by

Richard F. Corn
 Ultimate Guide to the Math ACT®
Second Edition

by
Richard F. Corn

ISBN: 978-0-9985849-1-1
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018908343

Copyright ©2018 by Richard F. Corn

All rights reserved. Unauthorized copying or reuse of any part of this book is illegal.

ACT® is a registered trademark of ACT, Inc., which was not involved in the production of, and
does not endorse, this book.

Errata or supplemental information for this book may be found at

http://www.mathprepbooks.com/errata.com

Published by Richard Corn, LLC

 Table of contents
1. INTRODUCTION 1

PART ONE: REVIEW OF CORE TOPICS

2. PRE-ALGEBRA AND ALGEBRA 5

2.1 Integers, primes and digits 5

2.2 Mixed numbers and remainders 11

2.3 Order of operations and scientific notation 16

2.4 Percentages 21

2.5 Averages 27

2.6 Distributing and common factors 32

2.7 Fractions and ratios 37

2.8 Linear equations and systems 48

2.9 Linear inequalities and systems of inequalities 61

2.10 FOILing and factoring 70

2.11 Complex numbers 77

2.12 Quadratic equations and their graphs 82

2.13 Absolute value 92

2.14 Exponents and radicals 98

2.15 Functions 105

2.16 Sequences 111

3. GEOMETRY 117

3.1 Graphs and equations of lines 117

3.2 Angles and parallel lines 124

3.3 Triangles 128

3.4 Circles 136

3.5 Polygons 142

3.6 Solids 146

3.7 Trigonometric ratios 150

4. DATA ANALYSIS 157

4.1 Data Interpretation 157

4.2 Probability 163

4.3 Statistics 172

PART TWO: REVIEW OF ADVANCED TOPICS

5. ALGEBRA 185

5.1 Systems involving quadratic equations and inequalities 185

5.2 Higher order polynomials 190

5.3 Exponential growth and decay 202

5.4 Logarithms 207

5.5 Transformations of functions 211

5.6 Matrix algebra 218

5.7 Factoring cubic expressions 224

6. PRE-CALCULUS 227

6.1 Conic sections 227

6.2 Radians and the unit circle 232

6.3 Graphing trigonometric functions 240

6.4 Law of sines and law of cosines 246

6.5 Vectors, polar coordinates and complex numbers 250

PART THREE: HOW TO PREPARE FOR THE MATH ACT®

1. Get some official practice tests 255

2. Develop (and then modify) a base strategy

for taking the test 255
3. Follow this hierarchy of steps for every problem 257
4. Follow these steps after every practice test 258
5. Techniques for solving when traditional math
is not enough 259
 Introduction
This book contains all the information needed to achieve your full potential in ACT® math. This book
can be used as a standalone text or it can be used in combination with the official practice tests
published by ACT, including their most recent book, The Official ACT Prep Guide, 2018-2019 Edition
(ISBN 978-1119508069). Supplements to this book may be posted on the web at
http://mathprepbooks.com/errata.html as new editions of the official prep guides are released.

The first two parts of this book contain reviews of the math topics that typically could appear on the
test. The math reviews are organized into lessons, and each lesson ends with practice problems and
solutions to the problems.

The third part of the book contains advice on how to take the math ACT®. Because the ACT® is
probably very different from tests you have seen in school, you may find this advice to be very helpful.

How to use this book

If you have only four weeks or less before your test date, go directly to Part 3 of the book and start
taking practice tests. If you get a problem wrong because you do not know the math, you can fill that
gap in your math by reviewing the appropriate unit in this book (read the lesson, solve the problems,
and check the solutions).

Your target score

Time until the 30 or less 31-33 34-36

test date

4 weeks or less Part 3 Part 3 Part 3

More than 4 Part 1 Part 1 Part 1

weeks Part 3 Part 2 partial Part 2 all
Part 3 Part 3

If your target score is approximately 30 or less and you have more than 4 weeks before your test
date, do as many of the units in Part 1 (core skills) that you can. When you reach the 4-week mark,
switch to Part 3 and start taking practice tests.

If your target score is approximately 31-33 and you have more than 4 weeks before the test date, do
as many of the units in Part 1 (core skills) that you can plus the more frequent topics in Part 2
(advanced skills). When you reach the 4-week mark, switch to Part 3 and start taking practice tests.

If your target score is approximately 34-36 and you have more than 4 weeks before your test date, do
as many of the units in Part 1 (core skills) and Part 2 (advanced skills) that you can, including less
frequent topics. When you reach the 4-week mark, switch to Part 3 and start taking practice tests.

1
Use the frequency table below to help determine the order in which you might study topics during your
review. Consider how confident you feel about a topic and how frequently it appears on the test. It is
logical to start with the topics that you feel uncomfortable with that also appear frequently. Once
those are covered, you can continue with some combination of topics that you only feel pretty good
about or do not appear as frequently. If your target score is below 30, concentrate on the core skills.
Unfortunately, if your target is high you should feel comfortable with all the topics regardless of
frequency.

Part 1 (core skills)* Part 2 (advanced skills)

Most 2.8 Linear equations and systems
Frequent 4.2 Probability
3.1 Graphs and equations of lines
3.3 Triangles

Moderately 2.14 Exponents and radicals

frequent 2.7 Fractions and ratios
2.4 Percentages
4.3 Statistics
2.9 Linear inequalities and systems
3.4 Circles
2.13 Absolute value
3.6 Solids
2.12 Quadratic equations and their graphs
2.15 Functions
3.5 Polygons

Less 3.7 Trigonometric ratios 6.3 Graphing trigonometric functions

frequent* 2.5 Averages 5.4 Logarithms
2.6 Distributing and common factors 5.5 Transformations of functions
2.10 FOILing and factoring 5.6 Matrix algebra
2.16 Sequences
2.11 Complex numbers
2.1 Integers, primes and digits
3.2 Angles and parallel lines

Least 4.1 Data interpretation 5.1 Systems involving quadratic equations

Frequent 2.3 Order of operations and scientific and inequalities
notation 6.2 Radians and the unit circle
2.2 Mixed numbers and remainders 6.5 Vectors, polar coordinates and complex
numbers
5.3 Exponential growth and decay
5.2 Higher order polynomials
6.1 Conic sections
6.4 Laws of sines and cosines
5.7 Factoring cubic expressions

*A core skill that is less frequent or least frequent can still be very important (order of operations, for example).
Even though that skill is not tested directly in many problems, it may be needed to solve many problems.

2
Calculators
Math is the only section of the ACT® where calculators are allowed, but there are restrictions on which
calculators can be used. In general, all the Texas Instruments (TI) calculators are allowed except the
TI-89 and the TI Nspire models with CAS (the computer algebra system). TI Nspire models without
CAS are allowed. The specifics of the calculator policy as of July 2017 can be found at
http://www.act.org/content/dam/act/unsecured/documents/ACT-calculator-policy.pdf

Some students are highly proficient with calculators whereas others hardly use them. Calculator tips
may be found throughout this book. The tips and screen shots are based on the TI-83 and TI-84
family of calculators. You can perform the same operations with a TI Nspire calculator but your steps,
keystrokes and screens will be different.

Reader feedback, errors and supplements

I enjoy hearing from readers, so please feel free to send email to [email protected].
Despite a thorough editing of the material in this book it is inevitable that mistakes were missed and I
apologize for them in advance. If you find an error, please send an email. Errors that are found in the
book will be posted promptly at mathprepbooks.com/errata.html. That same web page will contain
links to any supplemental materials that were written after publication of this book. The ACT® is
evolving, so supplements may be needed to keep up with changes in the test.

3
 PART ONE: Review of core topics
We begin with a review of the core topics that every math student should know, starting with middle
school math and ending with statistics. In a perfect world every student, regardless of ability, would
have a sound understanding of these core topics before sitting for the test. However, most students
will not have the time to review every core topic. Read the introduction unit of this book to get some
suggestions about how to set priorities for your review by considering your degree of confidence in
each topic and the frequency that topics have appeared.

To a reasonable extent, units in the book are independent and can be studied in any order. But you
will find some lesson examples and homework problems that require skills from multiple units. That
type of problem appears in the book because it also appears on the ACT®.

2. Pre-Algebra and Algebra

Math review begins by covering the math that you were supposed to have mastered in middle school.

2.1 Integers, primes and digits

For the purposes of the test, you can think of an integer as any number with all zeros to the right of
the decimal. Below are examples:

3 is an integer because it can be written as 3.0000000000

-2 is an integer because it can be written as -2.000000000
0 is an integer because it can be written as 0.0000000000
1/2 is not an integer because it can be written as 0.500000000

2 is not an integer because it can be written as 1.4142135.

 is not an integer because it can be written as 3.1415926.

Formally, we can write the set of integers as {..., −3, −2, −1, 0,1, 2,3,...} .

Substitution rules
Substitution is a technique that is commonly used to solve problems on standardized tests. When
certain words or phrases appear in a problem, it is often helpful to substitute specific values in
order to solve the problem. Below is a table of popular phrases and the values that should be
substituted.

5
 Phrase Substitute
Integer 0
Positive integer 1
Negative integer -1
Even integer 0
Odd integer 1
Consecutive integers 0, 1, 2, etc.
Consecutive even integers 0, 2, 4, etc.
Consecutive odd integers 1, 3, 5, etc.

There will also be problems on the test where substitution is not appropriate, and where algebra is
needed. In those problems, you will use algebraic expressions for the phrases below.

Phrase Substitute
Integer n
Even integer 2n
Odd integer 2n+1
Consecutive integers n, n+1, n+2, etc.
Consecutive even integers n, n+2, n+4, etc.
or
2n, 2n+2, 2n+4, etc.
Consecutive odd integers n, n+2, n+4, etc.
or
2n+1, 2n+3, 2n+5

Natural numbers

Positive integers {1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7, ...} are called “the natural numbers.” They are sometimes called “the
counting numbers” because you use them when you count.

Primes

A prime number is a positive integer that is divisible by itself and 1. Note that 1 is not a prime
number. The smallest prime number is 2 and all the other prime numbers are odd. Two is the
smallest prime and the only even prime number.

The prime numbers are {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, ….}.

Note that 9 is not prime (it is divisible by 3), 15 is not prime (it is divisible by 3 and 5), and 21 is not
prime (it is divisible by 3 and 7). A good exercise is to write down the first 20 or so prime numbers.

Problems on the test will use phrases that involve the word “prime.” When you see these phrases, it
is often helpful to substitute specific values in order to solve the problem. Below is a table of some
popular phrases and the values to be substituted.

6
 Phrase Substitute
Prime number 2
Even prime 2
Odd prime 3
Consecutive primes 2, 3, 5, etc.

A concept related to prime numbers is called prime factorization. The idea is that any integer (that is
not itself a prime) can be expressed as the product of primes. It can be very useful to construct a
factor tree for any given number. Below is the factor tree for 210.

210

2 105

5 21

3 7

Notice that 210 is an even number. So we divide by two and get 105. The two is circled because two
is prime. We notice that 105 is divisible by 5. So we divide by five and get 21. Five is circled
because it is prime. The number 21 is divisible by three and seven, which are circled because they
are prime. The prime factorization of 210 is 210 = 2  3  5  7 . The number 210 can be expressed as a
product of primes because 210 is not itself prime.

Prime factorization comes in handy later, when adding or subtracting fractions (unit 2.7), finding the
common factor (unit 2.6), and factoring polynomials (unit 2.10).

Digits and place value

You may be wondering what this topic is doing in here. Well, the ACT® syllabus includes digits and
place value, that’s why. Questions on this topic do occur. Consider the number

2345.907

It consists of seven digits, ranging from zero through 9. In fact, the set of all possible values for any
particular digit appearing in any position is {0,1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8,9} . The place values are:

2 = the thousands digit

3 = the hundreds digit
4 = the tens digit
5 = the ones or unit digit
9 = the tenths digit
0 = the hundredths digit
7 = the thousandths digit
A common mistake is to choose 3 for hundredths digit instead of 0, or choose 9 for the tens digit
instead of 4. This is simple stuff, but it is easy to make a mistake.

7
 2.1 Problems on integers, primes and digits
1. The sum of the prime factors of 231 is 6. If n is an odd integer and n  −1 , then n + 1
A. 3 cannot be:

B. 7 A. positive

C. 11 B. negative

D. 21 C. prime

E. 231 D. zero

2. How many prime factors are there of the E. even

number 15,246 ?
A. 2
7. If x is a positive integer, what is the
B. 3 x+7
smallest possible value of ?
C. 4 4
D. 5 A. 0
E. 6 B. 1
3. Which of the following numbers is prime? C. 2
A. 1 D. 3
B. 55 E. 4
C. 71
D. 1617 8. If the sum of three consecutive odd integers
E. 3334 is 171, what is the value of the largest integer?

4. The number 509 is prime. What is the next A. 27

largest prime? B. 31
A. 510 C. 55
B. 511 D. 59
C. 515 E. 171
D. 519
E. 521 9. If the median of five consecutive even
5. Including 1 and 50, the number of factors of integers is 20, what is the value of the smallest
50 is: integer?

A. two A. 16

B. three B. 18

C. four C. 20

D. five D. 22

E. six E. 24

8
10. For the number 4768.325, what is the 15. The sum of seven consecutive integers is
sum of the tens digit and the tenths digit? zero. What is the value of the smallest
integer?
A. 8
A. -3
B. 9
B. -2
C. 10 C. -1
D. 11 D. 0
E. 12 E. 3

11. If the sum of two prime numbers is odd, 16. If the sum of three integers is odd, which
one of the numbers must be: of the statements below must be false?
I. All three integers are odd.
A. 0
II. Only two integers are odd
B. 1
III. Only one integer is odd
C. 2
A. I only
D. 3
B. II only
E. 4 C. III only
12. The sum of two even integers must always D. I and III only
be divisible by E. I, II, and III
A. 0 17. If n is a natural number then which
B. 2 statement must be true?

C. 3 A. n is a digit
B. n / 2 is even
D. 4
C. n −1 is positive
E. 5
D. n is prime
13. If m is an odd integer then 2m + 1 must be:
E. 3n is positive
A. odd
18. If the sum of 105 consecutive integers is 0,
B. even what is their median?
C. zero A. -52
B. -1
D. prime
C. 0
E. none of the above
D. 1
14. If m is an even integer and n is an odd
E. 52
integer, which expression must be odd?
19. An expression for the product of an even
A. 2m + n − 1 integer and an odd integer is:
B. mn A. n2
C. m + 2n B. 4n 2 − 1

D. m−n C. 4n 2 + 1
D. 4n 2 + 2n
E. m+2
E. 4n 2 + 4n + 1
9
 2.1 Solutions to problems on integers, primes and digits
1. (D) 10. (B)
3  7 11 = 231 The tens digit is six and the tenths digit is
3 + 7 + 11 = 21 three, 6+3=9.
2. (C)
The factor tree is: 11. (C)
For the sum to be odd, one of the primes must
15,246
be even, and the only even prime is 2.
2 7,623

3 2,541
12. (B)
The sum of two evens is even.
3 847

7 121 13. (A)

11
Set m = 1 and substitute. But be careful
11
because although 3 is prime ( m = 1), 15 is not (
The prime factorization is m = 7 ).
2  32  7 112 = 15, 246
3. (C) 14. (D)
55 = 5 11, 1617 = 3  7 11, 3334 = 2 1667
2 Set m = 0 and n = 1 . Then m − n = −1 , which
is odd. The other answer choices produce
4. (E) even results.
Iterate from 509, skipping the even numbers.
511/7 = 73, 513/3 = 171, 515/5 = 103, 517/11 = 15. (A)
47, 519/3 = 173). However 521 is prime. n + ( n +1) + ( n + 2) + ( n + 3) + ( n + 4) + (n + 5) + ( n + 6) = 0
5. (E) Simplifying gives 7n + 21 = 0 , or n = −3 .
50 = 1 50, 50 = 2  25, 50 = 5 10
So there are six factors: 1, 2, 5, 10, 25 and 50. 16. (B)
Statement I may be true because 1+1+1=3.
6. (D)
Statement III may be true because 1+0+0=1.
n + 1 could be positive if n is positive, negative However statement II must be false.
if n is negative, prime if n=1, always even, but
never zero. 17. (E)
(A) n could be greater than 9, (B) n could be
7. (C)
odd, (C) n could be 1, (D) n could be 4.
The smallest positive integer is 1. So the
x+7 1+ 7
smallest value of is = 2. 18. (C)
4 4 If the sum is zero, there must be as many
8. (D) negatives as there are positives. In fact there
Set up the equation n + ( n + 2) + ( n + 4) = 171 . would be 52 negatives, a zero in the middle,
then 52 positives.
Simplifying gives 3n + 6 = 171 , or n = 55 . The
largest integer is n + 4 = 55 + 4 = 59
19. (D)
9. (A) An even multiplied by an odd is even. The only
If the median is 20, then the numbers look like answer choice that must be even is (D). Or
you could use 2n  (2n + 1) = 4n + 2n
this: 16, 18, 20, 22, 24. 2

10
2.2 Mixed numbers and remainders
The ACT® takes a different view of mixed numbers than the view taken in most middle schools. The
skill that is most likely to be tested is converting between improper fractions and mixed numbers, with
an emphasis on finding the remainder.

Converting improper fractions to mixed numbers

7
An improper fraction is a fraction where the numerator is larger than the denominator, for example .
4
The improper fraction is converted to a mixed number by dividing to get a quotient and a remainder.

7 4+3 4 3 3 3
= = + = 1+ = 1
4 4 4 4 4 4

In this example, the quotient is 1 (the whole number part) and the remainder is 3 (the numerator of the
fraction part of the mixed number).

In the real world, you would not do conversions in this way. You would use a calculator. First, divide
4 into 7
7  4 = 1.75
So now we know that the whole number is 1. To get the remainder,

remainder = 7- (1 4) = 7 − 4 = 3 .
This gives
7 3
=1 .
4 4
386
Try this technique with a more difficult example, say
28
386  28 = 13.7857
So now we know that the whole number is 13. To get the remainder,

remainder = 386- (13  28) = 386 − 364 = 22

This gives
386 22
= 13 .
28 28

Vocabulary: When the remainder is zero, the numerator is said to be divisible by the denominator.
For example,

8 8+0 8 0 0
= = + =2 =2
4 4 4 4 4

In the example above, 8 is divisible by 4 because when 8 is divided by 4 the remainder is zero.

11
 The calculator can find the remainder directly. To find the remainder
when 386 is divided by 28, press math-num-remainder ( scroll down to
the remainder, which is option 0). Then enter 386,28) and press
enter.

Converting mixed numbers to improper fractions

Of course you are also expected to be able to convert a mixed number to an improper fraction.

5 5 16 5 16 + 5 21
2 = 2+ = + = =
8 8 8 8 8 8
Another way to think of this is

5 ( 2  8 ) + 5 16 + 5 21
2 = = =
8 8 8 8

This is a better way to convert a mixed number to an improper fraction (it is faster and makes better
use of the calculator). Take the whole number, multiply it by the denominator, then add the product to
the numerator.

Word problems involving remainders

There is a class of problems that I call “remainder problems” because they are based on converting
an improper fraction to a mixed number. A good example is:

Sarah wanted to make jump ropes for herself and her friends, so she went to a store and
purchased 100 feet of rope. If each jump rope is 7 feet long, how many jump ropes could
Sarah make and how many feet of rope will she have left over?

Begin by dividing the 100 total feet of rope by each of the 7 foot lengths. Using the calculator, this
gives
100
= 14.2857
7
So now we know that there will be 14 jump ropes. To get the amount of rope left over:

rope left over = 100 − (14  7 ) = 100 − 98 = 2

Mathematically what we just did was
100 2
= 14 .
7 7
Two is the remainder, which in this problem represents the amount of rope left over.

