined gas law. Show all the steps to the solution of the problem.

V1P1T2 = V2P2T1

1. Carbon dioxide occupies a 2.54 dm3 container at STP. What will be the volume when the
pressure is 150 KPa and 26oC?

V2 = [2.54 dm3][101.3 KPa][26oC + = 1.88 dm3

273K]
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[150 KPa ][273 K]

2. Oxygen occupies a fixed container of 5.5L at STP. What will happen to the pressure if the
temperature rises to 300K?

P2 = [5.5 L][ 101.3 KPa][300 K] = 111.3 KPa

[5.5 L] [273 K]

THE IDEAL GAS LAW

A gas may be completely described by its makeup, pressure, temperature, and volume. Where P is
the pressure, V is the volume, n is the number of mols of gas, T is the absolute temperature, and R
is the Universal Gas Constant,

The three laws we just talked about describe three fundamental relationships between, P and T, V
and T, and V and P. Now, can combine the laws to make the combined gas law:

PV
= constant or
T

PV=nRT

Where P → pressure in kPa

V → volume in litres (L)
n → number of moles
T → temperature in Kelvin (K)
R → universal gas constant; 8.314 kPa • L• mol–1• K–1

Example:

A bulb with a volume of 225 mL contains 0.580 g of an unknown gaseous compound. The pressure
is measured as 145.60 kPa at a temperature of 25 oC. What is the molar mass of the compound?

Solution:

1. Convert 225 mL to L; 225 mL = 0.225 L

2. Convert 25 oC to Kelvin; 25 oC = 273 + 25= 298 K
3. Determine the number of moles of gas under the above conditions

PV 145.0 kPa x 0.225 L

n = =
RT 298 K x 8.314 kPa•L•mol–1•K–1
= 1.32 x 10–2mol

1.32 x 10–2mol = 0.580 g

! mol = xg

0.580 g x 1 mol
xg = = 44.0 g/mol
1.32 x10–2mol

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ACTIVITY 3
1. Helium takes up 5.71 liters at O°C and 3.95 atmospheres. What is the volume of the same
helium at 32°F and 800 mmHg?

2. 257 mL of oxygen in a gas tube goes from 17°C to 42°C from being out in the sun. The
pressure in the tube is 39 #/in2, but it does not change as the temperature increases. What
is the volume of the tube after it has heated?

3. An enormous (57,400 cubic meter) expandable helium balloon at 22°C is heated up by a fire
under it and the action of the sun on the dark plastic covering on top. There will be a small
increase in pressure from 785 mmHg to 790 mmHg, but the major effect wanted is an increase
in volume so the balloon can lift its cargo. To what temperature must the balloon get in order
to fill out to 60,500 cubic meters?

4. What volume of air at standard pressure gets packed into an 11 ft3 SCUBA tank at the same
temperature at 15.8 atmospheres?

5. Air is 20% oxygen and 80% nitrogen. What is the mass of air in an automobile tire of 19.7 L
and internal pressure of 46.7 PSI at 24°C? (That pressure is the same as the 32 PSI difference
you usually measure as the tire pressure 32 PSI + 14.7 PSI. You will have to use a weighted
average for the molar mass of air.)

6. A constant pressure tank of gas at 1.01 Atm has propane in it at 15°C when it is at 255 cubic
meters. What is its volume at 48°C?

7. A SCUBA tank is filled with air at 16.7 Atm at 24°C, but someone leaves it out in the sun to
warm to 65°C. What is the tank pressure?

8. The usual partial pressure of oxygen that people get at sea level is 0.20 Atm., that is, a fifth
of the usual sea level air pressure. People used to 1 Atm. air pressure begin to become "light-
headed" at about 0.10 Atm oxygen. As a rule of thumb, the air pressure decreases one inch
of mercury each thousand feet of altitude above sea level. At what altitude should airplane
cabins be pressurized? Up to about what altitude should you be able to use unpressurized
pure oxygen? (Express your answer in feet above Mean Sea Level, or MSL.)

9. Which diffuses faster, the bad smell from a cat-pan due to ammonia or an expensive French
perfume with an average molecular weight of 170 g/mol? "How much faster does the faster
one diffuse?

10. What is the mass of neon in a 625 mL neon tube at 357 mmHg & 25°C?

11. What is the mass of 15 liters of chlorine gas at STP?

12. How many liters of ammonia at STP are produced when 10 g of hydrogen is combined with
nitrogen?

13. How many milliliters of hydrogen at 0°C and 1400 mmHg are produced if 15g of magnesium
reacts with sulfuric acid?

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14. What is the mass of 25 liters of fluorine gas at 2.85 atm, 450°C?

15. A nine liter tank has 150 atmospheres of bromine in it at 27°C. What is the added mass of the
tank due to the gas?

16. A 250 Kg tank of liquid butane (C4H1O) burns to produce carbon dioxide at 120°C. What
volume of carbon dioxide is produced at 1 Atm?

17. How many liters of product at 950 mmHg and O°C is produced by the burning of three liters
of acetylene (C2H2) at 5 atm and 20°C?

18. Five grams of octane (C8H18) and enough oxygen to burn it are in an automobile cylinder
compressed to 20 atm at 28°C. The mixture explodes and heats the cylinder to 150°C. What
is the pressure in the (same sized) cylinder after the explosion?

19. If 0.515g of magnesium is added to HCl, it makes hydrogen gas and magnesium chloride. The
hydrogen is collected at 23°C and 735mmHg. What is the volume of hydrogen?

20. What is the mass of 150 liters of propane gas (C3H8) at 37°C and 245 inHg?

21. Isopropyl alcohol, C3H7OH, makes a good fuel for cars. What volume of oxygen at 735 mmHg
and 23°C is needed to burn one kilogram of isopropyl alcohol?

22. What volume does 4 Kg of nitrogen gas take up at 27°C and 3 atm?

23. The dirigible Hindenberg had 3.7E6 m3 of hydrogen in its gas bags at 1.1 atm and 7°C. What
was the weight of the hydrogen in pounds?

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EXPERIMENT# 5
Properties of Gases

Objective:

To know important properties of gases

Materials:

Graduated cylinder test tube

Piece of paper test tube holder
Basketball match
Potassium chlorate

Procedure:

A. Properties of Air

1. Weigh a basketball in a Beam balance. Record

2. Let the air out of the basket ball. Weigh deflated basketball. Record

3. Place a piece of paper over the top of a graduated cylinder with half filled water

4. Hold the paper firmly in place and turn the cylinder upside down inside a beaker with
water.

5. Record the volume of gas inside the cylinder.

6. Get the height of the water inside the cylinder in cm. Record.

7. Get the height of the water outside the cylinder. Record.

B. Properties of Oxygen

1. Heat strongly 1g of potassium Chlorate in a test tube. Insert a glowing splinter (lighted
matchstick ) into the test tube.