12
 2.2 Problems on mixed numbers and remainders
1. What is the remainder when 287 is divided 6. If n is a two digit integer that is divisible
by 5? by 3, then the units digit of n cannot be:
A. 2 A. 0
B. 4
B. 1
C. 20
D. 57 C. 2
E. 285 D. 3
2. What is the remainder when 980 is divided E. None of the above
by 28? 7. If an integer is divisible by 5 then
A. 0 I. It must equal a power of 5.
B. 1
II. One of its prime factors must be 5.
C. 2
III. Its units digit must be 0 or 5.
D. 3
E. 35
7 A. I only
3. The mixed number 16 is equivalent to:
8 B. II only
A. 23/ 8
C. III only
B. 31/ 8
D. II and III only
C. 112/8
E. I, II, and III
D. 128/8
8. When an integer is divided by 7 its
E. 135/8
remainder is 3. The value of that integer could
4. If a cage can hold 8 chickens, how many be:
cages will be needed to hold 300 chickens?
A. 13
A. 36
B. 17
B. 37
C. 23
C. 38
D. 27
D. 39
E. 33
E. 2400
9. When an integer is divided by 6 its
5. If n is an integer greater than 100, what is remainder is 3. The value of that integer
the smallest value that n could be if n is cannot be
divisible by 4?
A. 3
A. 100
B. 27
B. 101
C. 39
C. 102
D. 103 D. 47
E. 104 E. 57

13
10. The night before Halloween, Kyle sorted 14. When an integer is divided by 8, the
1,000 pieces of candy into bags, with each bag remainder is 3. The value of that integer
containing 12 pieces of candy. If Kyle is cannot be
allowed to eat any candy left over, how many
A. 3
pieces could he eat?
B. 19
A. 0
C. 24
B. 4
D. 67
C. 8
E. 99
D. 16
E. 83
15. At a summer camp, 50 campers are
11. Mary has $25 to make copies of her flyer.
assigned to red, white or blue teams, in that
If each copy costs 8 cents, how many copies
order. To which team is the last camper
can she make?
assigned?
A. 3 A. red
B. 4 B. white
C. 5 C. blue
D. 31 D. red or white

E. 312 E. red or blue

12. To get a discount, Bill has to buy at least

$50 of newspapers. If each newspaper costs 16. A certain clock strikes once every 20
75 cents, how many newspapers must he buy minutes. If the clock struck 20 more times after
to get the discount? it had struck at midnight, what time is it now?
A. 37 A. 5:20 AM

B. 38 B. 6:00 AM
C. 6:20 AM
C. 66
D. 6:40 AM
D. 67 E. 8:00 PM
E. 667
17. A certain sequence is
13. Emily’s Mom sends her into the store with
A, B, D, C, A ,B, D, C, A, B, D, C, etc.
$10, telling her to buy as many apples as
possible. If each apple costs 80 cents, how What is the 90th term in the sequence?
much change (in cents) will Emily receive? A. A
A. 2 B. B
B. 4 C. C
C. 40 D. D
D. 50 E. Cannot be determined
E. 80

14
 2.2 Solutions to problems on mixed numbers and remainders
1. (A) 11. (E)
Use your calculator to find 287/5 = 57.4. Now 25.0 4
= 312
we know that the whole number is 57. Next 0.08 8
find the remainder
Mary can make 312 copies and she will have 4
287 − ( 57  5) = 287 − 285 = 2 .
cents left over.
2. (A)
12. (D)
Use your calculator to find 980/28 = 35.0. The 50 2
remainder is zero. = 66 .
0.75 3
3. (E) To exceed $50, Bill must buy 67 newspapers.
7 (16  8 ) + 7 128 + 7 135 13. (C)
16 = = =
8 8 8 8 10.0 1
4. (C) = 12 .
0.8 2
300/8 = 37.5 cages. With only 37 cages, 4 Emily will buy 12 apples and pay $9.60. She
chickens would be running loose! will receive 40 cents change.
5. (E) 14. (C)
Although 100 is divisible by 4, you cannot use 24 0
it because the integer must be greater than = 3 . The remainder is zero.
8 8
100. The next one is 104 because 104/4 = 26.
6. (E) 15. (B)

(A) is no good because 30/3=10. (B) is no Number each of the campers 1-50. When the
good because 21/3=7. (C) is no good because camper’s number is divided by 3, all campers
42/3=14. (D) is no good because 33/3=11. assigned to the red team will have a remainder
7. (D) of 1, all campers on the white team will have a
remainder of 2, and all campers on the blue
I. is false because 10 is divisible by 5 but it is team will have a remainder of 0. 50/3 has a
not a power of 5. II is true because 5 itself is
remainder of 2, so the 50th camper will be on
prime. III is true because all multiples of 5 end
in 0 or 5. the white team.

8. (B) 16. (D)

13 has a remainder of 6, 23 has a remainder of The clock strikes three times per hour. So
2, 27 has a remainder of 6, and 33 has a 20 2
after 20 strikes, = 6 . This means that
remainder of 5. 3 3
9. (D) after 6:00 AM it struck two more times. Current
time is 6:40 AM.
47 5
= 7 , a remainder of 5. All the rest have 17 (B)
6 6
remainders of 3. The sequence repeats every four terms.
10. (B) 90 2
= 22 so the remainder is 2. A remainder
1000 4 4 4
= 83
12 12 of 1 gives A, a 2 gives B, a 3 gives D and a 0
Kyle makes 83 bags and eats 4 pieces of gives C.
candy.

15
2.3 Order of operations and scientific notation
Although the ACT® that you end up taking may not specifically test order of operations, it is not
possible to get very far in math without this basic skill. The same can be said of scientific notation.
In the math section, many incorrect answer choices are based on misunderstandings of order of
operations. Finally (in case you have not already been convinced), it is impossible to use a graphing
calculator properly without knowing the order of operations because calculators follow its laws exactly.

The order of operations is best remembered by the acronym, PEMDAS:

P = parenthesis. Always perform operations inside parentheses first.

E = exponents. Next, raise terms to their powers (exponents).
M = multiplication. Multiplication and division go together.
D = division. Multiply and divide terms, from left to right.
A = addition. Addition and subtraction go together and are the last step.
S = subtraction. Last, add and subtract terms, left to right.

Like many things in math, examples are the best way to learn PEMDAS. Start with
5  (8 + 22 )  4 − 32
The first step is to simplify the expression within the parenthesis, giving us
5  (12)  4 − 32
Next, we clear the exponents
5  (12)  4 − 9
Next, we multiply and divide, left to right
60  4 − 9
15 − 9
The last step is addition and subtraction, yielding an answer of 6.

PEMDAS does not only apply to numbers, it also applies to variables. Consider
2 x + ( 2 x + x ) − 6 x2  2 x − x
2

First simplify expressions inside parentheses

2 x + ( 3x ) − 6 x 2  2 x − x
2

Next we clear out the exponents

2 x + 9 x2 − 6 x2  2 x − x
Next divide
2 x + 9 x 2 − 3x − x

The last step is to add and subtract (combine like terms)

9 x2 − 2 x

16
 PEMDAS errors often involve negative numbers. First of all, please
remember that there is a negative key (labeled as “(-)” and located on the
bottom right of the calculator) and a subtraction key (labeled as “-“ and
located on the far right of the calculator). These keys are different. The
negative key is used to set the sign of a number, whereas the subtraction
key is used to subtract one number from another (either number could be
positive or negative).

The first screen shot below shows how to subtract negative 3 from 5. The
key sequence is 5, -, (-), 3, Enter. This gives you the correct result of 8.
The calculator is following PEMDAS. It first multiplies -1 by 3. Then it
subtracts -3 from 5.

The second screen shot below first shows how to calculate the square of
negative 2, yielding the correct answer of positive 4. To get the correct
result of positive 4 you must use parentheses. The correct key sequence
is (, (-), 2, ), x 2 , enter. Then the second screen shot shows how many
students will get the wrong answer of -4. This is because the calculator
followed PEMDAS but the student did not. If you enter (-), 2, x 2 the
calculator will return -4. This is due to PEMDAS. The calculator deals
with the exponent first, raising 2 to the second power, giving 4. Then it
multiplies 4 by -1.

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation involves writing a number in the form of a x 10n , where 1  a  10 . That sounds
pretty complicated but it is not once you’ve seen some examples.

Number in decimal Number in scientific notation

1, 230, 000 1.23 x 106
0.0098723 9.8723 x 10−3
12,300, 000, 000 1.23 x 1010
0.000009123 9.123 x 10−6

In addition to converting between decimal and scientific notation, you must also be able to perform
operations on numbers in scientific notation. The approach to follow is: perform operations on the
decimal portions of the problem first, next perform operations on the ten-to-a-power portions, and then
re-adjust into scientific notation. For example:

1.2 x106  1.2   106 

=   3  = ( 0.125) (10 ) = 1.25 x10
3 2
3
9.6 x10  9.6   10 

17
 2.3 Practice problems on the order of operations and scientific notation
2 − 12  2 8 + (6 − 3) 2
1. The expression is equal to 5. The expression is equal to:
−(−2) 2 2 2 − 32 − 12
5 A. −2
A. −
4 B. −1
B. −1 C. 0
C. -0.5 D. 1
D. 1 E. 2
5
( 3x )
3
E. − x3
4 6. The expression is equal to:
x3
2. The expression 5 − 2 + 3 (1 + 2 ) is equal to:
2 2
A. 0
A. 10 B. 2
B. 28 C. 8
C. 30 D. 26
D. 36 E. 27
E. 145
7. The expression − x − ( −2 x ) − x + ( −3) is
2 2 3

−4
− ( −2 ) + 1 is equal to: equivalent to:
3
3. The expression
2
A. 3x 2 − x + 9
A. −9
B. 3x 2 − x − 27
B. −7
C. 7 x 2 − x + −27
C. -5
D. −6 x 2 − 27
D. 7
E. −5 x 2 − x − 27
E. 11
8. Extra Credit: The expression
2 +1 (x )
3 2 2
+ 2x2 − 6x  2x is equivalent to:
4. The expression 32 + is equal to:
(1 − 2 )
3
xxx − xx + x + x + x −3

A. x +1
A. −18
B. x2 + 3
B. −9
C. x −1
C. 0
D. x2 − 3
D. 9
E. None of the above.
E. 18

18
 1.86 x 10−10 13. When expressed in decimal, 3.2 x 10−8 is
9. What is ?
6 x 1013 A. 32, 000, 000
A. 3.1 x 10−4 B. 0.0000000032
−2
B. 3.1 x 10 C. 32.000000
C. 1.116 x 10−4 D. .000000032
−22
D. 3.1 x 10 E. 328
−24
E. 3.1 x 10

14. What is the product of 5,330, 000 and

10. When expressed in scientific notation 0.22 x 10-10 ?
0.000506 is:
A. 11.726
A. 506 x 10−3
B. 1,172, 600
B. 506 x 103
C. 1.1726 x 10−4
C. 5.06 x 104
−4
D. 1.1726 x 10−5
D. 5.06 x 10
−5
E. 1.1726 x 10−6
E. 50.6 x 10

11. What is the product of 1,350,000 and (

15. Simplify 1.2 x 10
−3
)  (3.2 x 10 )
2

2,300,000?
A. 0.0375
A. 3.105 x 1012
B. 0.375
−12
B. 3.105 x 10
C. 3.75 x 10−4
C. 3.65 x 105
D. 3.75 x 10−5
−5
D. 3.65 x 10
E. 3.75 x 10−6
E. 27/46

16. The quantity (9.1 x 1010 )5 is equivalent to:

12. When expressed in decimal, 6.2 x 109 is
A. 6.24
A. 0.0000000062
B. 62, 403
B. 0.00000000062
C. 6.24 x 1046
C. 6, 200, 000, 000
D. 6.24 x 1050
D. 6.2000000000
E. 6.24 x 1054
E. 6, 200, 000

19
 2.3 Solutions to practice problems on the order of operations and
scientific notation
1. (D) 9. (E)

1.86 x 10−10  1.86   10 

−10
2 − 12  2 2 − 6 −4 −23 −24
= = =1 =   13  = 0.31 x 10 = 3.1 x 10
−(−2) 2 −4 −4 6 x 1013  6   10 

2. (B) 10. (D)

5 − 22 + 3 (1 + 2 ) = 5 − 22 + 3  32
2 Although (E) is correct mathematically, the value of
the number portion must be between 1 and 10.
= 5 − 4 + 3  9 = 5 − 4 + 27 = 28
3. (D)
11. (A)
−4
− ( −2 ) + 1 = −2 − (−8) + 1 = −2 + 8 + 1 = 7
3
Convert each to scientific notation, then multiply.
2
(1.35)(106 )(2.3)(106 ) = 3.105 x 1012
4. (C)

23 + 1 8 +1
32 + = 9+ = 9−9 = 0 12. (C)
(1 − 2 ) −1
3

5. (B) 13 (D)

8 + (6 − 3) 2 8 + 32 8+9 17
= = = = −1
2 − 3 − 12 2 − 3 − 12 4 − 9 − 12 −17
2 2 2 2
14. (C) .

6. (D) (5.33)(106 )(2.2)(10−11 ) = 11.726 x 10−5 = 1.1726 x 10−4

15. (E)
( 3x )
3
− x3 27 x3 − x3 26 x3
= = 3 = 26
x3 x3 x (1.2) (10−3 )
= ( 0.375) (10−5 ) = 3.75 x 10−6
7. (E) ( 3.2) (10 )
2

− x 2 − ( −2 x ) − x + ( −3) = − x 2 − 4 x 2 − x − 27
2 3
16. (E)

= −5 x 2 − x − 27 (9.1 x 1010 )5 = ( 9.1) x 1050 = 62, 403 x 1050 = 6.24 x 1054

5

8. (A)

(x ) 2 2
+ 2 x2 − 6 x  2 x
=
x4 + 2 x2 − 3
xxx − xx + x + x + x −3 x 3 − x 2 + 3x − 3

=
( x 2 + 3)( x2 − 1)
x 2 ( x − 1) + 3 ( x − 1)

=
(x 2
+ 3) ( x + 1)( x − 1)
(x 2
+ 3) ( x − 1)
= x +1

Congratulations if you got this one right!

20
2.4 Percentages
Percentages are a fairly popular topic on the ACT® and they come in several forms. We start with a
simple drill: How many ways can we write five percent? Three ways are possible:

5
5%, .05 and .
100
The last way, as a fraction, is the most important to remember.

How many ways can we write x percent? Two ways are possible:
x
x% and .
100
The last way, as a fraction, is the only useful way to write x percent. It is critical to remember that
x
because in word problems the phrase “what percent” is substituted by when we set up an
100
equation. Consider:

What percent of 86 is 18?

x
This is a relatively simple word problem. To solve this problem we replace "what percent" with ,
100
then we replace "is" with an equals sign, and set up an equation:

x 18
=
100 86

 x  1800
  86 = 18, 86 x = 1800, x = , x = 20.93
 100  86
The ratio approach is called "part is to whole" because when the equation is set up the part portion is
placed in the numerator and the whole portion is placed in the denominator.

Consider another simple word problem:

28 is 16 percent of what number?
To solve this problem we realize that 28 is part of a whole and the whole is the unknown. We take the
ratio 28/x and replace "is" with an equals sign, and re-write 16 percent as 16/100. When written as an
equation we have:
28 16 2800
= , 2800 = 16 x, = x, 175 = x
x 100 16

It can be faster (and better) to approach this problem directly, using a calculator and decimal notation
for the percentage rather than a ratio:

21
 28
28 = 0.16 x, = x, 175=x
.16
Lastly we consider an even simpler word problem

What is 5% of 185?

If we were to set up an equation, we would have:

 5  x
 = , 100 x = 925, x = 9.25
 100  185

It is faster (and better) to solve using the calculator and decimal notation for the percentage rather
than using a ratio:

(.05)185 = 9.25
With practice, you will gain insight into when it is better to use the decimal or fraction representations
of percentage amounts. You should begin by understanding how to use the fraction and then start
using the decimal amounts to speed up calculations.

Percentage change

A percentage change problem will give you a starting amount and an ending amount, and ask you to
calculate the change. The formula for a percentage change is:

 ending − starting 
percentage change =  100
 starting 

Note that if the percentage change is positive, that represents a percentage increase. If a store raises
its price for a shirt from $80 to $90, the percentage change is

 90 − 80   10  1000
 100 =  100 = = 12.5
 80   80  80

Notice that in the example above, the percentage change is a positive 12.5 percent and therefore
represents an increase.

If the percentage change is negative that represents a percentage decrease. If the total rainfall in
Fargo was 30 inches last year and 24 inches this year, the percentage change is

 24 − 30   −6 
 100 =  100 = −20
 30   30 

Notice that in the example above, the percentage change is a negative 20 percent and therefore
represents a decrease.
22
Increasing or decreasing an amount by a percentage

In a problem where you are asked to increase or decrease an amount by a certain percentage, you
will be given a starting value and the percentage to use. Your job is to calculate the ending amount.
This calculation can be done using the percentage change formula but it is far better to use these
formulas:

To increase a value by x percent, use the following:

 x 
ending value =starting value 1+ 
 100 

For example, if a store decides to raise all its prices by 5%, then a shirt that originally costs $80 will
now cost

 5 
80 1 +  = (1.05) 80 = 84 .
 100 

To decrease a value by x percent, use the following:

 x 
ending value =starting value 1- 
 100 

If a store decides to reduce all its prices by 5%, then a shirt that originally costs $80 will now cost

 5 
80 1 −  = ( 0.95) 80 = 76 .
 100 

23
 2.4 Practice problems on percentages
1. What is 28% of 600? _____________________________________
Questions 6 and 7 refer to the following
A. 0.47 information.
B. 21.42
The scatterplot below shows Mary's best long
C. 168 jump (measured in inches) when she was
D. 2,142 various ages.
E. 16,800
2. 15 is what percent of 500?
A. 0.03 %
B. 3%
C. 33 %
D. 75 %
E. 7,500%
3. 65 is 20 percent of what number?
A. 0.31
6. What was Mary's percentage change in
B. ` 3.25 distance jumped from age 10 to age 16?

C. 13 A. 60% decrease
D. 325 B. 28% increase
E. 1,300
C. 40% increase
4. 300 is what percent of 15?
D. 60% increase
A. 4.5%
E. 333% increase
B. 20%
C. 45% 7. When Mary was 16 she got a different track
coach, who set a new jumping target that was
D. 450% 20% higher than her best jump so far. What
E. 2000% was her new target?

5. Some time ago, the price of a pound of A. 56 inches

sugar was 25 cents. It is now $3. How much
has the price changed? B. 70 inches

A. 0.9% C. 84 inches
B. 11%
D. 91 inches
C. 91.6%
D. 1100% E. 95 inches
E. 1200%

24
8. Sophie bought a shirt marked $120, and the 13. A store clerk was instructed to mark
store is having a sale of 20% off everything. everything up by 15%. Instead he marked
How much will Sophie pay for the shirt everything down by 15%. If a pair of shoes
(excluding sales tax)? was originally marked $80, what is difference
between the correct price and the incorrect
A. $24
price marked by the clerk?
B. $96 A. $8
C. $114 B. $12
D. $144 C. $24
E. $216 D. $48
E. $68
9. Cathy increased her original ACT score by
10% which resulted in a score that was 30% 14. In the table below, what percent of the
less than Julia’s score of 33. What was graduates were boys?
Cathy’s original score? Graduated Did not graduate
A. 21 Girls 110 5
B. 23 Boys 85 28
C. 25
D. 27 A. 37%
E. 36 B. 44%
C. 49%
10. The difference between a certain number
D. 77%
and 12 is equal to 85% of that number. What
is the number? E. 84%

A. 1.8 15. Suppose you buy a hat from a discount

store that always takes 10% off the price tag
B. 6.49
and you must pay a 10% sales tax. If the
C. 12.85 amount that the store charged when you
D. 14.11 bought the hat (after the discount and tax are
applied) is $29.70 what equation could you use
E. 80 to find the original price tag of the hat?
11. 115% of what number is equal to 26.25? A. .90x + x = 29.7
A. 3.9 B. .90x +1.1x = 29.7
B. 22.3 C. .1x + x + 1.1x = 29.7
C. 22.8 D. (1.1)(0.9) x = 29.7
D. 30.2 E. .1x + x − .1x = 29.7
E. 175.0 16. The hockey team has been great! In
12. The price of oil this year is $4.10 per 2014, they won 20% more games than in 2013.
gallon. If that represents a 30% increase over In 2015 they won 50% more games than in
2014. What was their overall percentage
last year, what was the price of oil last year? change from 2013 through 2015?
A. 1.23
A. 70
B. 2.87
B. 80
C. 3.15
C. 90
D. 5.33 D. 100
E. 5.86 E. 110
25
 2.4 Solutions to practice problems on percentages

1. (C) 9. (A)
28 x First find Cathy’s new score which is 30% less
= , 100 x = 16,800, x = 168
100 600 than Julia’s score: (.70)(33) = 23.1
Cathy’s score of 23.1 is a 10% improvement
2. (B) over her original score. To find the original
15 x score
= , 500 x = 1500, x = 3
500 100 1.10 x = 23.1, x = 23.1/1.10 = 21

10. (E)
3. (D)
x − 12 = .85 x, .15 x = 12, x = 80
20 65
= , 20 x = 6500, x = 325
100 x 11. (C)

 115  26.25
 = , 115x = 2625, x = 22.83
4. (E)  100  x

12. (C)
300 x
= , 15 x = 30, 000, x = 2, 000
15 100 4.10 = (1 + .30) x, 4.10 = 1.3x, 3.15 = x

13. (C)
5. (D) The price should have marked 80(1 + .15) = 92
but instead was marked 80(1 − .15) = 68 . The
 3.00 − .25  difference was 92 − 68 = 24 .
 100 = 1100
 .25 
14. (B)

 85 
6. (C) x= 100 = 43.6
 110 + 85 
15. (D)
 70 − 50 
 100 = 40 First find the discount price of the hat
 50  x(1 − .10) = .90 x . Then find the price after tax
is applied .90 x(1 + .10) = (1.1)(0.9) x .
7. (C)
16. (B)
70(1 + .20) = 84
Suppose they won 100 games in 2013. Then
they won 100(1 + .20) = 120 games in 2014.
8. (B)
Then they won 120(1 + .50) = 180 games in
120(1 − .20) = 96 2015. That would be a 80% increase.

26
2.5 Averages
Like many so-called simple things, the ACT® can take something simple like an average and stand it
on its head. We all know that

sum
average = .
count

5 + 8 13 x+ y
The average of 5 and 8 is = = 6.5 and the average of x and y would be .
2 2 2

In general, when you see the word “average” on the ACT® you should think about the sum. Many
word problems involving averages are really about sums, and the following form of the equation for an
average is essential to keep in mind:

sum = ( average)  ( count )

Consider this word problem:

Two people are on an elevator, and their average weight is 200 pounds. The elevator has a
capacity of 500 pounds. The elevator comes to stop and a third person wants to get in. What
is the maximum amount that the third person can weigh?

The solution comes from thinking in terms of sums. If the two people on the elevator have an average
weight of 200 pounds, the sum of their weights must be 400 pounds. They could each weigh 200
pounds, or one could weigh 50 pounds while the other weighs 350 pounds. It does not matter what
either weighs. What matters is that together they weigh 400 pounds. As the elevator has a capacity
of 500 pounds, the third would-be passenger cannot weigh more than 100 pounds.

Average rate of change

Sometimes you will be asked to calculate an average rate of change. The general formula for this is

ending value - starting value

average rate of change =
number of changes

For example, suppose the price of lettuce went from $1.50 to $2.50 over a period of four years. The
average change per year was

2.50 − 1.50
= 0.25
4

Notice that the average rate of change is positive so this was an average increase of 25 cents per
year, not an average decrease.

27
Relationship between average rate of change and slope

A popular topic on the ACT® is "linear relationships." The test probes your understanding of lines in
various ways that are covered throughout this book. The algebraic aspects of linear relations are
covered in the algebra chapter, whereas the graphical aspects of linear relations are covered in the
geometry chapter. But there are many inter-connections that are covered throughout the book,
especially in the homework sets. One such connection is between average rate of change and slope.

In the sample problem above, you were told the starting value, ending value and number of time
periods or changes in the price of lettuce. But what if the problem read like this: "Suppose the price
of lettuce went from $1.50 in 2005 to $2.50 in 2009." You are now being given two coordinate pairs,
the starting pair of (2005, 1.5) and the ending pair of (2009, 2.5). To calculate the average rate of
change in the price of lettuce you can use a modified version of the average rate of change formula:

ending value - starting value

average rate of change =
ending time or date - starting time or date

The average rate of change per year was

2.50 − 1.50 1
= = 0.25
2009 − 2005 4

This calculation is the exact same as the calculation of slope. If you were to graph the prices of
lettuce from 2005 through 2009 and draw a line connecting the starting coordinates with the ending
coordinates, the slope of that line would be the change in price (y) divided by the change in time (x),
or the rise over the run. Note that it does not matter what happened to the price of lettuce between
2005 and 2009, only the endpoints matter.

Average rate of change is unrelated to percentage change

Please take careful note that the average rate of change is different from the percentage change
covered in the previous unit.

The percentage change over the period of four years is

 2.50 − 1.50 
 100 = 67%
 1.50 

In words, the overall price of lettuce increased by 67% over this four year period.

In the percentage increase, the number of years is irrelevant. Whereas in the average annual
increase, the overall increase is divided by the number of years (or whatever the time unit or x-axis
unit is).

28
 2.5 Practice problems on averages
1. If the average of x, y and z is 15, what is 6. Twelve students took a test and their
their sum? average score was 85. However, Bob was sick
A. 5 that day. After Bob took the test, the average
B. 15 score dropped to 82. What was Bob’s score
C. 30 on the test?

D. 45 A. 3
B. 36
E. 60
C. 46
2. If the average of x and y is 11 and the
D. 56
average of x, y and z is 5, what is the value of
E. 80
z?
A. -17 7. On a recent math test, the boys averaged
81 and the girls averaged 90. If there are twice
B. -7
as many boys in the class as girls, what was
C. -6 the overall average for the class?
D. 6
A. 84.0
E. 7 B. 84.5
3. An expression for the average of x, 2x, and C. 85.0
3y is D. 85.5
A. 3x + 3 y E. 86.0
B. ( x + y) / 3 8. The scatterplot below shows Mary's best
C. x+ y long jump (measured in inches) when she was
3 various ages.
D. ( x + y)
2
E. 3x + 3 y

4. If the average of x 2 and x is ten, what is the

value of x ?
A. -5.0
B. -3.7
C. -2.7
D. 3.3
E. 5.0
What was Mary's average change per year in
5. If the average of x and y is 12 and z=6, what the best distance jumped from age 10 to age
is the average of x, y, and z? 16?
A. 2 A. 0.3 inches per year
B. 6 B. 2.0 inches per year
C. 10 C. 3.3 inches per year
D. 15 D. 10.0 inches per year
E. 24 E. 11.6 inches per year
29
9. In the graph below, what is the average rate 12. What was the average increase in annual
of change in y from when x=1 to when x=4? sales from 2013 through 2016?
A. 280
B. 750
C. 875
D. 1125
E. 1167
_____________________________________

13. The table below shows the results of a

survey taken of 100 households to learn how
many mobile phones were owned.
A. -6 Mobile Phones Households
B. -2 2 45
C. 2 3 30
4 15
D. 3 5 10
E. 6
What is the average number of mobile phones
_____________________________ per household?
Use the following information to answer
questions 10-12. A. 2.75
B. 2.80
The data below show hypothetical sales
numbers for Mr. Corn's ACT® math book. C. 2.90
D. 3.10
Year Books Sold E. 3.15
2013 1,250
2014 2,350 14. Each semester Kendall must achieve an
2015 3,500 average of 80 or more in order to keep her
2016 4,750 college scholarship. So far she has an
average of 75 on the first three tests and there
10. What was the average number of books are two tests remaining in the semester. What
sold per year during the period of 2013 through is the minimum average that Kendall must
2015? attain on the next two tests to keep her
A. 2,366 scholarship?
B. 2,962 A. 80 − 75
C. 3,533
80 − 75
D. 3,950 B.
2
E. 4,033
80(2) − 75(3)
11. By what percent did sales increase from C.
2014 to 2016? 2
A. 34 80(5) − 75(3)
D.
B. 73 2
C. 102
E. 80(3) − 75(5)
D. 280
E. 280
30
 2.5 Solutions to practice problems on averages
1. (D) students in the class so the class average is
x+ y+z 252g/3g = 84.
If = 15, then x + y + z = 45
3 8. (C)
2. (B) Use the endpoints (10,50) and (16, 70)
x + y = 22 70 − 50 20
= = 3.3
x + y + z = 15 16 − 10 6
So z = 15 − 22 = −7
9. (B)
3. (C)
Find the slope:
The average is
−2 − 4 −6
= = −2
x + 2 x + 3 y 3x + 3 y 4 −1 3
= = x+ y
3 3
10. (A)
4. (A)
1250 + 2350 + 3500
= 2366
x +x 2
3
= 10, x 2 + x − 20 = 0, ( x + 5)( x − 4) = 0
2 11. (C)
x = 4 or x = −5
 4750 − 2350 
 100 = 102.1
 2350 
5. (C)
If the average of x and y is 12, then the sum of
x and y is 24. The sum of x, y and z is 12. (E)
24+6=30. The average of x, y, and z is 30/3 = Use the endpoints (2013, 1250) and (2016,
10. 4750).
4750 − 1250 3500
= = 1166.6
6. (C) 2016 − 2013 3
Before Bob took the test, the class sum was
85 12 = 1020 . After Bob took the test, the 13. (C)
class sum was 82 13 = 1066 . Bob’s score on
2(45) + 3(30) + 4(15) + 5(10) 290
the test was 1066 −1020 = 46 . Bob didn’t do = = 2.9
very well.
100 100
14. (D)

7. (A) Sum needed: 80(5)

Let g be the number of girls in the class. Then Sum attained: 75(3)
the sum for the girls is 90g and the sum for the
Sum needed for next two tests: 80(5)-75(3)
boys is 81(2 g ) = 162 g . So the sum for the
entire class is 252g. There are a total of 3g

31
2.6 Distributing and common factors
In algebra, the skills of distributing and common factors are considered to be basic, similar to learning
to tie your shoelaces. Many problems on the ACT® involve using the skills of distributing and
common factors, and a few problems test these skills directly.

Distributing

The simplest form of distributing involves multiplying a term across parentheses. For example:

3( 2x − 3 y ) = (3  2 x) − (3  3 y) = 6 x − 9 y

The term can be a constant, as in the example above, or it can contain variables. For example:

6xy(2x + 3 y) = ( 6xy  2x ) + ( 6xy  3 y ) = 12x2 y + 18xy 2

A special case of distributing that frequently causes trouble is when you are required to distribute a
negative. For example:

5 x − (2 x 2 + 3x − 4) = 5 x − 2 x 2 − 3 x + 4 = −2 x 2 + 2 x + 4

Finding the factors of a number

To find the factors of a number by hand, the most useful technique is to build a factor tree. The idea
is that any integer (that is not itself a prime number) can be expressed as the product of prime
numbers. What is a prime number? Well, a prime number is a positive integer that is divisible only by
itself and 1. Note that 1 is not a prime number. The smallest prime number is 2 and all the other
prime numbers are odd. Two is the smallest prime and the only even prime number. The prime
numbers are {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, ….}. A good exercise is to write down the first 20 or so
prime numbers. Now back to our factor tree. Below is the factor tree for 210.

210

2 105

5 21

3 7

Notice that 210 is an even number. So we divide by two and get 105. The two is circled because two
is prime. We notice that 105 is divisible by 5. So we divide by five and get 21. Five is circled
because it is prime. The number 21 is divisible by three and seven, which are circled because they
are prime.

The prime factorization of 210 is 210 = 2  3  5  7 . The number 210 can be expressed as a product of
primes because 210 is not itself prime.

32
We know that the prime factors of 210 are 2, 3, 5 and 7. But all the factors of 210 are combinations of
the prime factors. In addition to 1 and 210, the factors of 210 are
2  3, 2  5, 2  7, 3  5, 3  7, 5  7, 2  3  5, etc. In other words, to find all the factors of 210 it is necessary
to find all possible products of its prime factors. This can be very tedious to do by hand, so use the
calculator tip below.

To find all the factors of a number, first set the table feature. When you
press 2nd-tableset you will see the settings for the table. Adjust the
settings so that they are the same as in the first screen shot below.
Suppose you wanted to find all the factors of 210, as in the example
discussed above. Press Y= and enter the equation 210/X, as shown in
the second screen shot below.
When you press 2nd-Table you will see the table of values shown in the
third screen shot below. You can scroll through the table to find every
factor of 210, starting with 1 and 210, then 2 and 105, then 3 and 70, etc.

Finding the greatest common factor (GCF)

When trying to simplify an expression, a frequent first step is to pull out the greatest common factor
(GCF). This is the opposite of distributing a single term across parentheses.

Suppose we want to factor the expression 6 x − 9 y . Look for the factors that each term has in
common:
6x = 2  3  x 9 y = 33 y
The only factor in common to 6x and 9 y is 3 . So now we take out the common factor:
6x − 9 y = 3( 2x − 3 y ) .
Consider the expression 12 x y + 18 xy z . Break each term into its factors and look for the factors that
2 2

are common to both:

12 x 2 y = 22  3  x  x  y 18 xy 2 z = 2  32  x  y  y  z

The common factors are 2  3  x  y . We take these common factors out of the terms and get

12x2 y + 18xy 2 z = 2  3  xy ( 2x + 3 yz ) = 6xy ( 2x + 3 yz ) .

33
In the example above, the constant terms we were dealing with were 12 and 18. We could have
factored out 2, leaving 6 and 9. But 6 and 9 have a common factor of 3. We would then have to
factor out the 3. It is far better to take out the greatest common factor (GCF) in one step.

Suppose we want to find the greatest common factor for 72 and 756. The greatest common factor
can be found by following these steps:
1. Find the prime numbers that are factors for each term (see the calculator tip above).
2. Make a list of the prime factors that appear in every term.
3. Raise each of the prime factors to the smallest power that is used.

For the example of 72 and 756, we have the following:

1. 72 = 23  32 and 756 = 22  33  7 .
2. The common prime factors are 2 and 3.
3. The smallest power of 2 is 2, and the smallest power of 3 is 2.
4. The GCF is 22  32 = 4  9 = 36 .

Two numbers: To find the GCF of Three (or more) numbers: To find
72 and 756 enter the following key the GCF or three (or more) numbers
sequence to locate the GCF you can nest the gcd function on the
function: math-num-gcd (note that calculator. The screen below
this is labeled gcd on the calculator, shows how to find the GCF of 33,
not gcf). Then enter the 72 and 756 187 and 495.
separated by a comma and press
enter.

Using common factors in division

So far we have looked at how to use common factors in multiplication. Using the constants from the
GCF earlier example, we have

72xy − 756x = 36x ( 2 y − 21) .

But what if we were given a division problem? The process is much the same:
756 x  36 x   21   1  21 21
=   =   =
72 xy  36 x   2 y   1  2 y 2 y
Whether multiplying or dividing, we pull out the GCF, which in this case is 36x .

When doing division, many students find it easier to break the fraction into stacks. Using the same
example as before, we break the fraction into a constant stack, an x-stack, and a y-stack. Then we
simplify each stack. After that the stacks are combined to make a new fraction.

756 x  756  x   1   21  1   1  21
=     =      =
72 xy  72  x   y   2  1   y  2 y

34
 2.6 Practice problems on distributing and common factors

( )
1. 3xy 2 x 2 + xy is equal to: 5.
120 x 3 y 2 − 136 x 2 z
simplifies to:
8x2
A. 7 x3 y
A. 15 xy 2 − 17 z
2
B. 9x y
B. 15 y 2 − 17 z
C. 6x y + xy
3
C. −2xyz
D. 6 x y + 3x y
3 2 2
D. −2( xy 2 − 17)
E. 7xy
E. −2x ( y 2 − z )
2. 648 x y − 162 xyz is equivalent to:
3 6
96 xy 2 z 3 − 36 x2 yz 2
6. simplifies to:
A. 81xy (8 x y − z )2 5
12 x3 yz 6
B. 81xyz (8 x 2 y 5 − 1) 8 yz − 3 x
A.
xz 2
C. 162 xy (4 x 2 y 5 − z ) B. 8 yz − 3x
D. 162 xyz (4 x 2 y 5 − 1) 8y 3
C. 2
− 4
x xz
E. 162 x 2 y (4 xy 5 − z )
8 yz − 3x
3. The simplest form of the expression D.
x2 z 4
360 x8 y 5 z 2 − 480 x3 y 2 z 3 + 540 x5 y 7 z 8 is: 8 yz − 3 x
E.
A. 15x3 y 2 z ( 24 x5 y3 z − 32 z 2 + 36 x 2 y 5 z 5 ) x 2 yz 4
7. The greatest common factor of 66, 138 and
B. 60 x y z ( 6 x y z − 8z + 9 x y z
3 2 5 3 2 2 5 5
) 204 is
A. 2
C. 15x3 y 2 z 2 ( 24 x5 y3 − 32 z + 36 x 2 y 5 z 6 )
B. 3
D. 60 x y z ( 6 x y − 8z + 9 x y z
3 2 2 5 3 2 5 6
) C. 6
D. 11
(
E. 15x3 y 2 z 2 24 x 4 y3 − 32 z + 36 x 2 y5 z 6 ) E. 51,612
4. The expression 5xy is equivalent to: −x
8. The expression ( x − y ) is equivalent to:
50 x 2 y 2 y
A.
5 xy x2
A. x−
30 x 2 y y
B.
6x − x2
B. +1
12 x3 y y
C.
60 x 2 x2
C. −x
15 x3 y8 y
D.
3x 4 y 7 D. xy − y 2
25 E. y 2 − xy
E.
5xy
35
 2.6 Solutions to practice problems on distributing and factoring

1. (D) 6. (D)
3xy ( 2 x + xy ) = 3xy  2 x + 3xy  xy = 6 x y + 3x y
2 2 3 2 2

Use factor trees to find the GCF of 96 and 36

2. (C)

96 = 25  3 and 36 = 22  32 so GCF=22  3 = 12
Find GCF of 648 and 162:
96 xy 2 z 3 − 36 x 2 yz 2 12 xyz (8 yz − 3x ) 8 yz − 3x
2
648 = 23  34 and 162 = 2  34 so GCF=2  34 = 162 = =
648x3 y 6 − 162 xyz = 162 xy ( 4 x2 y5 − z ) 12 x3 yz 6 12 x3 yz 6 x2 z 4
7. (C)
66 = 2  3 11 204 = 22  3 17 138 = 2  3  23
3. (D)
So the GCF is 2  3 = 6
Use factor trees to find the GCF of 360 480
and 540
360 = 23  32  5 480 = 25  3  5 540 = 22  33  5
so GCF=22  3  5 = 60
360 x 8 y 5 z 2 − 480 x 3 y 2 z 3 + 540 x 5 y 7 z 8 = 8. (A)
(
60 x 3 y 2 z 2 6 x 5 y 3 − 8 z + 9 x 2 y 5 z 6 )
−x − x 2 xy x2
Or use the calculator to get the GCF. ( x − y) = + = x−
y y y y

4. (B)
30 x 2 y 6 x ( 5 xy )
= = 5 xy
6x 6x

5. (A)

Use factor trees to find the GCF of 120 and

136
120 = 23  3  5 and 136 = 23 17 so GCF=23 = 8
120 x3 y 2 − 136 x 2 z
=
(
8 x 2 15 xy 2 − 17 z ) = 15xy 2
− 17 z
2 2
8x 8x

36
2.7 Fractions and ratios
A fraction or ratio occurs when one value or expression is divided by another number or expression.
Understanding how to perform operations on fractions and ratios is essential in a variety of situations.
A ratio is just "a fraction in a context," where the numerator, denominator and overall ratio have
physical meaning.

Adding and subtracting fractions

Please remember that fractions cannot be added or subtracted unless they have the same
denominator, called the common denominator.

1 2
Consider a simple case: + . Hopefully you are not thinking that the answer is
2 7
1 2 1+ 2 3 1
+ = = = !!!!! That would be breaking just about every rule in math. (Believe it or not I
2 7 2+7 9 3
have seen students do exactly that.) Remember to first convert each fraction so that both fractions
have the same denominator, then add or subtract:

1 2  1  7   2  2  7 4 7 + 4 11
+ =    +    = + = =
2 7  2  7   7  2  14 14 14 14

In this example the common denominator is 14. Although the product of the denominators can always
be used, your work will be a bit simpler if you use the least common denominator (LCD). Consider the
7 2
example of − You could use 300 as the common denominator:
15 20
7 3  7  20   3  15  140 45 140 − 45 95  19  5  19
− =    −    = − = = =    =
15 20  15  20   20  15  300 300 300 300  60  5  60
The drawback to this approach is that you are working with larger numbers, and that causes you to
have to simplify the fraction at the end. To simplify you have to realize that 5 goes into 95 and 5 goes
into 300, and that can be difficult to see. Thankfully, the calculator tip below shows how to simplify a
fraction on the calculator.

Simplifying fractions: Suppose you are working on the problem above

and want to use the calculator to simplify 95/300. Just type 95/300 and
press enter. Then type math-Frac-enter.

It is a little easier if you can find the LCD and use that instead. To find the LCD, calculate the prime
factorization of each denominator: 15 = 3  5 and 20 = 22  5 . Next, make a list of all the prime factors
found in either denominator, and then raise each prime factor to its largest power:
37
 LCD = 22  31  51 = 60 .

Believe it or not, this technique for finding the LCD always works. But if you only have a few fractions
to deal with, it is much easier to use the graphing calculator as shown in the tip below.

Two numbers: Suppose you Three or more numbers: To

want to find the LCD of 15 and find the LCD or three (or more)
20. Just type math-num-lcm( numbers you can nest the lcd
and then enter 15,20) . The function on the calculator. The
result is shown in the screen screen below shows how to
shot below. find the LCD of 15, 25 and 35.

Now that we found the LCD is 60, we proceed with the subtraction:

7 3  7  4   3  3  28 9 19
− =    −    = − = .
15 20  15  4   20  3  60 60 60

You may be wondering if this LCD stuff is worth all the effort. When you are only dealing with two
fractions, it may not be. When you are dealing with several fractions the LCD is far easier, though the
calculator can only handle two numbers at a time. There are multiple fraction problems at the end of
this unit.

It is also necessary to add and subtract fractions involving variables. A simple example would be
3 y
+ . The common denominator would be 2x, and this yields
x 2

3 y  3  2   y  x  6 yx xy + 6
+ =    +    = + = .
x 2  x  2   2  x  2 x 2 x 2x

Multiplying fractions
When multiplying fractions, multiply the numerators together to form the new numerator, and multiply
the denominators together to form the new denominator. For example,
 2  5  2  5 10
   = =
 3  7  3  7 21

The same rule applies to fractions with variables:

 x   4  4x
   =
 3 y   z  3 yz

38
Dividing fractions
When two fractions are to be divided, multiply the fraction in the numerator by the reciprocal of the
fraction in the denominator. For example,
 2   5   2  7  14
     =    =
 3   7   3  5  15
The same rule applies to fractions with variables:

 x   4x   x   z  z
    =    =
 3 y   z   3 y   4 x  12 y

When fractions (without variables) appear in equations

When a fraction without variables appears in one place in an equation, the best approach is to
eliminate the fraction by multiplying both sides of the equation by the reciprocal of that fraction. For
example,
3  5  3   5  10
x = 2,   x  =   ( 2 ) , x =
5  3  5   3  3
When different fractions without variables appear in different places in an equation, the best approach
is to multiply both sides of the equation by the LCD of the fractions. For example,

4 2
x = x+2
15 3
4  2 
15  x  = 15  x + 2 
 15  3 
30
4 x = 10 x + 30, − 30 = 6 x, − = x, − 5 = x
6

When fractions (with variables) appear in equations

When solving an equation that has fractions with variables, a good approach is to cross-multiply. For
example:
2x 6 42 3
= , 70 x = 42, x = =
7 35 70 5
Cross-multiplying works nicely even when fractions with variables appear on both sides of the
equation. For example,
2 x
= , 12 = x 2 − x, 0 = x 2 − x − 12, 0 = ( x − 4)( x + 3), x = 4 or x = −3
x −1 6

Solving for a ratio

Sometimes a problem will ask you to solve for the ratio of two or more variables. Your approach
should be to solve for the variable being asked for in the numerator of the ratio, and then divide by the
other variable to obtain the value of the ratio. For example, solving for x/y in the following equation.