Caution: This will produce much flame; keep the test tube away from your face as shown in the
diagram.

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Name:_______________________________ Date Performed:_______________________

Subject/Section:_______________________ Instructor:____________________________

Group No_____________________________ Rating:_______________________________

Worksheet 5

Properties of Gases

Data and Results

A. Properties of Air

I.

Weight in grams of basketball __________g

Weight of deflated basketball __________g
What property of air was demonstrated in this particular procedure? Explain.

II.

Volume of gas inside the cylinder ________ mL

What is h ________ cm.
Where h is the difference between the height of the water inside and outside the cylinder? What
property of air was demonstrated in this particular procedure?

B. Properties of Oxygen

Observation:
What happened to the glowing splinter?

What was the gas formed inside the test tube?

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THE LIQUID STATE OF MATTER

Objectives:

1. To understand the properties of liquids.

2. To discuss the importance of water.

Over 75% of the Earth is covered with water. We are born from it, drink it, bathe in it, cook with it,
and enjoy its beauty with waterfalls and other bodies of water. Water is the most essential liquid
substance on Earth. It supports and enhances all forms of life on Earth.

In chemistry, water provides the medium for numerous chemical reactions. Water under normal
condition is in liquid state of matter. Here are some of the general properties of liquids.

Properties of liquids:

1. Particles are not widely separated

2. Particles can move freely but slower than gas

3. Diffusion is slower than gas

4. Has fixed volume but fits the container

5. Difficult to compress

6. High density

7. Mixability is slower than gas

Important properties of liquid that will help explain the behavior of matter in a liquid state:

a. Mixability

When two liquids are combined together, one will diffuse throughout the other but at slower rate
than that of the gases. This property is due to the arrangement of molecules in a gas.

b. Evaporation

At a given temperature, the molecules in a particular liquid have a constant average kinetic energy.
They do not all have the same kinetic energy, however, some Have higher energies and some have
lower. The molecules with sufficient high kinetic can escape from a liquid, and therefore the liquid
evaporates. As the temperature of liquid is increased, more of the molecules have sufficient energy
to escape and thus the rate of evaporation increases.

c. Vapor Pressure

If a liquid is placed in a container, the molecule that escapes from the liquid in the gas phase will
cause a pressure on the container. After a very short period of time the rate at which the molecules
are leaving the liquid become equal to the rate at which other molecules are going back into the liquid
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phase since the container is closed. This is described as the condition at equilibrium at which the rate
of evaporation is equal to the rate of condensation. At this equilibrium state, the molecules in the gas
will exert a certain pressure on the container at a given temperature. This pressure is known as the
vapor pressure of the liquid.

d. Boiling Point

When the vapor pressure of liquid becomes equal to the pressure of the atmosphere against the
liquid, the liquid boils. Therefore, boiling point is defined as the temperature at which the vapor
pressure of liquid is equal to the atmospheric pressure.

e. Heat of Vaporization

Specific heat was defined as the amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature of a given amount
of substance by 1 degree Celsius that is, it takes a certain amount of heat to raise the temperature
of 1gram of a given substance by 1degree Celsius. For water, this value is 1.00 cal/gºC.

f. Surface Tension

The surface tension of liquid is the property of liquid that tends to pull the molecules at the surface
of a liquid in towards the body of liquid and thus reduce the surface into a minimum. This is caused
by the fact that within the body of the liquid each molecule is attracted to others in all directions.

WATER (THE MOST ESSENTIAL LIQUID ON EARTH)

WATER'S PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

[Link]

What are the physical and chemical properties of water that make it so unique and necessary for
living things? When you look at water, taste and smell it - well, what could be more boring? Pure
water is virtually colorless and has no taste or smell. But the hidden qualities of water make it a most
interesting subject

Water is unique in that it is the only natural substance that is found in all three states -- liquid, solid
(ice), and gas (steam) -- at the temperatures normally found on Earth. Earth's water is constantly
interacting, changing, and in movement.

Water freezes at 32o Fahrenheit (F) and boils at 212o F (at sea level, but 186.4° at 14,000 feet). In
fact, water's freezing and boiling points are the baseline with which temperature is measured: 0o on
the Celsius scale is water's freezing point, and 100o is water's boiling point. Water is unusual in that
the solid form, ice, is less dense than the liquid form, which is why ice floats.

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Water has a high specific heat index. This means that water can absorb a lot of heat before it begins
to get hot. This is why water is valuable to industries and in your car's radiator as a coolant. The high
specific heat index of water also helps regulate the rate at which air changes temperature, which is
why the temperature change between seasons is gradual rather than sudden, especially near the
oceans.

Water has a very high surface tension. In other words, water is sticky and elastic, and tends to clump
together in drops rather than spread out in a thin film. Surface tension is responsible for capillary
action, which allows water (and its dissolved substances) to move through the roots of plants and
through the tiny blood vessels in our bodies.

Here's a quick rundown of some of water's properties:

Weight: 62.416 pounds per cubic foot at 32°F

Weight: 61.998 pounds per cubic foot at 100°F

Weight: 8.33 pounds/gallon, 0.036 pounds/cubic inch

Density: 1 gram per cubic centimeter (cc) at 39.2°F,

0.95865 gram per cc at 212°F

Here are some water volume comparisons:

1 gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 128 fluid = 231 cubic inches

ounces

1 liter = 0.2642 gallons = 1.0568 quart = 61.02 cubic inches

1 million gallons = 3.069 acre-feet = 133,685.64 cubic feet

WATER'S CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

You probably know water's chemical description is H2O. As the diagram above shows, that is one
atom of oxygen bound to two atoms of hydrogen. The hydrogen atoms are "attached" to one side of
the oxygen atom, resulting in a water molecule having a positive charge on the side where the
hydrogen atoms are and a negative charge on the other side, where the oxygen atom is. Since
opposite electrical charges attract, water molecules tend to attract each other, making water kind of
"sticky." As the diagram shows, the side with the hydrogen atoms (positive charge) attracts the
oxygen side (negative charge) of a different water molecule. (If the water molecule here looks
familiar, remember that everyone's favorite mouse is mostly water, too).

All these water molecules attracting each other mean they tend to clump together. This is why water
drops are, in fact, drops! If it wasn't for some of Earth's forces, such as gravity, a drop of water would
be ball shaped -- a perfect sphere.

SOURCES OF WATER
The water content of the hydrosphere is about 1.36 million cubic kilometers (1.36 billion km3) The
bulk of it is about 9.7% is in the oceans. The remaining 2.8% is divided into different sources’ such
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as 0.62% groundwater, 2.15%glaciers and 0.02% others (freshwater, saline lakes, soil moisture,
stream channels and atmosphere).

1. Freshwater- is chemically defined as containing a concentration of less than two parts per
thousand of dissolved salts.

2. Groundwater is water located beneath the ground surface in soil pore spaces and in the
fractures of lithologic formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an
aquifer when it can yield a usable quantity of water. The depth at which soil pore spaces or
fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated with water is called the water table.
Groundwater is recharged from, and eventually flows to, the surface naturally; natural
discharge often occurs at springs and seeps, and can form oases or wetlands. Groundwater
is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal and industrial use by constructing and
operating extraction wells. The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater is
hydrogeology, also called groundwater

3. Upland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the headwaters of river systems,
upland reservoirs are usually sited above any human habitation and may be surrounded by a
protective zone to restrict the opportunities for contamination. Bacteria and pathogen levels
are usually low, but some bacteria, protozoa or algae will be present. Where uplands are
forested or peaty, humic acids can colour the water. Many upland sources have low pH which
require adjustment

4. Rivers, canals and low land reservoirs: Low land surface waters that have a significant
bacterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of dissolved
constituents.

WATER POLLUTION

Water Pollution is any physical, biological or chemical change in water quality that adversely affects
living organisms or makes water unsuitable for desired uses. Both natural and human conditions
affect the quality and quantity of water.

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION

1. Domestic Wastewater. Human waste and other domestic waste which are disposed off in
water-borne seawage system. They are usually discharged into nearby bodies of water.

2. Industrial Effluents. They frequently produced wastes that are toxic ebven in minute
quantities. Major contributors are: pulp and paper, chemicals, petrochemicals and refining,
metal working, food processing and textile industries.

3. Land Use Run off. The clearing of land for agriculture and agricultural practices like irrigation,
use of fertilizers and pesticides affects water [Link] includes deforestation, irrigation, and
use of fertilizers and pesticides

4. Litter. This pertains to plastic left on the shore and throws directly in water. Litters travel long
distances and aside from degrading beaches, kill birds, seals, turtles, and other marine forms
of life. Litters are considered the most serious forms of marine pollution.
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5. Petroleum. Oil spills that occur in coastal waters where oil is being drilled or transported

TREATMENTS FOR WATER POLLUTION

 Water Purification
Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, materials, and biological
contaminants from raw water. The goal is to produce water fit for a specific purpose. Most water is
purified for human consumption (drinking water) but water purification may also be designed for a
variety of other purposes, including meeting the requirements of medical, pharmacology, chemical
and industrial applications. In general the methods used include physical process such as filtration
and sedimentation, biological processes such as slow sand filters or activated sludge, chemical process
such as flocculation and chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

The purification process of water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter including
suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi; and a range of dissolved and particulate
material derived from the minerals that water may have made contacted after falling as rain.

The processes below are the ones commonly used in water purification plants. Some or most may
not be used depending on the scale of the plant and quality of the water.

 pH adjustment
Distilled water has a pH of 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic) and sea water has an average pH of 8.3
(slightly alkaline). If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime or soda ash is added to raise the pH.
Lime is the more common of the two additives because it is cheap, but it also adds to the resulting
water hardness. Making the water slightly alkaline ensures that coagulation and flocculation processes
work effectively and also helps to minimise the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and lead
solder in pipe fittings. If the water is alkaline, acid (HCl) or carbon dioxide (CO2) may be added in
some circumstances to lower the pH. Having an alkaline water does not necessarily mean that lead
or copper from the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the water but as a generality, water
with a pH above 7 is much less likely to dissolve heavy metals than a water with a pH below 7.

 Flocculation
Flocculation is a process which clarifies the water. Clarifying means removing any turbidity or colour
so that the water is clear and colourless. Clarification is done by causing a precipitate to form in the
water which can be removed using simple physical methods. Initially the precipitate forms as very
small particles but as the water is gently stirred, these particles stick together to form bigger particles
- this process is sometimes called flocculation. Many of the small particles that were originally present
in the raw water absorb onto the surface of these small precipitate particles and so get incorporated
into the larger particles that coagulation produces. In this way the coagulated precipitate takes most
of the suspended matter out of the water and is then filtered off, generally by passing the mixture
through a coarse sand filter or sometimes through a mixture of sand and granulated anthracite (high
carbon and low volatiles coal). Coagulants / flocculating agents that may be used include:

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 Sedimentation
Water exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier or
settling basin. It is a large tank with slow flow, allowing floc to settle to the bottom. The sedimentation
basin is best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between does not permit settlement
or floc break up. Sedimentation basins can be in the shape of a rectangle, where water flows from
end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. Sedimentation basin outflow is typically
over a weir so only a thin top layer - furthest from the sediment - [Link] amount of floc that settles
out of the water is dependent on the time the water spends in the basin and the depth of the basin.
The retention time of the water must therefore be balanced against the cost of a larger basin. The
minimum clarifier retention time is normally 4 hours. A deep basin will allow more floc to settle out
than a shallow basin. This is because large particles settle faster than smaller ones, so large particles
bump into and integrate smaller particles as they settle. In effect, large particles sweep vertically
through the basin and clean out smaller particles on their way to the bottom.

As particles settle to the bottom of the basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. This
layer of sludge must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge that is generated is significant,
often 3%-5% of the total volume of water that is treated. The cost of treating and disposing of the
sludge can be a significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment plant. The tank may be
equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean the bottom of the tank or the tank
can be taken out of service when the bottom needs to be cleaned

 Filtration
After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended
particles and unsettled floc. The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves
vertically through sand which often has a layer of activated carbon or anthracite coal above the sand.
The top layer removes organic compounds, which contribute to taste and odor. The space between
sand particles is larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most
particles pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles.
Effective filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its operation:
if the top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog.

To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal direction
(called back flushing or backwashing) to remove embedded particles. Prior to this, compressed air
may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter media to aid the
backwashing process; this is known as air scouring. This contaminated water can be disposed of,
along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by mixing with the raw
water entering the plant.

Some water treatment plants employ pressure filters. These work on the same principle as rapid
gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is forced
through it under pressure.