39
 x y 1 x 3
= , 5x = 3 y, x =   3 y, =
3 5 5 y 5

Ratios, rates, unit rates and mixtures

A ratio is a fraction with a context. Let's consider the ratio of 3:2, give this a context, and pose a
problem. "Suppose a recipe for biscuits calls for three parts flour and two parts milk. If we plan to use
21 ounces of flour how many ounces of milk should be used?" The solution lies in setting up an
equation which is solved by cross-multiplying:
3 21
= , 3 x = 42, x = 14
2 x
Let's consider the same biscuit problem, only now the problem asks "Suppose that in the process of
making dough for biscuits, three units of flour are used for every two units of milk. At that rate, how
many ounces of milk will be consumed if 21 ounces of flour are used?" Notice the use of the word
rate. This problem could be solved by setting up the same equation above (after all it is the exact
same problem). But you could also think of this in terms of unit conversion. In this problem we are
given a rate with two units (milk and flour) and we want to eliminate the flour units in order to solve for
the milk units.
 2 milk  42
  ( 21 flour ) = milk = 14 milk
 3 flour  3
A special case of rate is called a unit rate, which is simply a rate that has the value of 1 in the
numerator or denominator. Perhaps the most frequently used unit rate is the speed of an automobile
which is measured in miles per hour (mph). But let's go back to the biscuit problem again with
different wording. "Suppose that in the process of making dough for biscuits, 1.5 units of flour are
consumed for every unit of milk. At that rate, if 21 ounces of flour are consumed, how many ounces of
milk would be consumed?" In this problem we take the reciprocal of the unit rate stated in the
problem so that the flour units cancel out, solving for milk.

 1 milk  21
  ( 21 flour ) = milk = 14 milk
 1.5 flour  1.5

There is a type of problem called mixture problems and they frequently show up on standardized
tests. At first they look difficult but once you see how to solve them, they are easy. Suppose in the
biscuit problem that you must make 200 ounces of dough and follow the recipe of two parts milk to
three parts flour. How many ounces of each should you mix together to form the dough?

This seems difficult at first, but the solution is very easy. We just set up the equation

2x + 3x = 200

What this equation says is that the same multiplier (x) will be applied to the 2 parts of milk and 3 parts
of flour, and that these quantities must sum to 200. Solving for x gives us 40. So we must use
2  40 = 80 ounces of milk and 3  40 = 120 ounces of milk. Notice that 80 and 120 sum to the 200
ounces of dough required.

40
Direct and inverse variation
This is a type of word problem that seems difficult until you see how to do it. We begin with two
definitions:

The variables x and y vary directly if their relationship can be modeled as

y = kx

where k is a non-zero constant. If we suppose k to be positive, you can see that when the value of x
increases, y increases. This is where the name “direct” variation comes from. The variables x and y
move in the same direction.

The variables x and y vary inversely if their relationship can be modeled as

k
y=
x

where k is a non-zero constant. If we suppose k to be positive, you can see that when the value of x
increases, y decreases. This is where the name “indirect” or "inverse" variation comes from. The
variables x and y move in opposite directions.

These problems usually take the same form. They begin by saying whether the relationship is direct
or inverse and supply initial values of x and y. This enables you to evaluate k. Then the problem asks
for a new value of y when the value of x changes. For example:

X and Y are inversely proportional, and when X=10 Y=20. What is the value of Y when X=5?

The problem is solved as follows:

k
y= given
x
k
20 = , 200 = k substitute and solve for k
10
200
y= new partial equation
x
200
y= = 40 substitute for X, solve for Y.
5
Note that Y increased when X decreased because X and Y are inversely related.

41
 2.7 Practice problems on fractions and ratios
7 5 x y
1. What is the value of − ? 6. Simplify −
10 12 1− x 1− y
A. -1
A. ( x − y ) /( x 2 − 2 xy + y 2 )
B. 12/22
B. ( x + y − 2 xy) /(2 − x − y)
C. 17/60
D. 35/120 C. ( y − x) /( x − y )
E. 7/24 D. ( x − y) /( xy − x − y + 1)
7 5 11 E. ( x + y ) / ( y − x)
2. What is the value of + − ?
10 12 42
A. 359/420  5x2   6 y 2 
7. Simplify   
B. 193/140  3 y   8x 
C. 11/144 A. 5x / 4 y
D. 118/525 B. 20 xy / 9
E. -1/20
C. 4 y / 5x
3. Sophie sells mixed nuts over the Internet.
D. 5xy / 4
Her recipe is 9 parts peanuts to 3 parts
cashews to 1 part pecans. How many pounds E. 20 x 3 / 9 y 3
of cashews are needed to prepare 195 pounds
of mixed nuts?  5x2   6 y 2 
8. Simplify    
A. 15  3 y   8x 
B. 38 A. 5xy / 4
C. 45 B. 20 xy / 9
D. 49
C. 4 / 5xy
E. 135
D. 20 x 3 / 9 y 3
 3   −5 
4. What is the value of     ?
 5   12  E. 5x / 4 y
A. -1/4 y x 3
B. -36/25 9. Simplify − +
x y xy
C. -4/1
y− x+3
D. -15/60 A.
x + y + xy
E. -15/17
3
B.
2 3 xy
5. Simplify 2
−
5x 25 xy y − x−3
2 C.
A. 7 / 5x y xy
B. −1/(5 x( x − 5 y)) y 2 − x2 + 3
D.
C. (10 y − 3 x) / 5 x 2 y xy
D. (10 y − 3 x) / 25 x 2 y xy
E.
E. 7 / ( x − 5 y) 3
42
  x   xz   yz  14. If 3x − 15 = 2 y − 10 and y  0 , then x/y is
10. Simplify     equal to:
 y  y   x 
z A. 2/3
A.
xy 2 B. 2y + 5
2 2y + 5
 xz  C.
B.   3
 y D. 2y + 5
xz 2 3y
C.
y E. 3/2
xz
D. 15. If 1 xy = 6 y 2 and y  0, then what is the
y 2 5
x + z( x + y) value of x ?
E. y
x + 2y
A. 5/12
3
11. Simplify B. 6/10
5
C. 10/6
2
D. 12/5
A. 6/5
E. 2/3
B. 5/ 6
16. If 5 x = 2 ( x − 5) + 5 , what is the value of x?
C. 2 /15 6 3
D. 6 /15 A. 0
E. 15/2 B. 10
C. 20
x2 − 9 x+3 D. 30
12. Simplify  2
x +1 x −1 E. 40
A. ( x − 3) / ( x − 1)
17. If x + x + 1 = 5 x then what is the value of x?
B. ( x − 1) / ( x − 3) 6 7 12
C. x − 4x + 3
2 A. 3/4
D. x + 2x − 3
2 B. 11/6
( x 2 − 9)( x + 3) C. 4/3
E. D. 12/6
( x + 1)( x 2 − 1)
E. 13/6
x x
13. Simplify − 18. The football team had a pretty good
x −1 x +1 season this year, with 2/3 of the games won
2x and 1/9 of the games tied. What was their
A.
x −1
2
fraction of losses?
B. 0
A. 1/9
2x
C. B. 2/9
x +1
C. 3/9
−2 x
D. D. 4/9
x −1
−2 x E. 5/9
E.
x2 −1
43
19. If 5 = 10 , and x  0 then x equals 25. It takes Hayley 14 days to paint two
6x 7 rooms. At this rate, how many days would it
A. 7/12 take for her to paint five rooms?
B. 12/7 A. 1.4
C. 25/21 B. 12.5
C. 17.5
D. 21/25
D. 35.0
E. 2
E. 40.0
x−5 2 26. A map is drawn to scale so that two inches
20. If = , and y  0 then x/y equals
y −5 3 is 70 miles. If two towns are 5 inches apart on
A. (2y+5)/3 the map, how far apart are they (in miles)?
B. (2y-5)/3 A. 7
C. (2y+5)/3y B. 35
D. (2y-5)/3y C. 175
E. 7/3 D. 350
E. 450
21. If there are 16 ounces in a pound, how many
pounds are in 80 ounces? 27. Paul has scored 3 goals in 10 lacrosse
games. At this rate how many goals should he
A. 1/5 expect to score over the entire season if there
B. 5 are 14 games remaining in the season?
C. 64 A. 4
D. 128 B. 5
E. 1280 C. 6
22. On a blueprint drawn to scale, two inches D. 7
represents 25 feet. If a room is 70 feet long, E. 8
®
how many inches long will it be on the blueprint? 28. If ACT scores are directly proportional to
the amount of time spent studying and, on
A. 0.2 average, for every 3 extra hours per week
B. 0.7 spent studying, the math score increases by 5
C. 1.4 points. If Sophie wants her score to increase
D. 5.6 by 2 points, how many extra hours per week
should she study?
E. 7.0
A. 0.8
23. Y varies directly with X. When X=5, Y=40.
B. 1.2
What is the value of Y when X increases to 7?
C. 1.8
A. 7/8 D. 2.2
B. 8/7 E. 3.3
C. 25 29. The strength of gravitational pull is
D. 38 inversely proportional to the square of the
E. 56 distance between two bodies. If the
24. Y varies inversely with X. When X=5, Y=40. gravitational pull is 50 units when two bodies
are 10 units apart, how strong is the pull when
What is the value of Y when X increases to 7?
the two bodies are 100 units apart?
A. 7/8 A. 0.05
B. 8/7 B. 0.50
C. 25 C. 5.00
D. 200/7 D. 50.00
E. 2/25 E. 500.00
44
30. Lizzy planted a tree in her back yard and 34. If the Millers had a quarter tank of gas
measured that it had grown 10 inches over the when they started their drive, what is the
past six years. At that rate, how long will it fewest number of times they would have to
stop for gas?
take the tree to grow another 25 inches?
A. 0
A. 15
B. 1
B. 16 C. 2
C. 35 D. 3
D. 42 E. 4
E. 49 _____________________________________
31. Fifty of this year's freshman class of 300 Use the following information to answer
students tried out for the football team. If 250 questions 35 and 36.
freshman enroll in school next year, how many The table below shows the conversion rates
of them are expected to try out for football? between two currencies and the US dollar.

A. 42 US dollars
B. 60 1 British pound $1.42
1 Euro $1.10
C. 550
D. 1500 35. How many Euro can be purchased with 10
E. 3000 British pounds?
A. €6.40
_____________________________________
B. €7.75
Use the following information to answer C. €12.91
questions 32 – 34. D. €15.62
E. €16.12
The Miller family live 1,000 miles from the 36. Jordan took 500 US dollars and converted
Grand Canyon and they were on the road for them to British pounds. While in Britain she
40 hours driving there. Their car gets 30 miles spent 50 of her British pounds and converted
per gallon and the average cost of gas was her remaining pounds into Euros. While
$2.15 per gallon. Their gas tank holds 25 visiting Europe she spent 100 Euros. Upon
returning to the US she converted her
gallons.
remaining Euros to US dollars. How many US
32. What was their average speed? dollars did Jordan have left over from her trip?
A. $192
A. 15 mph
B. $203
B. 25 mph C. $319
C. 33 mph D. $429
D. 40 mph E. $539
E. 43 mph
33. How much money did the Millers spend on 37. The interior angles of a quadrilateral form
gas per mile travelled? a ratio of 4:3:2:1. How large is the largest
angle?
A. $0.02
A. 18 degrees
B. $0.07
B. 36 degrees
C. $0.33 C. 72 degrees
D. $2.15 D. 108 degrees
E. $2.48 E. 144 degrees
45
 2.7 Solutions to practice problems on fractions and ratios
1. (C) 11. (A)
 3  2  6
10 = 2  5 and 12 = 22  3 . So the LCD is 3    5 6
= 1 5
7 5 42 25 17 5 5  2 = =
22  3  5 = 60 . − = − =    1 5
10 12 60 60 60 2  2  5 
2. (A) 12. (C)
10 = 2  5 and 12 = 22  3 and 42 = 2  3  7 . So the x2 − 9 x+3 ( x + 3)( x − 3) ( x + 1)( x − 1)
 = 
LCD is 2  3  5  7 = 420 .
2 x +1 x −1
2
x +1 x+3

7 5 11 7  42 5  35 1110 359
= ( x − 3)( x − 1) = x − 4x + 3 2

+ − = + − =
10 12 42 420 420 420 420 13. (A)
3. (C) x x  x  x + 1   x  x − 1 
− =  −  
9 x + 3x + x = 195, 13x = 145, x = 15 x − 1 x + 1  x − 1  x + 1   x + 1  x − 1 
3x = 45 pounds of cashews
x 2 + x − ( x 2 − x) 2x
= = 2
4. (B)
( x − 1)( x + 1) x − 1
 3   −5   3  12  36 36 14. (D)
     =    = =−
 5   12   5  −5  −25 25 2y + 5 x 2y + 5
3 x − 15 = 2 y − 10, 3 x = 2 y + 5, x = , =
5. (D) 3 y 3y
2 3 2(5 y ) 3x 10 y − 3 x 15. (D)
− = − =
2 2
5 x 25 xy 25 x y 25 x y2
25 x 2 y 1 6 12 x 12
xy = y 2 , x = y, =
2 5 5 y 5
6. (D)
16. (B)
x y x(1 − y ) − y (1 − x) x− y
− = = 5 2  6  5   6   2 
1− x 1− y (1 − x)(1 − y ) xy − x − y + 1 x= ( x − 5) + 5,   x  =    ( x − 5) + 5 ,
6 3  5  6   5   3 
7. (D)
4 4 1
x= ( x − 5) + 6, x − x = 2, x = 2, x = 10
 5 x  6 y  5  6 x y
2 2 2 2
30 x y 2
5 xy2
5 5 5
  = = =
 3 y  8 x  3  8 xy 24 xy 4 17. (C)
x x + 1 5x  x x + 1  5x 
8. (D) + = , 84  +  = 84   ,
6 7 12 6 7   12 
 5 x 2   6 y 2   5 x 2  8 x  40 x3 20 x3 14 x + 12 x + 12 = 35 x, 26 x + 12 = 35 x, 12 = 9 x, 4 / 3 = x
   =  2  = 3
=
 3 y   8 x   3 y   6 y  18 y 9 y3 18. (B)
9. (D) 2 1 6 1 2
+ + x = 1, + + x = 1, x =
3 9 9 9 9
y x 3  y   y   x   x  3 y 2 − x2 + 3
− + =    −    + = 19. (A)
x y xy  x   y   y   x  xy xy
5 10
10. (C) = , 60 x = 35, x = 35 / 60 = 7 /12
6x 7
 x   xz   yz  x 2 yz 2 xz 2
    = =
 y  y   x  xy 2 y

46
20. (C) 29. (B)
x −5 2 k k
= , 3 x − 15 = 2 y − 10, 3 x = 2 y + 5, y= , 50 = 2 , k = 5, 000
y −5 3 x 2
10
2y + 5 x 2y + 5 5, 000 5, 000
x= , = y= = = 0.5
3 y 3y x2 1002
21. (B) 30. (A)
 6 years 
16 80   ( 25 inches ) = 15 years
= , 16x = 80, x = 5 OR  10 inches 
1 x
 1 pound  31. (A)
80 oz   = 5 pounds
 16 oz   50 try out 
22 ( D)   ( 250 freshmen ) = 41.6 try out
 300 freshmen 
2 x
= , 25 x = 140, x = 5.6 inches
25 70 32. (B)
 1000 miles 
23. (E)   = 25 miles per hour (mph)
 40 hours 
y = kx
40 = 5k , k = 8 33. (B)
y = 8 x, y = 8  7 = 56  1 gallon   2.15 dollars  dollars
   = 0.07
24. (D)  30 miles   1 gallon  mile
k
y= 34. (C)
x
k  1 gallon   1 tank 
40 = , k = 200 (1000 miles)    = 1.33 tanks of gas
5  30 miles   25 gallons 
200 200 1.33 − 0.25 = 1.08 tanks purchased
y= , y=
x 7
35. (D)
25. (D)
 1.42 dollars   1.10 Euro 
14 x (10 pounds)    = 15.62 Euro
= , 2 x = 70, x = 35 OR
2 5  1 pound   1 dollar 
36. (C)
 14 days 
5 rooms   = 35 days  1 pound 
 2 rooms  (500 dollars)   = 352.11 pounds to start
 1.42 dollars 
26. (C)
2 5  1.42 dollars   1 Euro 
= , 2 x = 350, x = 175 (302.11 pounds)    = 390 Euro
70 x  1 pound   1.10 dollars 

27. (D)  1.10 dollars 

(290 Euro)   = 319 dollars
 3 goals   1 Euro 
  ( 24 games in the season ) = 7.2 games
 10 games  37. (E)
Interior angles of a quadrilateral sum to 360.
28. (B)
y = kx, 5 = 3k , k = 5 / 3 4 x + 3x + 2 x + x = 360, 10 x = 360, x = 36
y = (5 / 3) x, 2 = (5 / 3) x, x = 2(3 / 5) = 1.2 largest angle = 4 x = 144

47
2.8 Linear equations and systems
Linear relations is the single most popular math topic on the ACT®. The test requires a deep
understanding of linear relations, from algebraic, graphical and statistical points of view. The focus of
this chapter is the algebraic point of view but the chapters reinforce and overlap each other in order to
achieve an integrated understanding of this vital topic.

Linear equations in one variable

Solving equations is sometimes called balancing equations because whatever you do to one side of
an equation must also be done to the other side of the equation.

The first technique to be learned is combining like terms. This means moving terms from one side of
the equation to the other so that they can be combined. Start with a simple equation such as

x − 3 = 12 original equation

x − 3 + 3 = 12 + 3 add 3 to both sides (combine constant terms)

x = 15 simplify
This is a somewhat more complicated example of combining like terms:

x +19 = 4x − 2 original equation

x + 19 − x = 4x − 2 − x subtract x from both sides (combine x-terms)

19 = 3x − 2 simplify by combining like terms

19 + 2 = 3x − 2 + 2 add 2 to both sides (combine constant terms)

21 = 3x simplify by combining like terms

21 3 x
= divide both sides by 3
3 3
7=x simplify

The other technique to be learned is opposites. This was used in the example just above. We use
opposites to isolate the variable to be solved. In the equation 21 = 3x the variable x is being
multiplied by 3. The opposite of multiplication is division, so we isolate the variable by dividing both
x
sides of the equation by 3, yielding 7 = x . In the equation = 3 the variable is being divided by 5.
5
The opposite of division is multiplication, so we isolate the variable by multiplying both sides of the
equation by 5, yielding x = 15 .

Linear equations in one variable are frequently used to solve word problems. For example

If three times a number is the same as five less than twice that number, what is the value of
the number?

48
This requires you to set up the equation 3n = 2n − 5 and solve, yielding the answer of negative five.

Interpreting word problems often involves scanning for keywords. Many of these keywords are shown
below. Linear equations might also involve fractions (see Section 2.7 if you need more review of
equations involving fractions).

Operation Keywords or phrases

Addition sum
a certain amount greater than another amount
a certain amount more than another amount
Subtraction difference
a certain amount less than another amount
Multiplication product
times
double, triple, etc.
Division quotient
ratio
half, one half, one-third, etc.
Powers squared, cubed, etc.
raised to a power
Roots square root, cube root, etc.
Equality is
is equal to
is the same as

Linear equations in two variables

Perhaps the best known linear equation is y=mx+b, which is called the slope-intercept form of the line.
It gets its name because graphically, m is the slope of the line (slope is the way we measure how
quickly the line rises or falls), and (0,b) is the point where the line crosses the y-axis (called the y-
intercept). In the algebraic context, the slope is the amount that the y-value changes every time the x-
value changes by one unit. The y-intercept is the starting value for y in situations where x represents
time.

Suppose you want a mathematical model of how much money it costs to ride in a taxi. You could
write an equation in the slope-intercept form

cost = 2.50m + 3.00

where the y-variable represents the cost of the taxi ride and m represents the number of miles driven.
In this context, the y-intercept of 3.00 is the amount of money it costs to enter the taxi (it has not yet
driven anywhere because the cost is $3 when m is zero) and the slope of 2.50 is the amount of
money that will be added to your total cost for every mile driven.

Graphical point of view

The graphical view of the taxi equation is illustrated below. Notice that the line crosses the y-axis at
3.00. The meaning of the y-intercept is that $3.00 is the amount of money required to step into the
taxi (where the number of miles driven is zero). The additional cost of $2.50 per mile is represented
by the slope of the line. Choose two points on the line (in this case we chose (0,3) and (2,8)) and find

49
the slope by measuring the rise (in this case 5 units) over the run (in this case 2 units). The slope is
5/2 or 2.50.

Function and data points of view

The function point of view of the taxi equation is to think of the cost of the taxi ride as a function of the
miles driven. We could re-write the taxi equation as:
c(m) = 2.50m + 3.00
and populate a data table with miles and cost values.

m c(m)
0 3.00
1 5.50
2 8.00
3 10.50
4 13.00

50
Solving for one variable in terms of the other variable

A common situation on the test is where you are asked to express one variable in terms of another
variable (or multiple other variables). In the taxi equation above we already express cost in terms of
miles driven with the equation c = 2.50m + 3.00 . But what if we were asked to express miles in terms
of cost? This might sound like a strange thing to do but consider this situation. Suppose the taxi
driver tells you that the cost of your taxi ride was $25.50. You probably would want to have some idea
of whether that price is reasonable or not by figuring out how many miles had been driven. To do this
with the proper math, we solve for m in terms of c :

c = 2.50m + 3.00 the original equation

c − 3.00 = 2.50m subtract 3.00 from both sides

c − 3.00
=m divide both sides by 2.50
2.50

In the example above, a taxi ride that cost $25.50 means that the taxi drove 9 miles because

25.50 − 3.00 22.50

= =9
2.50 2.50

Systems of linear equations

Some algebra problems and many word problems require you to solve a pair of linear equations in
two variables. When you are given two equations the first step is to stack the equations so that the
variables are on one side of the equation and the constants are on the other side. That will enable
you to decide whether to use the substitution method or the elimination method.