 Chlorination
The most common disinfection method is some form of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramine
or chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that rapidly kills many harmful micro-organisms.
Because chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This problem is
avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively inexpensive solution that releases

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free chlorine when dissolved in water. Chlorine solutions can be generated on site by electrolyzing
common salt solutions. A solid form , calcium hypochlorite exists that releases chlorine on contact
with water. Handling the solid, however, requires greater routine human contact through opening
bags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or bleach which are more easily automated. The
generation of liquid sodium hypochlorite is both inexpensive and safer than the use of gas or solid
chlorine. All forms of chlorine are widely used despite their respective drawbacks. One drawback is
that chlorine from any source reacts with natural organic compounds in the water to form potentially
harmful chemical by-products trihalomethanes (THMs) and haloacetic acids (HAAs), both of which
are carcinogenic in large quantities and regulated by the United States Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA). The formation of THMs and haloacetic acids may be minimized by effective removal
of as many organics from the water as possible prior to chlorine addition. Although chlorine is effective
in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against protozoans that form cysts in water (Giardia
lamblia and Cryptosporidium, both of which are pathogenic).

 Distillation
Involves boiling the water to produce water vapour. The vapour contacts a cool surface where it
condenses as a liquid. Because the solutes are not normally vaporised, they remain in the boiling
solution. Even distillation does not completely purify water, because of contaminants with similar
boiling points and droplets of unvaporised liquid carried with the steam. However, 99.9% pure water
can be obtained by distillation.

 Reverse Osmosis
Mechanical pressure is applied to an impure solution to force pure water through a semi-permeable
membrane. Reverse osmosis is theoretically the most thorough method of large scale water
purification available, although perfect semi-permeable membranes are difficult to create. Unless
membranes are well-maintained, algae and other life forms can colonize the membrane.

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EXPERIMENT #6
PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND WATER

Objectives:

Given the necessary materials, you should be able to:

1. To determine some important properties of liquids

2. Study some of the chemical properties of water.

Materials:

Evaporating dish dropper Spatula

Beaker 250mL watch glass Test tube holder
Pipette 10mL. Test tubes with rack paper clip

Chemicals:

Acetone 30% sugar solution Alcohol

Chloroform 10% sugar solution glycerine
Soap solution coconut oil CaCO3

Procedure:

a. Surface Tension

1. Fill a 250 mL beaker with water up to the neck.

2. Balance a paper clip at the end of a spatula and try to float the clip on the surface of the
water. Note a slight denting on the liquid surface.

3. Slowly drop an alcohol to the water surface that is near the clip and observe what happens.
Record the number of drops of alcohol used before the clip dropped to the bottom.

4. Repeat the same procedure but add 5 drops of soap solution. Observe.

b. Viscosity

1. Draw water up to the middle of the pipette then slowly release from one end to the beaker.
Measure time required for the volume of water to flow from the pipete into the beaker.

2. Repeat this reading three trials and record get the average reading.

3. Using the above procedure, determine the viscosities of other liquids such as 10% sugar
solution, 30% sugar solution, glycerol, and coconut oil.

c. Heat of Vaporization

1. Place 5 drops of water at the back of your palm. Record the time the water disappeared
or evaporated.

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2. Repeat this procedure using alcohol, acetone. Compare the time each disappeared from
your palm.

d. Solubility of Liquids

1. To 1mL water in a test tube. 1 mL of alcohol and shake. Observe and note.

2. Repeat the above procedure using the following pairs of compounds:

Water- alcohol alcohol-acetone
Water –acetone alcohol chloroform
Water – chloroform water –oil
Acetone-chloroform

3. Record the table as miscible, partially miscible and immiscible

NOTE: Use equal amounts of liquids to get an accurate result.

e. Properties of Water

Test for hardness of water:

1. To a test tube of 5mL tap water, add 5mL. Of soap solution and shake. Observe the
amount of lather formed.

2. To another test tube, repeat procedure using distilled water.

3. Compare the lather formed for both test tubes.

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Name:_______________________________ Date Performed:_______________________

Subject/Section:_______________________ Instructor:____________________________

Group No_____________________________ Rating:_______________________________

Worksheet 6

PROPERTIES OF LIQUIDS AND WATER

Data and Results

a. Surface Tension

Water + No. of drops Observation

alcohol

Soap solution

b. Viscosity

Time of flow in seconds

Trial 1 Trial 2 Average

water

10% sugar solution

30% sugar solution

glycerine

Coconut oil

c. Heat of Vaporization

Time in sec.
( the compound Observation
disappeared)

water

Acetone

alcohol

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d. Solubility of Liquids

Miscible Immiscible Slightly Miscible

Water + alcohol

Water + acetone

Water + chloroform

Water + oil

Alcohol + chloroform

Alcohol acetone

e. Test for Hardness of Water

Observation (In terms of degree of lather formed)

Tap water + soap solution

Distilled water + soap

solution

Guide Questions:

1. Define viscosity.
________________________________________________________________________
__________________________
2. Which among the liquids in procedure B is the most viscous? __________________
3. What is the relationship between viscosity and time of flow?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________
4. What is the relationship of viscosity and concentration of solution?
________________________________________________________________________
____________________
5. Of all the liquids used in procedure C including water, which has the highest heat of
vaporization? Why?
_________________________________________________________
6. If a liquid is volatile, will the heat of vaporization be high? Explain.
________________________________________________________________________
______________________
7. In the test for hardness of water, what is the role of soap solution in the said procedure?
________________________________________________________________________

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Conclusion:

Application:

1. Why does water spilled on top of the table more rapidly than the same amount of water
in a glass?
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________________________________________________
2. Are all clear, colorless, cold water good for drinking? Explain why.
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________
_________________________
3. Compare the different bottled water that you buy from the store such as: mineral water,
distilled water and purified water. Which among them is the safest to drink?
________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________

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SOLID STATE OF MATTER

As a liquid state of matter is cooled down, the molecules move more slowly until a point is reached
where most of this motion stops and the particles are held in a definite arrangement. At this point
the liquid has turned into a solid. Due to the arrangement of particles in the solid state, some of the
general properties of solids are given below:

Properties of Solids:

1. Particles are packed, close together

2. Particles moved very slow

3. Diffuses very slow

4. Have fixed shape and volume

5. Very difficult to compress

6. High density

7. Mixability is extremely slow

Solids may be classified as crystalline or amorphous. A crystalline solid is one in which the atoms are
arranged in a definite geometric patterns. An amorphous solid does not possess this orderly
arrangement. An example is when a crystalline substance is heated, the transformation from solid to
liquid is sharp and distinct; the solid changes state at a definite temperature, called the melting point.
If an amorphous substance is heated, it gradually softens and becomes less viscous as the
temperature is raised, no definite point of transition is recorded.

 Melting Point or Freezing Point

The temperature at which the liquid and solid state of a particular substance can exist in equilibrium
is called melting point. At this equilibrium point the rate at which the solid is melting is equal to the
rate at which at which the liquid is freezing. For example, the melting point and freezing point of
water © there will be some constant amount of ice and water if the temperature is held constant.
The rate at which the ice is melting is equal to the rate at which the water is freezing.