Substitution

Substitution is a very simple way to do the job. When given a pair of equations, rewrite one of the
equations to isolate one of the variables. Then substitute that variable into the second equation. For
example, consider the pair of equations:
x + 2 y = 10
2 x + 3 y = 500
Substitution for this pair of equations is simple because the first equation can be rewritten as
x = 10 − 2 y . Next replace x with 10 − 2 y in the second equation:
2 x + 3 y = 500
2 (10 − 2 y ) + 3 y = 500
20 − 4 y + 3 y = 500
y = −480
Finish the problem by finding the value of x :
x = 10 − 2 y = 10 − 2 ( −480) = 10 + 960 = 970

51
Elimination

The other method of solving a pair of equations is elimination. First, one or both equations are
multiplied by constants. Next, the equations are added to one another or subtracted from one
another. In our example above, we could have first multiplied the top equation by two, yielding
2 x + 4 y = 20
2 x + 3 y = 500
Next we can subtract the second equation from the first equation, giving
2 x − 2 x + 4 y − 3 y = 20 − 500
y = −480
In general, elimination is faster than substitution, but more prone to error.

Sometimes it is necessary to multiply both equations by constants, as you can see in the next
example.
3x + 2 y = 255
2 x + 5 y = 500
Multiply the top equation by two and the bottom equation by three. This yields
6 x + 4 y = 510
6 x + 15 y = 1500
Subtracting the bottom equation gives
4 y − 15 y = 510 −1500
−11y = −990, y = 90
Substituting 90 for y in the first equation gives

3x + 2  90 = 255, 3x = 75, x = 25 .

52
Pairs of equations may also be solved on the calculator. First, on paper,
you must put each equation into the slope-intercept format (y= format),
isolating the y variable. In the example above we started with two
equations, x + 2 y = 10 and 2 x + 3 y = 500 . Putting these into slope-
−x −2 x 500
intercept format yields y = + 5 and y = + . The first screen
2 3 3
shot below shows the two equations once they have been entered into the
equation editor (the Y= button of the graphing calculator).
If you press the graph key right away you may get a window range error.
Press the window key and change the window settings to get a proper
view of the two lines, including where they intersect. The window settings
that were used are shown as the second screen shot below (Xmin = -100,
etc.). Other methods are to use the zoom-in and zoom-out options on the
zoom menu, or have the calculator set the window for you by pressing
zoom-0:ZoomFit. You will have to toggle down the zoom menu to find the
zoom to fit option.
Each equation is represented by a line on the graph. The intersection of
the lines represents the solution. To have the calculator find the solution,
type 2nd-calc to see the calculate menu. Choose option 5:intersect to start
the calculation dialog. When prompted for the first curve, toggle the
cursor onto one of the lines and press enter. When prompted for the
second curve, toggle the cursor onto the other line and press enter.
When prompted guess? toggle the cursor to the vicinity where the
intersection occurs and press enter.
At this point you should have a screen that looks like the screen shot
below. One of the equations will be shown at the top of the screen. The x
and y coordinates of the solution will be shown at the bottom of the
screen.

53
Possible Outcomes

When you are given two equations with two variables, there can be three possible outcomes: one
solution, no solution and an infinite number of solutions. So far we have only been concerned with
using substitution or elimination to find the one solution, but some problems will specifically ask about
which type of outcome will occur with a given pair of equations. Other problems will tell you the
desired outcome and ask you to modify the system to obtain that outcome.

The various outcomes and the conditions under which those outcomes occur are organized into the
table below.

Outcome Conditions Example Graph

Occurs when the y = x+2
One slopes are y = 2x +1
solution different. solution = (1,3)

Occurs when the y = x+2

No solution slopes are the y = x −1
same but the y- no solution
intercepts are lines are parallel
different.

Occurs when the y = x +1

Infinite slopes are the 2 y = 2x + 2
solutions same and the y- infinite solutions
intercepts are the (same line)
same.

54
 2.8 Practice problems on linear equations and systems
1. The solution to the equation 6. Amy's weight this year is 50 pounds less
4 ( x + 2) = 3(5 − x ) is: than twice her weight from last year. If she
weighs 120 pounds this year, what equation
A. x = 7 /15 can be used to find her weight from last year?
B. x =1 A. x = 60 + 25
C. x = 13/ 7 B. x = 60 + 50
D. x=7 C. x = 2(120) + 50
E. x =7/2
D. x = 2(120 + 100)
3( x − 6)
2. The solution to the equation = x is: E. x = (120 + 50) / 2
5
A. x = −9 7. If the cost of manufacturing mobile phones
B. x = −3 is $10,000 for the factory time plus $80 per
phone and each phone sells for $100, how
C. x = −9/ 4
many phones must be manufactured in order
D. x=9
to break even (when costs equal revenue)?
E. x = 11 A. 50.0
4x B. 50.5
3. If = 2( x + 9) then x must be equal to: C. 500.0
3
A. -54 D. 505.0
B. -27 E. 550.0
C. -6.75 8. Combined, Jay and his two friends have
D. -4.5 exactly $30 to spend on lunch. Hot dogs cost
E. -2.5 $3.50 and drinks cost $1.50. If they each buy
two hot dogs, how many drinks can they buy?
2x + k A. 4
4. If = 30 and k = 10 then what is the
5 B. 6
value of x ? C. 7
D. 8
A. 50
E. 9
B. 60
9. The velocity ( v ) of an object is equal to its
C. 70
initial velocity ( v 0 ) plus the product of its
D. 80
acceleration ( a ) and the elapsed time ( t ).
E. 90 Which of the choices below expresses elapsed
5. If 3x − 5 = 20 , then what is the value of time in terms of the other variables.
10 A. t = av − v0
2x − ?
3 B. v = av − av0
A. 20 v − v0
C. t=
B. 25/3 a
C. 25 v + v0
D. t=
D. 40/3 a
E. 45 a
E. t=
v − v0
55
10. Mr. Corn's monthly profit from his book is a ____________________________________
function of the number of reviews on Amazon.
Use the following information to answer
The function is P(r ) = 5(71 + 3r ) . How many questions 14 -16.
reviews must he have in order to obtain a
monthly profit of $1,000? The table displays data which illustrate a linear
relationship between the hours spent per day
A. 43
studying and the grade point average (GPA).
B. 62
Study hours Grade point
C. 215 per day average (GPA)
D. 310 2 2.3
4 2.6
E. 405
8 3.2
11. If a triangle has a base of 18 and an area 10 y
of 216, how long is its altitude (height)? x 4.0

A. 6 14. Which of the following equations models

B. 12 the relationship between the hours studied ( h )
C. 24 and the grade point average g (h) ?
D. 48 A. g (h) = .15h + 2
E. 60 B. g (h) = .15h + 2.3
12. If a rectangle has a length that is five less C. g (h) = .30h + 2
than triple its width, which choice below D. g (h) = .30h + 2.3
expresses the perimeter of the rectangle? E. g (h) = .30h − 2.3
A. 4w− 5 15. What is the value of .15x + y ?
B. 8w− 5 A. -0.50
B. 0.15
C. 8w −10 C. 5.50
D. 3w2 − 5w D. 7.50
E. 9.83
E. 9w2 − 30w + 25
16. If the linear relationship holds, which of the
13. Katy received a gift card for $100 toward following must be true?
her mobile phone plan. If her plan charges I. If a student wants a 4.0 GPA, s/he
$0.75 per minute for phone calls, which should study x hours per week.
function R (m) below could be used to predict II. If a student studies 10 hours every day
how much money will remain on her gift card s/he can expect a GPA of y .
after m minutes of phone calls? 4− y
III. represents the improvement in
x − 10
A. R(m) = .75m + 100
GPA for every extra hour spent studying.
B. R(m) = 100 − .75m A. I only
B. I and II only
C. R(m) = 100m + .75 C. I and III only
D. R(m) = 100m − .75 D. II and III only
E. I, II and III
E. R(m) = .75m − 100 _____________________________________
56
17. Water is being drained out of a swimming __________________________________
pool. V represents the volume (in gallons) of Use the following information to answer
water remaining in the pool after it has drained questions 20 and 21.
for h hours. The relationship between V and The graph below shows the relationship
h can be modeled by the equation between height and weight for teenage boys.
V = 777 − 25h . What does 25 mean in this
equation?
A. It takes 25 hours to drain the pool
B. After the pool is drained there will be
25 gallons of water left in it.
C. As each hour passes, there will be 25
fewer gallons of water in the pool.
D. It will take 25/777 hours to drain the
pool.
E. It will take 777/25 hours to drain the
pool.
18. Mr. Corn participates in a raffle at the local
grocery store, where he gets 20 raffle tickets
for free when he signs up. When he buys
groceries he receives 2 tickets for every $10 20. Which of the following statements is true
that he spends at the store. Which of the about the relationship between height and
equations below can be used to calculate the weight for teenage boys?
number of tickets that Mr. Corn will accumulate
I. Boys typically weigh about 35 pounds
after spending d dollars at the grocery store? when they are born.
A. .2d + 20 II. On average, a boy grows 10 inches for
B. .2d − 20 every 100 pounds that he gains.
C. 2d + 20 III. Heavier boys tend to be taller than
lighter boys.
D. 20d + 2
A. I only
E. 20 − 2d
B. II only
19. The volume of a pyramid is given by the C. I and III only
1
equation V = lwh , where l is the length of D. II and III only
3
E. I, II and III only
the base, w is the width of the base, and h is
the height of the pyramid. If the area of the 21. Suppose the equation of the line above is
base of the pyramid is 40 square inches and 10 y − x = 350 . What weight would be
the volume of the pyramid is 124 cubic inches, predicted for a teenage boy who is 7 feet tall
how tall is the pyramid?
(one foot equals 12 inches)?
A. 3.1 inches A. 280 pounds
B. 9.3 inches B. 390 pounds
C. 27.9 inches C. 420 pounds
D. 243.6 inches D. 490 pounds
E. 14,880 inches E. 510 pounds
_____________________________________

57
22. If x + y = 3 and 3x + 5 y = 13 , then 27. Lizzy’s cell phone plan charges 5 cents
x − y is equal to: per message for in-network text messages and
A. -2 10 cents per message for out-of-network text
B. -1 messages. If she sent a total of 1500
messages and her bill was $80, how many out-
C. 1
of-network messages did she send?
D. 2
E. 3 A. 50
B. 60
23. Tickets to a show cost $3 for students and
$7 for adults. If 250 tickets were sold and ticket C. 100
sales totaled $1102, how many adult tickets D. 140
were sold? E. 1400
A. 35
28. If 2 x + by = 8 and ax + y = 4 , what values
B. 88
of a and b would cause this pair of equations
C. 111
to have infinitely many solutions?
D. 162
E. 213
A. a = 1, b = 1
B. a = 1, b = 2
24. If 3x + 5 y = 13 and 6 x + 7 y = 20 , find the
C. a = 2, b = 1
y
value of . D. a = 2, b = 2
x
A. 0.5 E. a = −1, b = 0
B. 1.0 29. Suppose ax + by = c and dx + ey = f , and
C. 1.5 ce  bf , which condition below would cause
D. 2.0 this system of equations to have no solution?
E. 2.5
A. a=d
25. If 5 x + 2 y = 8 and 3x − 7 y = 13 , find the
B. b=e
value of x − y .
C. ae = bd
A. -1 D. ad = be
B. 1 E. a=e
C. 2 30. Amber’s pool has 350 gallons of water and
D. 3 can drain 12 gallons per minute. Sophie’s pool
E. 4 has 400 gallons of water and can drain 14
gallons per minute. If the pools start draining
26. Joanna saves nickels and quarters in a jar.
at the same time, when will the pools contain
If she saved five times as many nickels as
equal amounts of water?
quarters, and her coin collection is worth $390,
how many quarters has she saved? A. after 5 minutes
A. 195 B. after 10 minutes
B. 300 C. after 15 minutes
C. 780 D. after 20 minutes
D. 1260 E. after 25 minutes
E. 3900
58
 2.8 Solutions to practice problems on linear equations and systems
1. (B) 11. (C)

1
4 ( x + 2 ) = 3 ( 5 − x ) , 4 x + 8 = 15 − 3x, 216 = (18)h, 216 = 9h, 24 = h
2
7 x = 15 − 8, 7 x = 7, x = 1
12. (C)
2. (A) l = 3w − 5, p = 2l + 2w = 6w − 10 + 2w = 8w − 10
3( x − 6) 13. (B)
= x, 3 ( x − 6 ) = 5 x,
5
14. (A)
3x − 18 = 5 x, − 18 = 2 x, − 9 = x
2.6 − 2.3 .3
3. (B) slope = = = .15, y = .15 x + b
4−2 2
4x at (2, 2.3) 2.3 = .15(2) + b, 2 = b, y = .15 x + 2
= 2( x + 9), 4 x = 6( x + 9),
3
4 x = 6 x + 54, − 2 x = 54, x = −27 15. (C)
In problem 14 we found the slope to be .15.
4. (C)
2x + k 4− y
= 30, 2 x + 10 = 150, = .15, 4 − y = .15 x − 1.5, 5.5 = .15 x + y
5 x − 10
2 x = 140, x = 70
5. (D) 16. (D)
I. false because the units are hours per day, not
2 2
3x − 5 = 20, (3x − 5) = ( 20 ) , per week (sorry but this is a common "trick" on
3 3 standardized tests).
10 40 II. true
2x − =
3 3 4− y
III. true because is the slope
6. (A) x − 10
17. (C)
120 = 2 x − 50, 120 + 50 = 2 x,
120 + 50
= x, 60 + 25 = x 18. (A)
2 The rate at which tickets accumulate is two tickets
7. (C) per 10 dollars, 2/10, or 0.2 per dollar.

10, 000 + 80n = 100n, 10, 000 = 20n, 500 = n 19. (B)
8. (B) 1 1
V = lwh, 124 = 40h, 372 = 40h
After they pay $21 for hot dogs, they will have $9
3 3
left. 9.3 = h
Drinks cost $1.50 each, so they can buy six drinks.
20. (D)
9. (C) I. false. The graph has nothing to do with age.
v − v0 II. true. Using the points (50,40) and (150,50) we
v = v0 + at , v − v0 = at , =t 50 − 40 10 1
a can see that the slope is = =
150 − 50 100 10
10. (A)
III. true. The slope of the line is positive.
1000 = 5(71 + 3r ), 200 = 71 + 3r , 129 = 3r , 43 = r

59
21. (D) 26. (C)
10 y − x = 350, 10(84) − x = 350, 490 = x
5Q = N
22. (B) .25Q + .05N = 390
Use substitution:
Use substitution:
3x + 5 y = 13
.25Q + .05(5Q) = 390
3 ( 3 − y ) + 5 y = 13 .50Q = 390, Q = 780
9 − 3 y + 5 y = 13, y = 2, x = 3 − 2 = 1
27. (C)
x − y = 1 − 2 = −1
23. (B) 5 x + 10 y = 8000
Use substitution: x + y = 1500, x = 1500 − y
S + A = 250 5(1500 − y ) + 10 y = 8000
3S + 7 A = 1102 7500 − 5 y + 10 y = 8000
3(250 − A) + 7 A = 1102 5 y = 500, y = 100
750 + 4 A = 1102, A = 88 28. (B)

24. (D) Put each equation into slope-intercept form:

−2 8
Multiplying the first equation by 2 gives y= x + and y = −ax + 4
6 x + 10 y = 26 b b
6 x + 7 y = 20 Slopes and intercepts must be the same

Subtracting the equations gives −2 8

y = −a, ab = 2 and = 4, therefore b = 2, a = 1
3 y = 6, y = 2, x = 1, =2 b b
x 29. (C)

Put each equation into slope-intercept form:

25. (D)
Multiplying the first equation by 3 and the second −a c −d f
y= x + and y = x+
equation by 5 gives b b e e
15x + 6 y = 24 For there to be no solution the slopes must be the
15x − 35 y = 65 −a −d
same = , ae = bd
Then subtract b e
6 y + 35 y = 24 − 65, 41y=-41, y=-1, x=2
30. (E)
x − y = 2 − −1 = 3
350 − 12 x = 400 − 14 x
2 x = 50, x = 25

60
2.9 Linear inequalities and systems of inequalities
In linear equations, the solution (if there is one) is a point (x,y). In linear inequalities, the solution (if
there is one) is a region. If the linear inequality has only one variable, the solution can be graphed as
a portion of a number line (or a section of the x-y plane). If the linear inequality has two variables, the
solution is a region of the x-y plane.

Linear inequalities in one variable

Some of the problems on the test require you to solve linear inequalities in one variable. For example,
this word problem:

If Paige has $5.00 to spend on apples and each apple costs 35 cents, what is the greatest
number of apples that can she buy?

This requires you to set up the inequality .35x  5.00 and solve (divide each side of the inequality by
.35), yielding the answer of x  14.3 , which defines a region of the number line. Because it is not
possible to buy a portion of an apple the answer to this problem is the largest integer that lies in the
solution region, 14 apples. The answers to this word problem could be multiple choice options like 13,
14, 15, or 16. If you choose anything other than 14 your choice is incorrect because the problem is
asking for the greatest number of apples that Paige can buy.

Linear inequalities are solved using the same techniques used to solve linear equalities, namely
adding, subtracting, multiplying and dividing as needed, collecting like terms along the way. But there
is a key difference: if you multiply or divide by a negative value, you must change the direction
of the inequality. Consider this example:

−2 ( x − 8)  4 original inequality

−2x + 16  4 distribute the -2

−2x  −12 combine like terms (add 16 to both sides)

x6 isolate the variable (divide both sides by -2, change direction)

The last step isolates the variable by dividing by a negative value, so the direction of the inequality is
changed. Remember to change the direction of the inequality whenever you multiply or divide both
sides of the inequality by a negative value.

When graphed on a number line, the solution looks like:

61
Other examples of number line solution regions are shown below. Notice the relationship between the
inequality and the endpoints of the graph. When the inequality contains an equal sign (  or  ) then
the endpoint is a closed dot. When the inequality does not contain an equal sign (  or  ) then the
endpoint is an open dot.

Algebraic inequality Graphical number line

x 1
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
x  −2
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
−3  x  3
-4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4

The solution to the problem where x  6 could also be graphed as a region of the x-y plane, as shown
below. Notice that the solution region is bounded on the left by a solid line. That is because x is
greater than or equal to six. Solid lines are used with greater than or equal to (  ) and with less than
or equal to (  ). If the inequality is strictly greater than (>) or strictly less than (<), the line demarcating
the solution region will be dashed rather than solid. This convention is consistent with whether the
end points on a number line are filled (when an equals sign is involved) or not filled (when an equals
sign is not involved).

Compound inequalities

There are some problems where a compound inequality is used. For example, suppose the length of
a screw has to be within one-tenth of an inch of exactly two inches long. That means that the length
( l ) must satisfy the compound inequality −.1  l − 2  .1 . The screw cannot be more than .1 above
exactly two inches or more than .1 below exactly two inches. We solve the inequality just as before,

62
but instead of performing an operation on two sides of the inequality, we perform the same operation
on three sides of the inequality, as shown below:

−.1  l − 2  .1 original compound inequality

2 + −.1  2 + l − 2  2 + .1 add 2 to all three sides of the compound inequality

1.9  l  2.1 simplify

The same steps and rules of solving inequalities apply to solving compound inequalities.

Linear inequalities in two variables

The solution to a linear inequality with two variables is a region of the x-y plane. To find the solution
region
1. Graph the equation of the line. Use a dashed line if the inequality is < or >. Use a solid line if
the inequality is  or  .

2. If the line does not go through the origin, plug (0,0) into the inequality. If the inequality is true
then the origin lies in the solution region. If the inequality is false then the origin lies outside
the solution region. Shade the solution region as appropriate.

3. If the line goes through the origin, plug a different point, say (1,1) into the inequality. Then
follow the instructions in step 2 above.

For example, consider the inequality y  2 x − 3 . First we graph the line using the y-intercept of (0,-3)
and the slope of 2. We make the line dashed (not solid) because the inequality is strictly greater than.
Next we plug (0,0) into the inequality, which gives us 0  0 − 3 . This inequality is true so the origin lies
in the solution region. Then we shade the region of the x-y plane that contains the origin, as shown
below.

63
 The graphing calculator can be used to find the solution region of an
inequality with two variables. It will even do the shading for you.
Begin by pressing the key Y= to get into the equation editor. Then enter
the inequality that you wish to graph, say y  2 x − 3 . Initially the equation
editor will look like the first screen shot below.

Next move the cursor all the way to the left, where the color (if your
calculator supports color) and the line symbol are shown. Press enter.

You will be brought into a dialog where you can choose a different line
symbol. Continue through the dialog (unfortunately the dialog differs with
the exact model of calculator that you own) until you have changed the
solid line symbol to the greater than symbol as shown in the second
screen shot below.

Next, press the graph key to display the solution region, as shown below
in the third screen shot.

Systems of linear inequalities in two variables

A system of linear inequalities involves finding the solution region to two or more inequalities. To
illustrate we will stick with the earlier inequality of y  2 x − 3 . Systems of linear inequalities often
result from word problems.