 Sublimation
A substance in a solid state also has a certain vapor pressure, although this is generally much lower
than the vapor pressure of a liquid. Therefore a solid can pass directly from the solid state to gaseous
state. This process of passing directly from solid to gaseous state without through the liquid state is
called sublimation.

 Heat of Fusion
In the discussion of the changes from liquid to gas phase at the boiling point, it was pointed out that
a certain amount of heat is necessary to carry out the conversion due to the attraction between the
particles in liquid. The same thing is true in changing from solid to liquid state. It takes a certain
amount of heat to convert a given amount of solid to liquid at a freezing point. This amount of heat
is called the heat of fusion and is usually expressed in calories per gram or kilo calories per mole.
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MAGNETISM

Objectives:

1. To understand the magnetic phenomena.

2. To discuss the types of magnetism
3. Know the importance of magnetic materials.

In physics, magnetism is one of the phenomena by which materials exert attractive or repulsive forces
on other materials. Some well-known materials that exhibit easily detectable magnetic properties
(called magnets) are nickel, iron, cobalt, gadolinium and their alloys; however, all materials are
influenced to greater or lesser degree by the presence of a magnetic field. To give you a better
understanding about magnetism here are some important information about magnetism.

Early Discoveries

In the early discoveries people of ancient greek and chinese discovered a lodestone (the natural form
of a magnet). Through experiments they found out that a lodestone would always point in a north-
south direction if it was allowed to rotate freely. They applied this characteristic of the lodestones to
navigation, fortune telling, and a guide for building.

North and South Poles

In 1263 Pierre de Maricurie a French solidure mapped the magnetic field of a lodestone with a
compass. He discovered that a magnet had two magnetic poles North and South poles. In the 1600's
William Gilbert concluded that the earth itself is a giant magnet with north and south poles.

Magnets and Electricity

In 1820 a Danish physicist and chemist Hans Christian discovered that when an electric current flows
through a wire it causes the compass needle to rotate. This proved that magnetism and electricity
were related. Also in 1820 Andre Marie a French physicist worked out the mathematical relationship
between the current of electricity and the strength of th magnetic field. He also had a theory that the
electric current in atoms had a magnetic field. In 1830 Michael Faraday an English scientist and
Joseph Henry an American Physicist discovered that a changing magnetic field produced a current in
a coil of wire.

Modern research on Magnets Today

Pierre curie discovered that magnets lose their magnetism above a certain temperature which became
known as the Curie point. In the early 1900's a lot of physicists began exploring the behavior of
electrons and other particles in a magnet which became known as quantum mechanics. Also, the
understanding of magnetic properties of atoms and molecules. In the 1900's Edward M Purcell and
Flix Bloch both American physicists developed a way to measure the magnetic field of the nuclei. This
discovery led to MRI also known as Magnetic Resonance Imaging. In the 1960's and 1970's scientists
developed superconducting materials. Only when the magnet is cooled to absolute zero, these
magnets can generate magnetic fields up to 200,000 gauss. Superconducting magnets are used in
maglev trains and in nuclear research.

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ORIGIN OF MAGNETISM
Magnetism arises from two types of motions of electrons in atoms-one is the motion of the electrons
in an orbit around the nucleus, similar to the motion of the planets in our solar system around the
sun, and the other is the spin of the electrons around its axis, analogous to the rotation of the Earth
about its own axis. The orbital and the spin motion independently impart a magnetic moment on each
electron causing each of them to behave as a tiny magnet. The magnetic moment of a magnet is
defined by the rotational force experienced by it in a magnetic field of unit strength acting
perpendicular to its magnetic axis. In a large fraction of the elements, the magnetic moment of the
electrons cancel out because of the Pauli exclusion principle, which states that each electronic orbit
can be occupied by only two electrons of opposite spin. However, a number of so-called transition
metal atoms, such as iron, cobalt, and nickel, have magnetic moments that are not cancelled; these
elements are, therefore, common examples of magnetic materials. In these transition metal elements
the magnetic moment arises only from the spin of the electrons. In the rare earth elements (that
begin with lanthanum in the sixth row of the Periodic Table of Elements), however, the effect of the
orbital motion of the electrons is not cancelled, and hence both spin and orbital motion contribute to
the magnetic moment. Examples of some magnetic rare earth elements are: cerium, neodymium,
samarium, and europium. In addition to metals and alloys of transition and rare earth elements,
magnetic moments are also observed in a wide variety of chemical compounds involving these
elements. Among the common magnetic compounds are the metal oxides, which are chemically
bonded compositions of metals with oxygen.

The Earth's geomagnetic field is the result of electric currents produced by the slow convective motion
of its liquid core in accordance with a basic law of electromagnetism which states that a magnetic
field is generated by the passage of an electric current. According to this model, the Earth's core
should be electrically conductive enough to allow generation and transport of an electric current. The
geomagnetic field generated will be dipolar in character, similar to the magnetic field in a conventional
magnet, with lines of magnetic force lying in approximate planes passing through the geomagnetic
axis. The principle of the compass needle used by the ancient mariners involves the alignment of a
magnetized needle along the Earth's magnetic axis with the imaginary south pole of the needle
pointing towards the magnetic north pole of the Earth. The magnetic north pole of the Earth is inclined
at an angle of 11 degrees away from its geographical north pole.

TYPES OF MAGNETISM
Five basic types of magnetism have been observed and classified on the basis of the magnetic
behavior of materials in response to magnetic fields at different temperatures. These types of
magnetism are: ferromagnetism, ferromagnetism, antiferromagnetism, paramagnetism, and
diamagnetism.

Ferromagnetism and ferromagnetism occur when the magnetic moments in a magnetic material line
up spontaneously at a temperature below the so-called Curie temperature, to produce net
magnetization. The magnetic moments are aligned at random at temperatures above the Curie point,
but become ordered, typically in a vertical or, in special cases, in a spiral (helical) array, below this
temperature. In a ferromagnet magnetic moments of equal magnitude arrange themselves in parallel
to each other. In a ferromagnet, on the other hand, the moments are unequal in magnitude and
order in an antiparallel arrangement. When the moments are equal in magnitude and ordering occurs
at a temperature called the Neel temperature in an antiparallel array to give no net magnetization,
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the phenomenon is referred to as antiferromagnetism. These transitions from disorder to order

represent classic examples of phase transitions. Another example of a phase transition is the freezing
of the disordered molecules of water at a critical temperature of 32°F (0°C) to form the ordered
structure of ice. The magnetic moments-referred to as spins-are localized on the tiny electronic
magnets within the atoms of the solid. Mathematically, the electronic spins are equal to the angular
momentum (the rotational velocity times the moment of inertia) of the rotating electrons. The spins
in a ferromagnetic or a ferrimagnetic single crystal undergo spontaneous alignment to form a
macroscopic (large scale) magnetized object. Most magnetic solids, however, are not single crystals,
but consist of single crystal domains separated by domain walls. The spins align within a domain
below the Curie temperature, independently of any external magnetic field, but the domains have to
be aligned in a magnetic field in order to produce a macroscopic magnetized object. This process is
effected by the rotation of the direction of the spins in the domain wall under the influence of the
magnetic field, resulting in a displacement of the wall and the eventual creation of a single large
domain with the same spin orientation.