Suppose Emma is using red and green apples to bake in a pie. She wants the pie to be sweet so the
number of red apples (y) must be at least three less than twice the number of green apples (x), that
gives us the first inequality y  2 x − 3 . The pan she uses for pies cannot handle more than 6 apples
total, which gives us the inequality x + y  6 . So far we have a system with two inequalities but let's
make this interesting. Suppose that to get the right flavor Emma also must use a mixture of red and
green apples, that means that x  1 and y  1 . Now we will build the solution region step by step.

64
Let's begin with the easy parts first, namely x  1
and y  1 . That gives us the rectangular solution
region bounded on the bottom left corner at (1,1).
Notice that dashed lines are used.

Now we repeat the work on graphing the

inequality y  2 x − 3 , following the exact same
steps discussed earlier, shading above the line
and using a dashed line.

Shading above the line gives us a solution region

that is the upper part of a kind of U-shaped area,
above the diagonal line but inside the box
bounded by (1,1).

Lastly we graph the line x + y  6 , using a solid

line because of the  . Testing (0,0) produces a
result that is true because 0 + 0  6 . That means
we shade below this line because (0,0) is a part
of this line's solution region.

Notice that the final solution region forms an odd

looking quadrilateral (four sided) area, below the
solid diagonal line, above the dashed diagonal
line, but inside the box bounded by (1,1).

65
 2.9 Practice problems on linear inequalities and systems of inequalities
1. What is the solution to the following A. 50
inequality: 3x + 17  5 ? B. 51
C. 200
A. x>-4
D. 201
B. x<-4 E. 202
C. x>4 6. Mary and Jordan are playing a game where
Mary has 10 points and Jordan has 7 points. If
D. x<4
Jordan earns x additional points and x  3 ,
E. x>22/3 what is the fewest additional points Mary must
2. What is the solution to the following earn in order to have at least as many points
inequality: 3x −10 x  −14 ? as Jordan?
A. x-3
A. x>-2
B. x+3
B. x<-2 C. x-7
D. x+7
C. x>2
E. x+10
D. x<2
7. Which of the number lines below shows the
E. x<-4/3 solution region for −2(4 x + 5)  30 ?
3. What is the solution to the following A. B.
inequality: 0  8x + 6  30 ?
A. .75>x>-3 C. D.
B. -.75<x<3
C. .75>x>-4.5
E. None of the above.
D. .75<x<4.5
8. Which of the graphs below shows a shaded
E. 1.3<x<4.5
solution region for the inequality y  −2 ?
4. If 2x −18  3 , then what is the largest A. B.
possible value of 5x + 1 ?
A. 10.5
B. 52.5
C. 53.5
D. 54.0
E. 54.5 D.
C.
5. Morgan is trying to decide where to rent a
car. EZ Rentals rents cars for $50 per day plus
$.35 per mile, whereas Friendly Rentals rents
cars for $40 per day plus $.40 per mile. How
many miles does Morgan have to drive to
make EZ Rentals less expensive than Friendly
Rentals? E. None of the above.

66
9. Grace bought a book of 20 tickets for rides A. 2 x + 5 y  300, y  40
at an amusement park. Her favorite ride,
B. 2 x + 5 y  300, x  40
which she will save for last, requires 3 tickets.
If Grace uses an average of 9 tickets per hour, C. 2 x + 5 y  300, y  40
which of the inequalities below can be used to D. 2 x + 5 y  300, x  40
calculate how many minutes she can spend on
E. 2 x + 5 y  300, y  40
other rides before she has to stop, in order to
still have enough tickets for her favorite ride? 12. Which of the following (small, big) table
combinations would Charlie be unable to use in
A. 20 − 9x  3 his restaurant?
B. 9x + 17  0
A. (0, 60)
3x
C. 20 − 3 B. (15, 54)
20
C. (40, 50)
3x
D. + 17  0 D. (50, 40)
20
3x E. Cannot be determined
E. 20 − 3 _____________________________________
20
10. Michael decides to start up a web site to 13. Which system of equations results in the
sell baseball cards. The average price that he solution region shown below?
will charge per card is $3. The cost of starting
up the web site is $100 and it costs $50 per
month to keep the web site running. After a
period of 8 months go by Michael will shut the
web site down if he has not made a profit. In
order to justify keeping the web site running
how many cards does Michael have to have
sold by the end of the 8 month period?
A. 33
B. 34
A. y  x + 2, y  −2 x + 3
C. 166
B. y  5x + 2, y  −2 x + 3
D. 167
C. y  5x + 2, y  −2 x + 3
E. 168
D. y  5x + 2, y  −2 x + 3
_____________________________________
Use the following information to answer E. y  x + 2, y  −2 x + 3
questions 11 and 12. 14. James is mixing a concentrate of lemon
juice with 500 ounces of water. If the mixture
Charlie's restaurant has small tables for two
must be no more than 1.5% lemon juice, what
people and big tables for five people. Charlie
is the most lemon juice that he can add to the
wants to have at least 40 large tables so that
water?
he can handle larger parties. The license for
the restaurant limits occupancy to 300 people. A. 5 ounces
B. 6 ounces
11. Which of the following systems of C. 7 ounces
equations could be used to find the solution to D. 8 ounces
the numbers of large and small tables that E. 9 ounces
Charlie could put in his restaurant?
67
15. The solution region to the system of 18. Nikki is planning a birthday party for her
inequalities y  −3x − 1 and y  2 x + 4 does sister but her apartment only can
not lie in which of the following quadrants? accommodate 20 guests and she cannot
decide who to invite. Nikki wants to invite twice
as many friends ( f ) as relatives (r ) , but she
has to invite her mother, her father and of
course her cousin Carlie. Which of the
systems of inequalities could Nikki use to
model her situation?
A. f + r  20, f = 2r , r  3
B. f + r  18, f = 2r , r  3
A. I C. f + r  20, 2f = r , r  3
B. II
D. f + r  18, 2f = r , r  3
C. III
D. IV E. None of the above

16. Which of the following graphs shows the

solution region for the system of inequalities: 19. Suppose the amount of oil a certain
y  x + 1 and y  − x − 2 ? furnace burns can be as few as 1.5 gallons per
hour and as many as 2.0 gallons per hour, and
A. B. that oil costs $3.50 per gallon. What would be
the range in the cost of running that furnace
for a 24 hour period?
A. 36  c  48
B. 36  c  48
C. 126  c  168
C. D.
D. 126  c  168
E. 252  c  336

20. What are the coordinates of the vertices of

the solution region for the following set of
equations?
E. None of the above
x+ y 4
x  −1
17. If 2 x + 5 y  100 and x  10 which of the y3
following statement must be true about y ?
A. (-1,5) and (1,3)
A. y  16
B. (0,6) and (1,4)
B. y  16
C. (3,3) and (4,4)
C. y  16 D. (2,4) and (3,5)
D. y  16 E. None of the above

E. y = 16
68
 2.9. Solutions to practice problems on linear inequalities
and systems of inequalities
1. (A) 14. (C)
3x + 17  5, 3x  −12, x  −4 x
 .015, x  7.5 + .015 x, .985 x  7.5, x  7.6
2. (C) 500 + x
3x − 10 x  −14, − 7 x  −14, x  2 15. (A)

3. (B)
0  8x + 6  30, − 6  8 x  24, − .75  x  3
4. (C)
2 x − 18  3, 2 x  21, x  10.5
5x  52.5, 5 x + 1  53.5

5. (D)
50 + .35 x  40 + .40 x, 10  .05 x, 200  x
6. (A)
Let y represent the number of points that Mary must 16. (D)
earn. Then 10 + y  7 + x , or y  x − 3 . Each region must be shaded above the line.
7. (B)
−2(4 x + 5)  30, 4 x + 5  −15, 4 x  −20, x  −5 17. (A)
8. (A) x  10 means that 2x  20 means that 5y<80 or
The height of the region must be above -2. y  16 . Y cannot equal 16 because if x were 10
then 2 x + 5 y = 100 .
9. (C)
3/20 is the average number of tickets per minute
18. (B)
that Grace will use.
Nikki can only invite 18 people because her
apartment can only accommodate 20 people total,
10. (D) counting herself and her sister. She must invite at
revenue=3x, cost = 100 +8(50) = 500
least 3 relatives.
profit = revenue-cost = 3x − 500  0
500 19. (D)
3 x  500, x  , x  166.6
3 gallons per day: 1.5  g  2.0, 36  24 g  48
11. (C) cost per day:
The number of people in the restaurant cannot be (3.50)(36)  c  (3.50)(48), 126  c  168
more than 300, so 2 x + 5 y  300 . The variable y
represents the large five-person table, of which 20. (A)
there must be at least 40.
12. (C)
(40,50) would result in 40(2)+50(5) people (too many)
13. (D)
The line with the positive slope is dotted and
therefore must be greater than. The line with the
negative slope is solid and therefore must be less
than or equal to.

69
2.10 FOILing and factoring
Distributing was covered in earlier in unit 2.6. A special case of distributing involves multiplying two
terms that each have two parts. For example:

( a + b)( c + d ) = a ( c + d ) + b (c + d ) = ac + ad + bc + bd
Some students find this to be a bit intimidating and prefer to make use of an acronym for this process:
The acronym comes from:

F = first (the first terms are a and c)

O = outer (the outer terms are a and d)
I = inner (the inner terms are b and c)
` L = last (the last terms are b and d)

That’s all there is to it! For example

( 2x + 3)( x − y ) = 2x2 − 2xy + 3x − 3 y

First 2 x  x = 2 x2

Outer 2 x ( − y ) = −2 xy

Inner 3  x = 3x
Last 3 ( − y ) = −3 y

Factoring
Factoring is just FOILing in reverse. In fact, one of my students used to call factoring “reverse
FOILing.” The general problem is that we want to factor the expression
ax 2 + bx + c .

There are two cases to consider. The easy case is where a = 1 , so let’s start there.

Factoring when a = 1
We are using what I call the diamond method to factor, though the rest of the world refers to this as
the "ac method". But whatever you call it, all that matters is that it works!

If a = 1 , the expression that we want to factor looks like this

x 2 + bx + c

70
There are four steps to factoring this:

Place the middle coefficient, b , into the top portion of the

diamond.
Place the constant term, c , into the bottom portion of the
diamond.
Find two factors, F1 and F2 that multiply to c but also sum to b .

Now you are finished!

x2 + bx + c = ( x + F1 )( x + F2 )

Consider the following example:

x 2 − 9 x − 10
Place the middle coefficient, -9, into the top portion of the
diamond.
Place the constant term, -10, into the bottom portion of the
diamond.
Find two factors, F1 and F2 , that multiply to -10 but also sum to
-9. The factors of 10 are 1 and 10, and 2 and 5. We cannot use
2 and 5 because there is no way they could add or subtract to -9.
But we can use 1 and 10 because -10+1 is equal to -9.
Now you are finished!
x 2 − 9 x − 10 = ( x − 10)( x + 1)

Always confirm your answer by FOILING:

( x +1)( x −10) = x2 −10x + x −10 = x2 − 9x −10 .

Finding the factors of a number can be tedious, but the calculator can
help. See the calculator tip in Unit 2.6 to learn how to find the factors
of a number using the graphing calculator.

71
Factoring when a  1
Now consider the more difficult case of
ax 2 + bx + c .
The first few steps are very similar:

Place the middle coefficient, b , into the top portion of the

diamond.
Place the product, ac , into the bottom portion of the diamond.
Find two factors, F1 and F2 , that multiply to ac but also sum to
b.
Take the original expression: ax 2 + bx + c
Rewrite the middle term. ax2 + F1x + F2 x + c
Group the pairs of terms together: (ax2 + F1x) + (F2 x + c)
Pull any common factors out for each term and then factor
completely by grouping. This sounds more complicated than it
actually is, so please see the example below.

Consider factoring the following:

4 x2 + 5x − 6
Place the middle coefficient, 5, into the top portion of the
diamond.
Place the product, 4(−6) = −24 , into the bottom portion of the
diamond.
Find two factors, F1 and F2 that multiply to -24 but also sum to
5. The factors of 24 are 1 and 24, and 2 and 12, and 3 and 8,
and 4 and 6. 3 and 8 work well because 8 − 3 = 5 and 8(-3)=-24.

Take the original expression: 4 x 2 + 5 x − 6

Rewrite the middle term. 4 x 2 + 8 x − 3x − 6
Group the pairs of terms together: (4 x 2 + 8 x) + ( −3 x − 6)
Pull any common factors out for each term: 4 x( x + 2) − 3( x + 2) .
We are hoping for a common term and there is one, ( x + 2) .
Factor by grouping: (4 x − 3)( x + 2)

4x2 + 5x − 6 = ( 4x − 3)( x + 2) .

Always confirm your answer by FOILING:

( 4x − 3)( x + 2) = 4x2 − 3x + 8x − 6 = 4x2 + 5x − 6

72
Special cases (perfect squares)
There are three patterns of factoring and FOILing that you must memorize and be able to recognize
on the test. These pertain to perfect squares:

( x + y ) = x 2 + 2 xy + y 2
2

( x − y ) = x 2 − 2 xy + y 2
2

( x + y )( x − y ) = x 2 − y 2

It is not good enough to be able to FOIL or factor these from scratch when you encounter them on the
test. This sample problem illustrates why.

Suppose ( x + y ) = 100, x 2 = 20, and y 2 = 30 . Find the value of xy . If you do not recognize the
2

pattern you will not know what to do. However recognizing the pattern enables the problem to be
solved easily.

( x + y)
2
= x 2 + 2 xy + y 2
100 = 20 + 2 xy + 30
50 = 2 xy
25 = xy

Factoring in Division
Factoring is often used to simplify an expression that is being divided. This is illustrated below:

x2 − 9 ( x + 3)( x − 3)  x + 3  x − 3  x − 3
= =  =
x + 5x + 6 ( x + 3)( x + 2)  x + 3  x + 2  x + 2
2

First the numerator and denominator are factored completely. Then the factor ( x + 3) is isolated in
the numerator and the denominator. Then they cancel out.

73
 2.10 Practice problems on FOILing and factoring
1. The expression ( 2 x − 3)( 5x + 7 ) is 6. The expression 20 x − 36 xy + 16 y is
2 2

equivalent to: equivalent to:

A. 7x + 4 A. (5 x + 8 y)(4 x + 8 y)

B. 10 x 2 + 14 B. (5 x − 8 y)(4 x + 2 y)

C. 10 x 2 − x − 21 C. (2 x + y)(10 x − 16 y)

D. 10 x 2 + 29 − 21 D. 4( x − y)(5 x − 4 y)

E. −3x − 10 E. (20 x + 8 y)( x − 2 y)

2. The expression ( x + 8) is equivalent to:

2
2x2 − 6x − 8
7. The expression is equivalent
x2 −1
A. 2 x + 16
to:
B. x 2 + 8 x + 64 A. −8
C. x + 64
2
2x − 8
B.
D. x + 16 x + 64
2
x −1
E. x 2 + 8 x + 16 2x + 8
C.
x +1
3. The expression x 2 − 6 x + 8 is equivalent to:
A. ( x + 8)( x − 1) 2x − 8
D.
x +1
B. ( x − 8)( x + 1)
E. None of the above
C. ( x − 4)( x − 2)
8. If x − y = 50 and x + y = 20 , what is the
2 2

D. ( x + 4)( x − 2)
value of x − y ?
E. None of the above
A. 0
4. The expression x − 5 xy − 176 y is
2 2
B. 1
equivalent to: C. 2
A. ( x − 16 y)( x + 11y) D. 2.5
B. ( x − 8 y)( x − 22 y) E. Cannot be determined
C. ( x − 8 y)( x + 22 y) 9. Which of the following are equivalent?
D. ( x + 8 y)( x − 22 y) I. ( x − y)2
E. ( x + 8 y)( x + 22 y) II. ( y − x) 2
5. The expression 3x 2 − 19 x + 20 is equivalent
III. −( x − y ) 2
to:
A. (3x − 5)( x − 4) A. I and II only
B. I and III only
B. (3x − 5)( x + 40)
C. II and III only
C. (3x − 4)( x − 5)
D. all are equivalent
D. (3x − 4)( x + 5) E. none are equivalent
E. None of the above

74
10. If ( x + y ) = 50 and x + y = 30 , what is
2 2 2 15. The length of a rectangle is four units
the value of xy ? longer than its width. If the area of the
A. 10 rectangle is 32 square units, what is the length
of the rectangle?
B. 20
A. 2
C. 30 B. 4
D. 40 C. 6
E. 50 D. 8
x2 − 4 E. 10
11. The expression is equivalent to: 16. If the sides of a triangle are x 2 , ( x + 1) 2 ,
4x
A. 1 and ( x − 1) 2 , and its perimeter is 77 units long,
B. x−4 what is the length of the longest side?
A. 4
C. x −1 B. 5
x 1 C. 16
D. − D. 25
4 x
E. 36
E. 0
17. Drew needs exactly 600 feet of fencing to
x2 + x − 6 x − 2 enclose his rectangular yard. If the area of his
12. Simplify 
2 x2 + 6x x yard is 12,500 square feet, what is the length
A. 1/ 2 (in feet) of his yard?
B. 1 A. 75
C. 2 B. 100
C. 200
( x − 2) 2
D. D. 225
2x2 E. 250
x+3 18. Brooke has a large protective case on her
E.
x−3 cell phone as shown below. If her case is
13. If the difference between the area of a three inches all around her cell phone, and the
circle and the circumference of that same circle dimensions of the case are x inches by x + 3
is 35 , how long is the radius of the circle? inches, what is the area of the case?
A. 1
B. 2
C. 5
D. 7
E. 35

14. When the difference of two less than a

number is divided by the difference of four less
than the square of the same number, the result
is: A. 12x + 54
A. x+2 B. x 2 + 3x
B. 1/ ( x + 2)
C. x 2 + 9 x + 18
C. x−2
D. x2 + 6 x + 9
D. 1/ ( x − 2)
E. 3x 2 + 9 x
E. None of the above
75
 2.10 Solutions to practice problems on FOILING and factoring
1 (C) 10. (A)
( x + y)2 = x 2 + 2 xy + y 2 = 50
( 2 x − 3)( 5x + 7 ) = 10 x2 + 14 x − 15x − 21 2 xy + 30 = 50, 2 xy = 20, xy = 10
= 10x 2 − x − 21
11. (D)
2. (D)
x2 − 4 x2 4 x 1
( x + 8)
2
= ( x + 8)( x + 8) = x + 8 x + 8 x + 64
2 = − = −
4x 4x 4x 4 x
= x 2 + 16 x + 64
12. (A)
3. (C) x 2 + x − 6 x − 2 ( x + 3)( x − 2)  x  1
 =  =
x 2 − 6 x + 8 = x 2 − 4 x − 2 x + 8 = ( x 2 − 4 x) − (2 x − 8) = 2 x2 + 6 x x 2 x( x + 3)  x − 2  2
x( x − 4) − 2( x − 4) = ( x − 2)( x − 4)
4. (A) 13. (D)
x − 5 xy − 176 y = x − 16 xy + 11xy − 176 y
2 2 2 2
 r 2 − 2 r = 35
= ( x 2 − 16 xy ) + (11xy − 176 y 2 ) r 2 − 2r − 35 = 0
= x( x − 16 y ) + 11 y ( x − 16 y ) = ( x + 11 y )( x − 16 y ) ( r − 7)(r + 5) = 0, r = 7

5. (C) 14. (B)

3x 2 − 19 x + 20 = 3 x 2 − 15 x − 4 x + 20 x−2 x−2 1
= =
= (3 x 2 − 15 x) − (4 x − 20)
x − 4 ( x − 2)( x + 2) x + 2
2

15. (D)
= 3 x( x − 5) − 4( x − 5) = (3 x − 4)( x − 5)
x( x + 4) = 32, x 2 + 4 x − 32 = 0, ( x + 8)( x − 4) = 0
6. (D) x = 4, x + 4 = 8
20 x 2 − 36 xy + 16 y 2 = 4(5 x 2 − 9 xy + 4 y 2 )
= 4(5 x 2 − 5 xy − 4 xy + 4 y 2 ) = 4[(5 x 2 − 5 xy ) − (4 xy − 4 y 2 )] 16. (E)
= 4[5 x( x − y ) − 4 y ( x − y )] = 4(5 x − 4 y )( x − y ) x 2 + ( x + 1) 2 + ( x − 1) 2 =
x 2 + ( x 2 + 2 x + 1) + ( x 2 − 2 x + 1) = 3 x 2 + 2
7. (B)
3x 2 + 2 = 77, 3x 2 = 75, x 2 = 25, x = 5
2x − 6x − 8
2 2 ( x 2 − 3x − 4 )
2 ( x + 1)( x − 4 )
= = (5 + 1) 2 = 36
x2 −1 ( x + 1)( x − 1) ( x + 1)( x − 1)
17. (E)
2( x − 4) 2 x − 8
= = If 600 is the perimeter of the yard, then
x −1 x −1 600 = 2l + 2w, 300 = l + w
8. (D) If the area of the yard is 12,500 then
x 2 − y 2 = ( x + y )( x − y ) lw = 12,500 .
l (300 − l ) = 12, 500 l 2 − 300l + 12, 500 = 0
50 = 20 ( x − y )
(l − 250)(l − 50) = 0, l = 250 or l = 50
2.5 = x − y
18. (A)
9. (A)
total area = ( x + 6)( x + 3 + 6) = x2 +15x + 54
( x − y ) = ( x − y )( x − y ) = x − 2 xy + y
2 2 2 cell phone area = x( x + 3) = x2 + 3x
( y − x) 2 = ( y − x)( y − x) = y 2 − 2 xy + x 2 difference = ( x2 +15x + 54) − ( x2 + 3x) = 12 x + 54
−( x − y ) 2 = −( x − y )( x − y ) = −( x 2 − 2 xy + y 2 )

76
2.11 Complex numbers
The phrase "complex numbers" is often misused. It turns out that all numbers are complex numbers
because all numbers can be written in the form a + bi , where i = −1 (it is often better to remember
that i 2 = −1 ). The constant i is called the imaginary number because all other imaginary numbers can
be written in terms of i . When you think of it, i cannot be a real number because you cannot take the
square root of a negative number. Another way of thinking of it is that the square of any real number
is positive, whereas the square of i is negative.
The a is the real portion of the complex number and the bi is the imaginary portion of the complex
number ( a and b are real constants -- also note that they do not have to be integers). If b = 0 , then
the complex number is called real, and if b  0 , then the complex number is called imaginary. The
diagram below illustrates the relationships among complex, real, and imaginary numbers.

Imaginary Numbers
Suppose we want to solve the equation
x2 + 9 = 0 .
We would perform two steps and then be stuck:
x 2 = -9
x =  -9
We are stuck because a negative number cannot have a real square root. So to get around this,
mathematicians invented i , the imaginary number. By definition, i = -1 and i 2 = -1 . So now we can
finish the problem by writing
x =  -9 =  9  -1 = 3i
The expression 3i is an imaginary number because b is three, not zero.

77
Addition, subtraction and multiplication of imaginary numbers
Now that you understand what imaginary numbers are and one of the reasons why they were
invented, you need to be able to perform three operations: addition, subtraction, and multiplication.

Suppose we have two imaginary numbers, a + bi and c + di . Then

( a + bi ) + ( c + di ) = ( a + c ) + ( b + d ) i
( a + bi ) − ( c + di ) = ( a − c ) + ( b − d ) i
For example
( 2 + i ) + ( 3 − 2i ) = 2 + 3 + i − 2i = 5 − i
( 2 + i ) − ( 3 − 2i ) = 2 − 3 + i + 2i = -1 + 3i
As you can see above, addition and subtraction are what you would expect. Treat i as though it were
a variable. The same applies to multiplication—the imaginary numbers are FOILed:

( a + bi )( c + di ) = ac + adi + bci + bdi 2

= ac + adi + bci − bd = ( ac − bd ) + ( ad + bc ) i
For example
( 2 + i )(3 − 2i ) = 2  3 − 4i + 3i − 2i 2 = 6 − i − 2 ( −1) = 8 − i

Division of imaginary numbers (the use of conjugates)

You must know how to simplify expressions with imaginary numbers in the denominator. This is done
using conjugates. The conjugate of a + bi is a − bi . In other words, to find the conjugate of an
imaginary number just change the sign of the imaginary portion of the number.

For example, the conjugate of 3 − 5i is 3 + 5i . We use this fact to simplify fractions, as in the following

2  2  3 + 5i  2 ( 3 + 5i ) 2 ( 3 + 5i ) 2 ( 3 + 5i ) 3 + 5i
=  = = = =
3 − 5i  3 − 5i  3 + 5i  9 − 15i + 15i − 25i 2
9 + 25 34 17

Powers of i
A favorite type of problem involves powers of i . These follow a pattern that is easy to see, once you
get the hang of it.
i=i
i 2 = -1
i 3 = i  i 2 = -i
i 4 = ( i 2 ) = ( −1) = 1
2 2

Powers of i will always equal 1 or -1 when the power is even, and i or -i when the power is odd.
Some examples

78
 i18 = ( i 2 ) = ( −1) = -1
9 9

i 52 = ( i 2 ) = ( −1) = 1
26 26

i17 = i16  i = ( i 2 )  i = ( −1)  i = i

8 8

i 51 = i 50  i = ( i 2 )  i = ( −1)  i = -i
25 25

You will be happy to know that all of the calculations shown above that
involve imaginary numbers can be done on the graphing calculator, and
some of these are shown below.

To find i the imaginary number on the calculator, just press 2nd and then
press the decimal point key on the bottom row of the calculator.

Addition
( 2 + i ) + (3 − 2i ) = 5 − i
Subtraction
( 2 + i ) − (3 − 2i ) = -1 + 3i
Multiplication
( 2 + i )(3 − 2i ) = 8 − i
Division
2 3 + 5i
=
3 − 5i 17
Powers of i
i18 = ( i 2 ) = ( −1) = -1
9 9

i 52 = ( i 2 ) = ( −1)
26 26
=1

i17 = i16  i = ( i 2 )  i = ( −1)  i = i

8 8

i 51 = i 50  i = ( i 2 )  i = ( −1)  i = -i
25 25

You probably noticed that the calculator always produces answers using
decimals rather than fractions. If needed, you can convert a decimal
value to a fraction by using math-frac.

Also the calculator estimates the value of zero which sometimes causes
zero to appear in scientific notation as a number with a very small
power. For example 2 x 10 −13 is as close to zero as you can get.

79
 2.11 Practice problems on complex numbers
1. The sum (3 − 2i ) + (−1 + 3i) simplifies to: 8 − 3i
7. The expression simplifies to:
A. 3−i 2 − 5i
B. 3+i A. −(31 + 34i) / 21
C. 2−i B. (1 − 34i) / 29
D. 2+i C. (1 + 34i) / 29
E. 4 − 5i D. (31 + 34i) / 29
2. The difference (3 − 2i ) − (−1 + 3i) is: E. 3.4
8. The value of i8 is:
A. 2−i
A. −1
B. 2+i
B. 1
C. 4 − 5i
C. −i
D. 4+i D. i
E. 4−i E. 0
3. The sum of 2 − 3i and its conjugate is: 9..The value of i886 is:
A. 4 A. −1
B. 4 − 6i B. 1
C. 4 + 6i C. −i
D. −6i D. i
E. 13 E. 0
4. The product of 2 − 3i and its conjugate is: 10. If n is an odd integer, what is the value of
A. 13 i 2n+2 ?
B. 14 A. −1
C. 4 + 6i B. 1
D. 4 + 9i C. −i
E. 4 − 6i D. i
E. 0
5. The expression ( 2 − 5i ) simplifies to:
2
11. The expression 4i 3 + 6i 2 + 7i − 8 simplifies
A. -21 to
B. 29 A. 3i − 2
C. −1 − 20i B. 3i −14
D. −21 − 20i C. 11i − 2
E. 4 −10i D. 11i −14
3 E. 4i 3 + 6i 2 + 7i − 8
6. The expression simplifies to:
3 + 2i 12. If (8i + 3)(mi − n) = a + bi then a + b must
A. (9 − 2i) /13 be equal to:
B. (9 − 6i) /13 A. −5m − 5n
C. (9 − 2i) / 6
B. −5m −11n
C. 11m − 5n
D. (3 − 2i) / 2
D. 11m −11n
E. 2.5
E. (8 + m)i + (3 − n)

80
 2.11 Solutions to practice problems on complex numbers
1. (D) 7. (D)
(3 − 2i) + (−1 + 3i) = 3 − 1 − 2i + 3i = 2 + i
8 − 3i  8 − 3i  2 + 5i  16 − 6i + 40i − 15i 2
=  =
2 − 5i  2 − 5i  2 + 5i  4 − 25i 2
31 + 34i
=
29
2. (C)
(3 − 2i) − (−1 + 3i) = 3 + 1 − 2i − 3i = 4 − 5i

8. (B)

i8 = ( i 2 ) = ( −1) = 1
4 4

3. (A)

( 2 − 3i ) + ( 2 + 3i ) = 2 + 2 − 3i + 3i = 4
9. (A)

i886 = ( i 2 ) = ( −1)
443 443
= −1
4. (A)

( 2 − 3i )( 2 + 3i ) = 4 + 6i − 6i − 9i 2
= 4 − 9( −1) = 13
10. (B)

i 2 n + 2 = (i 2 ) n +1
If n is odd then (n+1) is even.
5. (D)
(i )
2 n +1
= ( −1)
even power
=1
( 2 − 5i ) = ( 2 − 5i )( 2 − 5i )
2

11. (B)
= 4 − 10i − 10i + 25i 2 = -21 − 20i
4i 3 + 6i 2 + 7i − 8 = −4i − 6 + 7i − 8 = 3i − 14

6. (B)
12. (B)
3  3  3 − 2i  9 − 6i 9 − 6i
=  = =
3 + 2i  3 + 2i  3 − 2i  9 − 4i 2 13 (8i + 3)(mi − n) = a + bi
8mi 2 − 8ni + 3mi − 3n = a + bi
(−8m − 3n) + (−8n + 3m)i = a + bi
a = −8m − 3n
b = 3m − 8n
a + b = −5m − 11n
81
2.12 Quadratic equations and their graphs
Quadratic equations contain a squared term, such as x 2 , but no higher order terms (terms raised to a
power greater than two). Another name for a quadratic equation is a second degree polynomial. The
graph of a quadratic equation is called a parabola. The height of the graph, usually represented by
the variable y, is set equal to an expression involving a squared term. You need to be able to
recognize quadratic equations, find the y-intercept of the parabola if there is one, find the vertex of the
parabola, find the x-intercepts of the parabola (also called the zeros or roots of the equation) if there
are any, understand the symmetry of the parabola, and graph the parabola by hand.

Equations in standard form

A quadratic equation in standard form is y = ax + bx + c .
2

The graph of a quadratic equation is a parabola. The parabola opens up if a  0 and the parabola
opens down if a  0 . The parabola is symmetric about its axis of symmetry, which is an invisible line
running vertically through the vertex. The equation for the axis of symmetry is x = −b / 2a . This is
illustrated in the figures below.

a>0 a<0

x=-b/2a x=-b/2a

Finding the y-intercept: set x equal to zero and then solve for y. This will give you the y-intercept if
there is one.

Finding the vertex: First find the axis of symmetry using the formula –b/2a as shown above. This
gives you the x-coordinate of the vertex. Next find the y-coordinate of the vertex by plugging the x-
coordinate into the equation of the parabola.

Finding the x-intercepts (also called zeros and roots)

There are several methods to find the roots. One method is to factor the quadratic expression and
then set each factor to zero (see unit 3.5 and/or see the intercept form below). Another method is to
use the quadratic formula, which you are expected to memorize:

-b  b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

82
 -b
You are also expected to memorize that the sum of the two roots is and that the product of the
a
c
roots is .
a

You can see what kind of roots exist by graphing the equation. If the parabola never crosses the x-
axis then the equation has two imaginary roots. If the parabola crosses the x-axis at two points, then
the equation has two real roots. If the vertex of the parabola lies on the x-axis (is tangent to the x-
axis) then the equation has one real root (also called a double root).

The discriminant

Instead of graphing, you can get information about the roots or x-intercepts of the parabola by finding
the sign of the discriminant, b 2 − 4ac . When the discriminant is positive, there are two real roots (the
parabola intersects the x-axis at two points). When the discriminant is negative, there are two
imaginary roots (the parabola never crosses the x-axis). When the discriminant is zero there is one
real double root (the parabola touches the x-axis at one point). You are expected to be able to
determine the number and type of roots by using the discriminant, rather than by solving the quadratic
equation or graphing the parabola to see its roots.

Example of a quadratic equation in standard form

Suppose you need to analyze and graph the equation y = 2 x 2 − 3x − 2 by hand (the calculator
approach is shown in the tip below). First find the y-intercept by setting x to zero, giving you the point
(0,-2) for the y-intercept. Next find the vertex by finding the axis of symmetry. x = −b / 2a = 3/ 4 .
Plug 3/4 into the x-value for the quadratic equation in order to find the y-value of the vertex:
y = 2(3 / 4) 2 − 3(3 / 4) − 2 = (18 /16) − (9 / 4) − 2 = (9 / 8) − (18 / 8) − (16 / 8) = −25 / 8 . We now have the
coordinates of the vertex as (.75, -3.125). To find the x-intercepts (also called roots or zeros of the
equation), use the quadratic formula:

−b  b 2 − 4ac 3  9 − 4(2)(−2) 3  25
x= = =
2a 4 4
Because the discriminant is positive we know there will be two real roots.
35 8 −2
x= = and (2, 0) and (−.5, 0)
4 4 4

83
 Using the example above,
enter the quadratic equation
into the Y= equation editor.
Then press graph. If you
cannot see the graph, try
adjusting the window by
pressing zoom-ZStandard. If
that does not help, press
window and adjust the size
of the graphing window.

To find the y-intercept use

2nd- calc-value. Type 0 for
your x-value and press
enter. Notice the x-y
coordinates are shown on
the bottom of the screen and
the cursor is placed on the y-
intercept.

To find the vertex, use 2nd-

calc-minimum (or 2nd- calc-
maximum if the parabola
opens down). The dialog will
ask you to position the
cursor to the left of the
vertex, to the right of the
vertex, and then
approximately on the vertex.
Coordinates of the vertex are
shown on the bottom of the
screen and the cursor is
positioned on the vertex.
To find the x-intercepts, use
2nd- calc-zero. For each
intercept, the dialog will ask
for a point to the left of the
intercept, to the right of the
intercept, and then
approximately on the
intercept. Coordinates of the
zero are shown on the
bottom of the screen and the
cursor is positioned on the
zero.

Equations in vertex form

If the goal is to graph the parabola by hand, it is easier to do so when the equation is written in vertex
form rather than standard form. The vertex form of the equation is
84
 y = a ( x − h) + k
2

The vertex is at ( h,k ) and the axis of symmetry is the equation x=h . This is illustrated in the figures
below.
a>0 a<0
(h,k)

(h,k)
x=h x=h

Finding the y-intercept: set x equal to zero and then solve for y. This will give you the y-intercept if
there is one.

Finding the vertex: Simply read the values of h and k from the equation of the parabola. The
coordinates of the vertex are (h, k).

Finding the x-intercepts (also called zeros and roots): If k  0 then set y to zero and solve for x :

0 = ( x − h)2 + k , − k = ( x − h ) , x = h  −k
2

Converting from standard form to vertex form

You should be prepared to see quadratic equations in either standard form or vertex form. Remember
how to convert an equation from standard form to vertex form using the technique called “completing
the square?” This technique is illustrated below.

Suppose we wanted to re-write the equation y = x 2 − 12 x + 46 into vertex form:

y = x 2 − 12 x + 46 the original equation

y − 46 = x 2 − 12 x isolate the x-terms
2 2
 b   −12 
 = ( −6 ) = 36
2
y − 46 + 36 = x 2 − 12 x + 36 add the constant   = 
2  2 
y = ( x − 6 ) + 10
2
simplify to get the vertex form of the equation

( 6, 10) coordinates of the vertex

That was an easy example because a = 1 . Now we will take the equation where a = 2 in standard
form 2 x − 3x − 2 = y and complete the square to place it in vertex form.
2

2 x 2 − 3x − 2 = y the original equation

2 x − 3x = y + 2
2
isolate the x-terms
3 y
x2 − x = + 1 divide both sides of the equation by 2
2 2
85
 2 2
3 9 y 25  b   −3  9
x − x+ = +
2
add the constant   =   = to both sides
2 16 2 16 2  4  16
2
 3 y 25
x−  = + factor the left side
 4 2 16
2
 3  25
2 x −  − =y simplify to get the vertex form of the equation
 4 8
 3 −25 
 ,  coordinates of the vertex
4 8 

Continuing this problem by hand, we plug zero in for x to find the y-coordinate of the y-intercept:
2
 3  25 18 25 18 50 −32
y = 2  − = − = − = = −2 . The coordinates of the vertex can be found by
4 8 16 8 16 16 16
simply reading the vertex form of the equation as shown above. To find the x-intercepts, set y to zero
and solve

2 2
 3  25  3 25 3 5 3 5 −1
2 x −  − = 0,  x −  = , x − =  , x =  , x = 2 and x =
 4 8  4  16 4 4 4 4 2

Regardless of which form the

quadratic equation is in, the
calculator steps are the
same. Start by plugging the
equation into the Y=
equation editor and then
follow the steps given earlier
for the standard form. You
will get exactly the same
graph and same answers.

Equations in intercept form

The intercept form of the quadratic equation is
y = a ( x − z1 )( x − z2 )

What is so convenient about the intercept form is that we can see that the parabola crosses the x-axis
at ( z1 , 0) and ( z2 , 0) . Another convenient feature of the vertex form is that we can use symmetry to
get the x-coordinate of the vertex.

For example, let's take the quadratic equation we have been using, y = 2 x 2 − 3x − 2 . We can convert
this to intercept form by factoring:
86
 y = 2 x 2 − 3x − 2, y = 2 x 2 − 4 x + x − 2, y = (2 x 2 − 4 x) + ( x − 2)
y = 2 x( x − 2) + 1( x − 2), y = (2 x + 1)( x − 2)
y = (2 x + 1)( x − 2) is the intercept form of the equation.

Finding the y-intercept: set x equal to zero and then solve for y. This gives us y = (1)(−2) = −2 . So
the y-intercept is (0,-2).
Finding the x-intercepts (also called zeros and roots): Setting y to zero gives two equations to be
 −1 
solved: 2x + 1 = 0 and x − 2 = 0 . So the parabola crosses the x-axis at  ,0  and (2, 0) .
 2 
Finding the vertex: A very convenient feature of the intercept form is that we can find the x-coordinate
of the vertex by using symmetry. The x-coordinate must lay on the midpoint between the two zeros
on the x-axis. In this example the axis of symmetry must lie halfway between -0.5 and 2.0, which is
0.75. This symmetry is illustrated below. The y-coordinate of the vertex is found by plugging 0.75 in
for x.

Any time you have the coordinates of two points on a parabola and those two points are at the same
height (they have the same y-coordinate) you can find the x-coordinate of the axis of symmetry by
taking the midpoint of the two x-coordinates.
Equating quadratic equations (and higher order polynomials)
A certain kind of problem shows up on standardized tests with some frequency, so it is worth giving it
your attention. If you have an equation that looks like this
ax 2 + bx + c = dx 2 + ex + f
then the corresponding coefficients are equal to each other, in this case a = d , b = e, and c = f . For
example, if
ax 2 + 5 x + 4 = x 2 + (k + 1) x + k
then a = 1, and k = 4.
This same principle can be extended to any pair of polynomials provided they have the same degree
(the degree of a polynomial is the size of the highest power). For example, if
ax 4 + 3x 2 + bx + c = 8x 4 + dx 2 + 4 x + d + 5
then a = 8, 3 = d , b = 4, and c = d + 5 = 8 .