Paramagnetism is a weak form of magnetism observed in substances which display a positive

response to an applied magnetic field. This response is described by its magnetic susceptibility per
unit volume, which is a dimensionless quantity defined by the ratio of the magnetic moment to the
magnetic field intensity. Paramagnetism is observed, for example, in atoms and molecules with an
odd number of electrons, since here the net magnetic moment cannot be zero. Diamagnetism is
associated with materials that have a negative magnetic susceptibility. It occurs in nonmagnetic
substances like graphite, copper, silver and gold, and in the superconducting state of certain
elemental and compound metals. The negative magnetic susceptibility in these materials is the result
of a current induced in the electron orbits of the atoms by the applied magnetic field. The electron
current then induces a magnetic moment of opposite sign to that of the applied field. The net result
of these interactions is that the material is shielded from penetration by the applied magnetic field.

APPLICATIONS OF MAGNETISM
Electromagnets are utilized as key components of transformers in power supplies that convert
electrical energy from a wall outlet into direct current energy for a wide range of electronic devices,
and in motors and generators. High field superconducting magnets (where superconducting coils
generate the magnetic field) provide the magnetic field in MRI (magnetic resonance imaging) devices
that are now used extensively in hospitals and medical centers.

Magnetic materials that are difficult to demagnetize are used to construct permanent magnets.
Permanent magnet applications are in loudspeakers, earphones, electric meters, and small motors. A
loudspeaker consists of a wire carrying an alternating current . When the wire is in the magnetic field
of the permanent magnet it experiences a force that generates a sound wave by alternate
compression and rarefaction of the surrounding air when the alternating frequency of the current is
in the audible range.

The more esoteric applications of magnetism are in the area of magnetic recording and storage
devices in computers, and in audio and video systems. Magnetic storage devices work on the principle
of two stable magnetic states represented by the 0 and 1 in the binary number system. Floppy disks
have dozens of tracks on which data can be digitally written in or stored by means of a write-head
and then accessed or read by means of a read-head. A write-head provides a strong local magnetic

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field to the region through which the storage track of the disk is passed. The read-head senses stray
magnetic flux from the storage track of the disk as it passes over the head. Another example of digital
magnetic storage and reading is the magnetic strip on the back of plastic debit and credit cards. The
magnetic strip contains identification data which can be accessed through, for example, an automatic
teller machine.

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ACTIVITY#4

The same pattern that we observed in the magnetic fields experiment can be seen in the Earth.
With its global magnetic field, the Earth acts like a big magnet

Observing magnetic fields experiment: The magnetic fields of a magnet can be indirectly observed
using iron filings.

Materials:

bar magnet a piece of cardboard much larger than a bar magnet

iron filings a table

Procedure:

1. Place a bar magnet on the table

2. Place the cardboard on top of the magnet.

3. Scatter the iron filings evenly over the cardboard.

4. Observe the iron filings. Are they pointed in any certain direction? Where do the filings
concentrate, near regions of weaker or stronger magnetic field?

5. Using the pattern formed by the iron filings as a guide, draw a magnetic field line diagram
for the given magnet.

6. In your magnetic field line diagram, make note of where the field lines are spread apart or
concentrated. Using a pair of magnets, determine which parts of a magnet are stronger or
weaker.

7. Establish a relationship between the magnetic forces you felt using the pair of magnets and
the concentration of field lines in your diagram.

8. Submit the copy of the magnetic field line diagram to your instructor.

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WORK, POWER, ENERGY

Objectives:

1. Understand the meaning of force, work and power.

2. Discuss the types of energy
3. Solve problems related to work, power, and energy.

FORCE
A force is any kind of push or pull on an object. When you a push a chair or table, you are exerting
a force on it. When a hammer hits a nail, or the wind blows the leaves on a tree, a force is being
exerted. However, force does not always give rise to the motion For example, you may push hard on
cabinet and it may not move. A force has magnitude and direction. A spring balance can measure the
magnitude of a force. Units used are given below:

mks cgs
Force N (kgm/s2) Dyne (gcm/s2)
Mass kg g
Acceleration m/s cm/s

WORK
In everyday language work means almost anything that the people do. The word work means any
form of activity, which requires physical or mental exertion. This include cleaning the house, dressing
up for school, carrying bag of apples, walking and climbing the stairs. These activities are considered
work in the scientific sense.

The unit of work is a unit of force multiplied by a unit of distance. If the force is in Newton, and the
distance in meter, work is in joule. If the force is in dyne, and the distance in centimeter, work is in
erg. Mathematically expressed by:

W = force x distance

W=fxd

Units used:

1 erg= 1 [Link]

1 joule= 1 N.m

1 joule= 10 erg

We do work also when we lift a load against the earth’s gravity. In doing so, the force exerted must
be enough to overcome the weight of the load. So force =weight= mg. hence if the mass is given
instead of the weight, the work done in lifting is W=mg x d. The work done in lifting the object is
greater than when pulling or pushing an object on the floor.

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Where: w = work d = distance

m = mass g ( gravity)= 10 m/s

Work on these:

1. What work is done by man who pushes a box along a floor with a force of 20N over a
distance of 5m?
2. A boy lifts a 100-N rock 1m. What work does he do in joules? In erg?
3. How much work is done in lifting a 205 kg package to a shelf of 2 m high?

How fast do you work?

The definition of work says nothing about how long it takes to do the work? When carrying a load
upstairs, you do same amount of work whether you walk or run up the stairways. So why are you
more tired after running upstairs in a few seconds than walking upstairs in a few minutes? To
understand the difference, we need to discuss how fast work is done. In doing so, we need to
consider the element of time, and that is power. The shorter the time to do the work, the greater
the power. Power is the rate of doing work; also, defined as work per unit of time. Thus,

Power = work / time

P=W/t

If work is expressed in joule and time in second, then the unit of power is joule / sec. One joule per
sec. of power is also one watt.

1 J /s = 1 watt

1 kilowatt (kw) = 1,000 watts (W)

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ACTIVITY #5
Let us examine the data gathered from an activity where five students climb up the stairs as fast as
they can. The time it took for each student to climb up the stairs was taken using a stopwatch. The
length of the entire stairways is 12 m.

Student Weight (N) Time (s) Work done (J) Work / time (W /s)

1 480 9.7

2 490 12.0
3 520 15.8

4 500 14.4

5 500 11.5

Guide Questions:

1. Complete the table above. Compute the amount of work done by each student.

2. Compute for the power.

3. Who among the students performed the greatest amount of work? least work?

4. Who among the students performed the work fastest? Slowest?

5. Which among the students has the greatest power? Smallest power?

How is energy related to work?

We are quite familiar with energy. Energy comes from the Sun in the form of sunlight. Persons,
places, and things have energy but we observe only the effects of energy when something is
happening and this is done only when energy is being transferred from one place to another or
transformed from one form to another. Energy is defined as the capacity to do work

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TYPES OF MECHANICAL ENERGY

POTENTIAL ENERGY
When we lift a box at a certain height: we are using our energy. After lifting the box where does
energy go?

The box requires an amount of energy equal to the energy we used in lifting it. The energy acquired
by the box is called gravitational potential energy or gravitational stored energy. The measure of the
gravitational potential energy that an elevated body has is the work done against gravity in lifting. It
is the energy in which bodies possess because of their position or condition. It is given by the
equation:

Gravitational P.E = weight x height

P.E grav = mgh (expressed in J or ergs)

KINETIC ENERGY
If an object is moving, then it is capable of doing work. It has energy of motion or kinetic energy.
(K.E). The kinetic energy of an object depends on the mass of the object as well as its velocity It is
equal to half the mass multiplied by the square of the velocity. It is expressed in joules or ergs.

Kinetic Energy = ½ mv2

KE = ½ mv2

FORMS AND SOURCES OF ENERGY

Energy comes in various forms. Beside the potential and kinetic energy, there are other forms of
energies such as:

1. Mechanical Energy (PE and KE) energy that produces motion.

2. Chemical Energy is the energy stored in motion due to forces of attraction and to the
arrangement of subatomic particles in atom and of atoms in the molecules of substance.
It is also involved in chemical reactions. It is a form of potential energy found in foods,
fuels, and others.

3. Radiant Energy is the energy of electromagnetic waves, radio waves, infrared rays, visible
lights, ultraviolet rays, X-rays, and gamma rays.

4. Electrical Energy is the energy of electrons flowing through conductors.

5. Thermal Energy is the energy coming from the attractive repulsive forces of all the particles
or molecules in a body. If the thermal energy flows from one body to another due to
temperature difference between them; it is called heat.

6. Nuclear Energy is the energy released when the atomic nuclei of heavy element break up
and when the atomic nuclei of light elements combine.
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ENERGY TRANSFORMATION AND CONSERVATION

Everything that happens to us involves energy. For example, to go from one place to another, we
walk. The chemical energy of our body changes to mechanical energy. The vehicle uses diesel which
has chemical energy to run it and changes to mechanical energy. These activities use energy.
However, in all the transformation that can take place, the total sum of energy remains constant and
this is explained in:

LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy is neither created nor destroyed. It can only be converted from one form to another. The
total amount of energy remains constant.

Even though the meaning is always the same, the law of conservation of energy can be stated in
many different ways. Examples are: the total energy of an isolated system remains consistent;
energy can neither be created nor destroyed; in the changing from one form to another, energy is
always conserved.

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ACTIVITY#6
Solve the following problems. Utilize the space below for the solution.

1. How much work is done in lifting a 2 kg object 0.5 m high? Express your answer in

a. joules

b. ergs

2. A man whose mass is 70 kg walks up to the fourth floor of a building. The vertical height
is 16m above the ground.

a. How many joules of work does he do?

b. If he climbs the stairs in 25s, what is the rate of work in watts? In kW?

3. What is the kinetic energy of a baseball whose mass is 0.15kg if it is thrown with a velocity
of 22m /s?

4. What potential energy in ergs is acquired by a mass of 200g when raised to a height of
150 cm?

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APPENDIX

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APPENDIX A

I. General Rules in the Laboratory

a. Know the safety rules and procedures that apply to your work. Before you begin any new
operation, determine the potential hazards and appropriate safety precautions to take.

b. Know the location of and how to use emergency equipment in your area as well as how
to obtain additional help in an emergency. Be familiar with emergency procedures.

c. Know the types of protective equipment that are available, and use the proper equipment
for each job.

d. Watch out for unsafe conditions, and call attention to them so that corrections can be
made as soon as possible. Someone else's accident can be a danger to you as well.

e. Do not smoke in laboratories or areas where chemicals are being used or stored.

f. Practical jokes or other behavior, which might distract and confuse another worker, can
be dangerous and must be avoided.

g. Make sure that you use equipment for its designed purpose only.

h. H. If you leave an operation unattended for any period of time, leave the laboratory lights
on, post a sign, and take the necessary precautions in the event of a utility service failure
(such as cooling water).

II. Chemical Handling

a. Do not smell or taste chemicals.

b. Always add strong acids and bases to water. Never add water to strong acids and bases.

c. Know the hazards posed by the different classes of chemicals including oxidizers,
flammables, corrosives, compressed gases, and acutely hazardous and chronically
hazardous chemicals.

d. Read and understand the Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) before using any new
chemical.

e. Be aware of the proper waste disposal methods for the chemicals you are handling.
Improper disposal may lead to injury to human health, the environment, and/or facility
equipment.

f. Do not work alone in the laboratory without notifying your supervisor and making
arrangements to have someone check in on you periodically.

g. When transporting, storing, using, or disposing of any substance, be sure that the
substance cannot accidentally come into contact with an incompatible substance. This

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contact could result in explosions or the production of highly toxic or flammable

substances. Refer to the Incompatibility charts in Appendix A.

h. When chemicals are being transferred from one container to another, be sure that the
new container is compatible with the chemical and is labeled with the name and primary
hazard of the chemical.

III. Health and Hygiene

a. Wear appropriate eye protection at all times in areas where chemicals are used or stored.
Do not use contact lenses in the laboratory.

b. Use protective apparel, including face shields, gloves, and other special clothing as
needed. Inspect gloves before each use, wash them before removal, and replace them
periodically. Avoid contact between gloves and your eyes or mucous membranes during
use.

c. Long hair and loose clothing should be confined to avoid accidents. Sandals, cloth
sneakers, and perforated shoes should not be worn.

d. Do not use mouth suction to pipette chemicals or to start a siphon; a pipette bulb or
aspirator should be used to provide vacuum.

e. Avoid exposure to gases, vapors, and aerosols. Use appropriate safety equipment when
this type of exposure is likely.

f. Wash well before leaving the laboratory.

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APPENDIX B

Common Laboratory Apparatus

Test tubes are for holding small samples or for containing small-scale reactions.

Test tube holders are for holding test tubes when tubes should not be touched.

Watch glasses are for holding small samples or for covering beakers or evaporating dishes.

Wire gauze on a ring supports beakers to be heated by Bunsen burners.

Ring stand with rings or clamps are for holding pieces of glassware in place.

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Erlenmeyer flasks are useful to contain reactions or to hold liquid samples. They are also useful
to catch filtrates.

Bunsen burners are sources of heat. A small laboratory burner consisting of a vertical metal
tube connected to a gas source and producing a very hot flame from a mixture of gas and air let
in through adjustable holes at the base.

Graduated cylinders are for measurement of an amount of liquid. The volume of liquid can be
estimated to the nearest 0.1 mL with practice.

Clay triangles are placed on a ring attached to a ring stand as a support for a funnel, crucible,
or evaporating dish.

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Glass funnels are for funneling liquids from one container to another or for filtering when
equipped with filter paper.

Burets are for addition of a precise volume of liquid. The volume of liquid added can be
determined to the nearest 0.01 mL with practice.

Dilution mark

Volumetric flasks are used to measure precise volumes of liquid or to make precise dilutions.

Tongs are similar in function to forceps but are useful for larger items

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Wash bottles are used for dispensing small quantities of distilled water

Pipets are used to dispense small quantities of liquids.

Droppers are for addition of liquids drop by drop.

A triple-beam balance gets its name because it has three beams that allow you to move
known masses along the beam.

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APPENDIX C

BASIC LABORATORY OPERATIONS

Heating solids in test–tubes

Wear eye protection.

Only fill to a maximum of 1/5 full.

Use a suitable test-tube holder.
Hold the test-tube at a slight angle (see diagram).
Ensure that the open end of the test-tube isn’t pointing directly at anybody.
Hold the test-tube so that the bottom is just in the tip of the flame.
Always start heating with a small, gentle flame.

Heating liquids in test tubes

Wear eye protection.

Use a boiling tube (wide diameter) and do not fill to more than 1/10 full.
Add an anti-bumping granule to give smoother boiling. Add the granule before starting to heat.
Use a suitable holder.
Hold the tube at an angle so that the top is well away from the flame.
Hold the test-tube so that the bottom is just in the tip of the flame.
Keep the liquid in the tube moving gently.
For flammable liquids, use a water bath.

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Heating flammable liquids

Wear eye protection

Use a boiling tube (wide diameter) and do not fill to more than 1/10 full.
Add an anti-bumping granule to give smoother boiling. Add the granule before starting to heat.
DO NOT heat directly over a naked flame.
Stand the tube in a beaker of hot water (e.g. from a kettle or hot tap).

Heating in beakers (and conical flasks)

Beakers should only be filled to 1/3 of their capacity when used for heating liquids. The addition of
a few ‘anti-bumping’ granules will ensure smoother boiling.

Heating in evaporating basins

A flat-bottomed evaporating basin can be heated by supporting it on a wire gauze on a tripod. A

round-bottomed evaporating basin is very unstable on a wire gauze so should be supported on a
pipe-clay triangle when heating.

Evaporating basins should be filled to between 1/3 and 1/2 full.

When evaporating salt solutions, the solution should be heated (with occasional stirring using a
glass rod), until solid just appears evenly around the edge of the liquid. The solution can then be
left to cool - possibly overnight (labelled with names of the owners, the chemicals and any relevant
safety warnings).

Heating in crucibles

A crucible must be heated on a pipe-clay triangle and not on a gauze. Start with a small, gentle
flame before gradually increasing the heating rate. Allow plenty of time in the lesson for crucible
and contents to cool down.

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Folding a Filter Paper

1. Fold the filter paper exactly in half.

2. Fold the filter paper a second time, this time with a slight offset. I.e., not exactly in half.

3. Tear a corner from the smaller side of the filter paper.

4. Open the filter paper on the larger side so that the torn corner is on the outside of the
cone.

5. Place the filter paper in the funnel pressing the top edge of the cone so that it makes
continuous contact with the funnel. The reason for the tear is to maximize the ability of
the top edge of the filter paper to make contact with the funnel. (There is effectively
only one sheet of filter paper where the tear is at the top of the paper, rather than two
sheets).

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APPENDIX D

DENSITIES OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES

Substance p (g/cm3=103kg/m3)

Solid

Aluminum 2.70
Brass 8.44
Copper (average) 8.8
Gold 19.3
Iron or steel 7.8
Lead 11.3
Silver 10.1
Uranium 18.7
Concrete 2.3
Cork 0.24
Glass 2.6
Granite 2.7
Wood 0.3-0.9
Ice (0oC) 0.917
Bone 1.7

Liquids
Water (4oC) 1.000
Blood, plasma 1.03
Blood, whole 1.05
Seawater 1.025
Mercury 13.6
Ethyl alcohol 0.79
Gasoline 0.68
Glycerin 1.26
Olive oil 0.92

Gases
Air 1.29x10-3
Carbon dioxide 1.98x10-3
Carbon monoxide 1.25x10-3
Hydrogen 0.090x10-3
Helium 0.18x10-3
Methane 0.72x10-3
Nitrogen 1.25x10-3
Nitrous oxide 1.98x10-3
Oxygen 1.43x10-3
Water (100oC steam) 0.60x10-3

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REFERENCES
Bereber, Jose A and Biteranta Angelica R.. 2007 General College Chemistry Laboratory
[Link] City: JRU Press

Caldwell, King, Williams 1990. College Chemistry 9th Edition. D Van Nostrand

Chang, Raymond 1986. General Chemistry. New York USA: Random House Inc.

Dijamco, Teresita D and Butil Rita L.. 2008. Introduction to Physical Science. Mandaluyong City: JRU
Press

Hein, Morris 2005. Introduction to General, Organic, and Biochemistry *8th Ed. John Wiley & Sons,
Ltd.

Leeds, Roslyn D. [Link] The Atom. New York USA: Harper and Row, Publishers

Masters, Gilbert M. Introduction to Environmental Engineering. 2nd ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ:
Prentice Hall, 1998.

Sackheim, George I. 2002. Chemistry for Health Science. Singapore: Pearson Education Asia Pte.
Ltd.

Sherman, Sharon J. [Link] Concepts of Chemistry. Boston , New York: Houghton Miffin
Company

Tillery, Edward [Link] [Link]: The Mc Graw -Hill Companies, Inc.

United States EPA Ground and Drinking Water Homepage. EPA Ground and Drinking Water
Homepage Visited 12/13/05

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