87
 2.12 Practice problems on quadratic equations and their graphs
1. Which of these parabolas opens up? 5. Find the axis of symmetry
I. y = 2 x − 5x − 3
2
A. x = −0.5
II. y = −2 x − 5 x − 5
2
B. x = −0.25
III. y = 2 x + 5 x + 3
2 C. x = 0.25
A. I only D. x = 0.5
B. II only E. x =1
C. III only 6. Find the roots (zeros)
D. I and III only A. x = −1,3
E. II and III only
B. x = 1,3
2. The vertex of the parabola y = 3 x 2 − 6 x + 8
C. x = 1.5, − 2
is located at
D. x = −1.5, 2
A. (-2, 32)
E. x = −1.5, − 2
B. (-1, 17)
_____________________________________
C. (0, 8)
D. (1, 5)
E. (2, 6) 7. In the parabola below, the coordinates (a, b)
are
3. If a parabola crosses the x-axis at (-5,0) and
(3,0) then its axis of symmetry must be
(-2, 15)
A. x = −3
B. x = −1 (a,b) (5,10)

C. x =1
D. x=3
A. (-5, 10)
E. x=4
B. (-5, 15)
4. The vertex of the parabola y + 16 = ( x − 1)
2
C. (-9, 10)
is located at D. (-9, 15)
A. (-1, -16) E. (-1, 10)
B. (-1, 16)
8. If the roots of a parabola are -3 and 5, then
C. (1, -16) the equation of the parabola could be
D. (1, 16)
A. y = x 2 − 2 x − 15
E. (16,1)
B. y = x 2 + 2 x − 15

_____________________________________ C. y = x 2 + 8 x + 15
Use the following information to answer
D. y = x 2 − 8 x + 15
questions 5 and 6.
E. None of the above
A parabola has the equation y = 2 x + x − 6 .
2

88
9. If the parabola 2 x 2 + bx + 4 passes through 12. If 4 x 2 + bx + c = ( ax + 1) and a  0 , then
2

the point (2,18) then the value of b must be

a + b + c is equal to
A. 3 A. 4
B. 4
B. 5
C. 5
C. 6
D. 6
E. 7 D. 7
_____________________________________ E. 8
Use the following information to answer 13. If ax 2 + bx − 9 = ( x − k )(2 x + k ) and b  0
questions 10 and 11.
then k is equal to

A. −3
B. −1
C. 1
D. 3
E. 4

10. If ABCD is a rectangle, DC is 4 units long, 14. If 2 x2 + bx + 36 = ax2 + ( k + a )( k + x ) + 1

and the equation of the parabola is and k  0 then b is equal to
y = ( x − 3) 2 + 1, then how long is BC? A. −7
B. −5
A. 2
C. 5
B. 3
D. 7
C. 4
E. 9
D. 5
15. If the height of a ball at time (t) is given by
E. 6
h(t ) = −5t 2 + 20t + 8 , at what point in time will
11. If the coordinates of point A are (1,5) and
the ball hit the ground?
the equation of the parabola is y = ( x − 3) 2 + 1 ,
A. 2
what is the area of rectangle ABCD?
−2 + 2 35
A. 6 B.
−5
B. 12 −10 − 2 35
C.
C. 16 −5
D. 18 −10 + 2 15
D.
−5
E. 24
E. -2
____________________________________

89
16. Which of the points below lies on the axis 21. If a parabola intersects the x-axis at the
of symmetry for the parabola with the equation points (-3,0) and (3,0), then the equation of the
of y = 3 x 2 + 12 x − 15 ? parabola could be

A. (-4,3)
I. y = x2 − 9
B. (-2,2) II. y = − x2 + 9
III. y = ( x + 3)
2
C. (2,5)
D. (3,4) A. I only
E. (4,3) B. II only
17. For which of the equations below is the C. III only
value of the discriminant equal to -23? D. I and II only
A. y = x2 − x − 3 E. II and III only
B. y = −3x − 2 x + 7
2
22. Suppose the cost of manufacturing a bottle
C. y = x − 3 x + 2.25 1
2 of shampoo is given by c( x) = 2 x 2 − 30 x + 130 ,
D. y = 3x 2 − 5 x + 4 where x is the number of bottles manufactured
(in thousands). How many units should be
E. y = 3x 2 + 5 x − 4 manufactured in order to minimize the cost per
18. A parabola never crosses the x-axis if its bottle?
discriminant is A. 7,500
A. positive B. 15,000
B. negative C. 17,500
C. zero D. 30,000
D. zero or negative E. 35,000
E. imaginary
23. If 3x + ax + bx − (a + b +5 c − 5k3 )
5 3 2
19. One of the solutions to the equation
= cx − 2 x + kx 2 + 11
x 2 − 3x + 2.25 = 0 is then k must be equal to
A. 0.5 A. 2.0
B. 1.0 B. 2.5
C. 1.5 C. 3.0
D. 2.5 D. 3.5
E. 3.0 E. 4.0
20. When the equation y = x 2 − 6 x − 3 is 24. What values of k would make it possible
written in vertex form, it becomes for the difference between the area of a circle
and the circumference of that same circle to be
y = ( x + 3) − 12
2
A. equal to k ?
B. y = ( x + 3) + 12
2
A. k 0
B. k 0
y = ( x − 3) − 12
2
C. C. k 
D. y = ( x − 3) + 12
2
D. k 
E. k  −
E. None of the above
90
 2.12 Solutions to practice problems on quadratic equations and their graphs

1 (D) A parabola opens up if the coefficient of the But k must be -3 because b>0 and b = -k.
2
x term is positive. That coefficient is positive in 14. (B)
a = 2 so ax + ( k + a )( k + x ) + 1 = 2 x + ( k + 2)( k + x) + 1
2 2
the first and third equations.
= 2 x + ( k + 2) x + ( k + 2 k + 1) = 2 x + ( k + 2) x + ( k + 1)
2 2 2 2
2. (D) Start by finding the axis of symmetry:
(−b) / (2a) = 6 / 6 = 1 . Then substitute x=1 into (k + 1) 2 = 36, but k  0 so k + 1 = −6, and k = −7.
the equation of the parabola:
If k = −7 and b = k + 2 , then b = −7 + 2 = −5 .
f (1) = 3 12 − 6 1 + 8 = 3 − 6 + 8 = 5 15. (C)
3. (B) The x-intercepts are equidistant from the
−20  ( −20) − 4( −5)(8) −20  400 + 160
2

axis of symmetry. The value of -1 is 4 units from -5 x= =

and 4 units from +3. −10 −10
4. (C) Rewrite the equation: −20  560 −20  4 35 −10  2 35
= = =
y + 16 = ( x − 1)
2
−10 −10 −5
16. (B) In the equation y = 3 x + 12 x − 15 , a=3
2
y = ( x − 1) 2 − 16 = ( x − h) 2 + k
The vertex is at (h, k) = (1, -16). and b=12. So the axis of symmetry is –b/2a=-12/6
5. (B) The axis of symmetry is = -2. Any point with an x-coordinate of -2 could lie
x = −b / 2a = −1/ 2(2) = −.25 . on the axis of symmetry.
6. (C) Factor y = 2x2 + x − 6 = ( 2x − 3)( x + 2) . 17. (D) Calculate the discriminant for each
equation.
To find the roots, set each factor to zero. A. D=1-4(-3)=13
2 x − 3 = 0, x = 1.5 and x + 2 = 0, x = −2 B. D=4-4(-21)=88
Note that the roots are equidistant from the axis of C. D=9-4(2.25)=0
symmetry, x=-0.25. D. D=25-4(12)=-23
E. D=25-4(-12)=73
7. (C) The axis of symmetry is x=-2. If the point
18. (B) If the discriminant is negative, there are no
(5, 10) is 7 units from the axis of symmetry then the
real roots and the parabola never crosses the x-
point (a, 10) must also be 7 units from the axis of
axis.
symmetry, or (-9, 10).
19. (C) Use the quadratic formula. For
8. (A)
( x + 3)( x − 5) = 0, x 2 + 3x − 5 x − 15 = 0 x 2 − 3x + 2.25 = 0
9. (A) 3  9 − 4 ( 2.25 ) 3  9-9 3
x= = =
18 = 2(2 ) + b(2) + 4, 6 = 2b, 3 = b
2
2 2 2
10. (C) The coordinates of the vertex are (3,1). 20. (C) Complete the square.
Because DC=4, the coordinates of point C are (5,1). y = x 2 − 6 x − 3, y + 3 = x 2 − 6 x,
y + 3 + 9 = x 2 − 6 x + 9, y + 12 = ( x − 3)
2
Therefore the y-coordinate of point B is
y = (5 − 3) 2 + 1 = 5 , and BC is 5-1=4. 21. (D) The first two equations cross the x-axis at
11. (C) The coordinates of the vertex are (3,1). the points indicated, whereas the third equation
If the coordinates of point A are (1,5) then AD=4. crosses the x-axis at only one point (-3,0)
We are given that DC=4. Therefore the area of the 22. (A) The minimum cost will occur at the vertex,
rectangle is 16. which is −b / 2a = 30 / 4 = 7.5
12. (D) 23. (C)
4 x2 + bx + c = ( ax + 1) = a 2 x 2 + 2ax + 1
2 a = −2, b = k , c = 3, − (a + b + c − 5k ) = 11
−(−2 + k + 3 − 5k ) = 11, 4k −1 = 11, k = 3
a = 4 or a = 2, b = 2  2 = 4, and c = 1. So a + b + c = 7
2

24. (E)
13. (A)
 r 2 − 2 r = k ,  r 2 − 2 r − k = 0
ax 2 + bx − 9 = ( x − k )(2 x + k ) = 2 x 2 − kx − k 2
discriminant: (−2 ) 2 − 4 (−k )  0
k 2 = 9, k = 3
4 2 + 4 k  0, 4 ( + k )  0,  + k  0, k  −
91
2.13 Absolute value
Absolute value problems can be tricky, especially inequalities. But there are techniques that will help
you solve them easily. First, we begin with a definition of absolute value:

When x  0, x = x. When x  0, x = − x.
Note that the absolute value of a number is always positive. If x is positive in the first place, leave the
sign alone. If x is negative, change the sign to positive.

Absolute value has a physical meaning as well as a mathematical one. The absolute value of the
difference of two numbers is the distance between them. For example 5 − −3 is the distance between

5 and -3, which is 8. We could also find this distance using −3 − 5 , which is also 8. It does not
matter which endpoint we use as the starting number, as long as we remember to subtract.

In general, the expression x − c can be used to represent the distance between x and c .

Absolute value equalities always produce two points

The simplest absolute value problems to solve are equalities, where the absolute value of some
expression is set equal to a non-negative constant. (If the constant is negative, there are no
solutions.) The figure below illustrates how two equations are created from the absolute value and
where the solutions fall on a number line.

When the absolute value of an expression (represented by the happy face above) is set equal to a
non-negative constant, the expression is either equal to the constant or equal to the negative of the
constant. Note that the solution is always two points.

Suppose we wanted to know the points on a number line that are five units away from -3. To solve
this we would set up the equation x − −3 = 5 . In words this would be asking what values of x are
exactly five units away from -3. The happy face in this example is the expression x--3 which simplifies
to x+3. To solve this absolute value equality we set up two equations, x+3=5 or x+3=-5. Solving
these gives the solutions x=2 or x=-8. In other words the values of 2 and -8 are exactly five units
away from 3.

Absolute value less than (or less than or equal to) inequalities always produce barbells
Absolute values can also appear in inequalities where the absolute value of some expression is set to
be less than (or less than or equal to) a non-negative constant. (If the constant is negative there are
no solutions.) The figure below shows how a compound inequality is created to find the solutions to
the absolute value inequality.
When the absolute value of an expression (represented by the happy face above) is less than a
constant, the expression is placed into the middle of a compound inequality. Note that the solution is

92
always a closed interval. If the inequality is strictly less than, the endpoints are open. If the inequality
is less than or equal to, the endpoints are closed (filled).

Suppose we wanted to manufacture a ball bearing, which is a steel sphere, and the ball bearing had
to have a radius of 5 cm. If the radius of the ball bearing was beyond 0.1 cm, then the ball bearing
would have to be discarded and a new one manufactured. To find the acceptable sizes of the ball
bearing we could write the inequality x − 5  0.1 . That would be solved by creating the compound
inequality −0.1  x − 5  0.1 . Adding 5 to each part of the inequality gives us 4.9  x  5.1 . In other
words the radius of the ball bearing must be at least 4.9 cm but not more than 5.1 cm in order to
satisfy the manufacturer's specification.

Absolute value greater than (or greater than or equal to) inequalities always produce
two intervals

Absolute values can also appear in inequalities where the absolute value of some expression is set to
be greater than (or greater than or equal to) a non-negative constant. (If the constant is negative then
the solution is the set of all real numbers.) The figure below shows how two inequalities are created
to find the solutions to the absolute value inequality.

When the absolute value of an expression (represented by the happy face above) is greater than a
constant, two inequalities must be created. Note that the solution is always two intervals. If the
inequality is strictly greater than, the endpoints are open. If the inequality is greater than or equal to,
the endpoints are closed (filled).

Suppose that the point -2 on the number line represents the location of a toxic waste dump. In order
to be safe, people need to live at least 20 units away from the dump. What locations on the number
line are safe? To find the solution we start with the inequality x − −2  20, which simplifies to

x + 2  20 . This inequality is split into two inequalities: x + 2  −20 or x + 2  20 . Notice how the
direction of the inequality changes with the sign change. Solving each of these inequalities gives us
the intervals x  −22 or x  18 . It is safe to live west of -22 or east of 18 because each of these points
is twenty miles away from -2.

Graphs of absolute value equality and inequalities

The graph of an absolute value equality will always have a V shape. The graph can be translated
(location change), or it can be reflected across the x-axis to give it an inverted V shape, etc. The
various ways to move and flip graphs are covered in unit 3.14. The graphs of the parent equation,
y = x , and its inequalities look like those below (solution regions for the inequalities are shaded):

93
Suppose you have an absolute value equality or inequality to solve.
For this example we will used x − 1 for the absolute value expression
and 2 for the constant.

Enter the absolute value expression into the first line of the Y=
equation editor. The absolute value function can be found at math-
num-abs. Then enter 2 into the second line of the Y= equation editor.
The equations are shown in the first screen shot on the left.
If you want a graph that matches the one on the right below, press the
window key to adjust the window to the settings shown below.

Next press graph. You should have a graph that matches the one
below. If you want to solve x − 1 = 2 then find the intersections of the
two graphs. You can do this by pressing the trace button and moving
the cursor to an intersection. The coordinates will be displayed at the
bottom of the screen. Or you can use 2nd-calc-intersect and follow
the dialog to find each intersection. If you want to solve x − 1  2 , the
solution is the interval of the x-axis that lies in-between the
intersections. If you want to solve x = 1  2 the solutions are the
intervals of the x-axis that lie on either side of the intersections.

94
 2.13 Practice problems on absolute value
1. The solutions to the equation 5 x − 2 = 20 6. The solution to the inequality 5 3x  −15 is
are A. −1  x or x  1
A. x=-2 and x=2
B. 1  x or x  −1
B. x=-2 and x=6
C. All real values of x
C. x=-4 and x=2
D. No real solution
D. x=-4 and x=4
E. −1  x  1
E. x=-2 and x=4
7. The solution to the inequality 2 x  −2 is
2. The value of −3 + 3(−4) − 8 − −2 is
A. −2  x  1
A. -1
B. 3
B. −1  x  1
C. 15 C. All real values of x
D. 19 D. No real solution
E. 25 E. x  −1
3. The solution to the inequality 5 x − 3 − 5  0 8. In order to be admitted to a ride in an
amusement park, children must be older than
is
three and younger than seven. Which of the
A. −4  x  −2
inequalities below represents the admission
B. −4  x  2 requirement?
C. −2  x  4
D. 2 x4 I. 3 x 7
E. −2  x  2 II. x −3  7
4. The solution to the inequality 3 x + 8  6 is III. x − 5  2
A. −10  x or x  −6 A. I only
B. −10  x or x  6 B. II only
C. −6  x or x  10 C. I and II only
D. 6  x or x  10 D. I and III only
E. −6  x or x  6 E. II and III only
5. Which of the statements below must be true 9. A certain automobile part must be 2 inches
for all real values of x ? thick, with a tolerance of one-tenth of one inch.
I. x =x Which of the inequalities below represents
acceptable thicknesses?
II. x = −x
A. x  0.1
III. −x = x
B. x 2
A. I only
B. II only C. x − 2  0.1
C. III only
D. x − 0.1  2
D. I and II only
E. I and III only E. x  .1

95
10. Suppose the safe level of lead in water is 13. Due to the risk of explosion, town
15 parts per billion (ppb), but the equipment regulations require that underground propane
used to measure lead is only accurate to within tanks be at least 30 units away from the
3 ppb. Which inequality below best represents nearest structure. If a tank is buried at
the range of readings on the measurement coordinate 10 on a number line, at what
equipment that could be considered coordinates could the closest structures exist?
acceptable? A. x  −20 or x  40
A. x  18 B. x  −40 or x  20
C. x  −20 or x  40
B. 12  x
D. x  −40 or x  20
C. 12  x  18 E. −30  x  30
D. x  15 14. The shaded region of which of the graphs
below could illustrate the solution to the
E. 3  x  15
inequality x + 2  3 ?

11. To minimize electrical resistance, the

A.
cable connecting electrical generators to
homes must be no greater than 100 feet long.
If a home is located at coordinate -30 on a
number line, which of the inequalities below
could be solved to determine the coordinates
where must the generator be located?
A. x − 30  100 B.

B. x + 30  100
C. x −100  30
D. x + 100  30
E. −30  x  30 C.
12. Radio station WMATH broadcasts
important math facts and its broadcast signal
can travel up to 150 km from the tower. If the
broadcast tower is located at coordinate 5 on a
number line, what are the furthest coordinates
you could travel and still listen to important
math facts? D.

A. −155  x  145
B. −155  x  155
C. −155  x  145
D. −145  x  155
E. −5  x  5
E. None of the above

96
 2.13 Solutions to practice problems on absolute value
1. (B) 8. (D)
I. obviously is correct.
Isolate the absolute value: II is incorrect:
20
x−2 = =4 x −3  7
5
First equation: x − 2 = −4, x = −2 −7  x − 3  7, − 4  x  10
Second equation: x − 2 = 4, x = 6 III is correct
x −5  2
2. (C)
−2  x − 5  2, 3  x  7
−3 + 3(−4) − 8 − −2 = − 3 + −20 − −2
9. (C)
= −3 + 20 − 2 = 15
x − 2  0.1
−0.1  x − 2  0.1
1.9  x  2.1
3. (D) 10. (A)
Isolate the absolute value: If you chose (B) or (C) you got immersed in the
5 x − 3  5, x − 3  1 math but lost track of the context. There is no
reason to think that a measurement of less
−1  x − 3  1, 2  x  4 than 12 is unacceptable, in fact it is excellent.
4. (A)
11. (B)
Isolate the absolute value: x + 30  100, −100  x + 30  100, −130  x  70
3 x + 8  6, x +8  2
12. (D)
First inequality: −2  x + 8, − 10  x x − 5  150, −150  x − 5  150, −145  x  155
Second inequality: x + 8  2, x  −6 13. (A)
5. (C) x − 10  30
I is not always true −5  −5 First inequality: x − 10  30, x  40

II is not always true 5  −5 Second inequality: x − 10  −30, x  −20

14. (B)
III is always true 5 = −5 = 5
The bottom two graphs are illustrating a less
6. (C)
than inequality (x values are constrained to be
Isolate the absolute value:
between a lower bound and an upper bound,
5 3x  −15, 3x  −3 or "bar bells"). So, these graphs are wrong.
This inequality is true for all real values of x. The upper two graphs illustrate a greater than
The absolute value of any quantity is always inequality because there are two open intervals
non-negative. for the x-values. When you solve the inequality
7. (D) you get
This inequality is never true for any real value x + 2  3, x + 2  3 or x + 2  −3
of x. The absolute value of any quantity is x  1 or x  −5
always non-negative. The end points of 1 and -5 match graph B.

97
2.14 Exponents and radicals
Previous units contain examples of a variable raised to a power, such as x 3 . In words we would say
"x to the third power." In this example the base is the variable x and the power is 3. This unit covers
how to perform operations on variables raised to powers and how to perform operations on radicals.

Laws of exponents
Laws governing the operations on exponents are as follows:

Multiplication (same base) x a  xb = x a +b

Division (same base) xa
= x a −b , x  0
xb
Exponentiation
(x )a b
= x ab
Exponentiation (exponent is zero) x 0 = 1, x  0
Negative exponents 1 1
x−a = , x  0 and = xa
xa x−a
Laws of exponents are often used to simplify expressions, such as
x a + 2  x −2 = x a
x5
= x 5  x 3 = x8
x −3

Equations involving exponents

Sometimes you will see equations involving exponents. The technique to use here is to convert both
sides of the equation to the same base. Once the bases are the same, you can equate the exponents.
For example
4 x = 128 original equation

(2 )
2 x
= 27 convert both sides to use base 2

22 x = 27 simplify the left-hand side using a law of exponents

2 x = 7, x = 3.5 equate exponents; solve for x.

Important facts about the square root

Please remember that the square root symbol means the positive square root. There is an
invisible + sign in front of the radical. Although it is invisible, it is very important. For example, 9 is
positive 3, not negative 3. In words, this would be “the positive square root of nine is positive three,
not negative three.”

When we mean to indicate the negative square root, we write − 9 = −3 . In words, this would be “the
negative square root of nine is negative three.” When we mean to indicate the positive and negative

98
square roots, we write  9 = 3 . In words, this would be “the positive and negative square roots of
nine are positive and negative three.”

Positive and negative square roots are used mostly for solving equations, such as
x 2 = 64
x =  64 = 8
In words, this would be “the solutions to the equation x 2 = 64 are x = 8 and x = −8 .” Remember that
the  symbol means positive AND negative. So the symbol  means the positive AND negative
square root, while the symbol 8 means positive 8 AND negative 8.
Check these:
25 = 5 only, and − 25 = −5 only
 25 = 5 and -5 (you could also write  5)
Remember:
 means positive AND negative
means positive square root

The relationship between exponents and radicals

When using square roots, written as x , sometimes students lose sight of the fact that there is an
invisible 2 that is part of the square root radical. In fact the square root could be written as 2 x . For
the sake of convenience we omit the number 2 from the radical, but that little 2 is incredibly important
because
1 1
x = x = x and in general
2 2 n
x=x .
n

Once you understand this relationship between radicals and exponents you can apply the laws of
operations to either exponents or radicals, because they are the same thing.

Operations on exponents and radicals

Operation Exponent Version Radical Version
Multiplication (different bases, ( xy )
a
=x ya a n xy = n x  n y
same power)
Division (different bases, same a
x n
x
x xa
power)   = n =
 y ya y n y
Exponentiation ( a  0 ) b

( x)
b
 1a  b 1 b

( ) = x = a xb
a a
x
  = x a
= x b a

 

Operations on radicals are typically used to simplify a radical, such as

50 = 50  2 = 25  2 = 5 2
3
192 = 3 64  3 = 3 64  3 3 = 4 3 3

99
 18 18 92 3 2
= = =
64 64 8 8
but they also can be used to deal with tricky powers and roots such as
3
3
 1 3

( x)
1
x = (x )
3
7 3 3 7
=x 7
and 7
=  x7  = x7 .
 

Dealing with exponents and radicals is easy to do on the calculator.

For exponents, make use of the caret key ^. To raise 2 to the eighth
power, press 2-^-8 and then press enter. You will see the result shown
on the left below.
For radicals, use fractions as exponents. To find the 5th root of 7776,
simply enter 7776- ^- (- 1-  - 5- ) into your calculator and then press
enter. Your display should look like the one shown on the right below.
Note that the dashes in the calculator instructions above are used to
separate keystrokes, they are not negatives to be entered into the
calculator.

Radicals in the denominator

An expression is not considered to be simplified if there are radicals in the denominator. Clearing a
square root out of the denominator is easy. Just multiply top and bottom by the square root, as in

5  5  3  15 15
=    = =
2 3  2 3  
 3  2  3 6
To clear a more complicated radial, multiply top and bottom by the radical raised to the power that will
clear the denominator, as in:

( 3)  5
( 3) ( 3) ( 3)
4 4 4 4
5 5 5 5
5  5  = 5 5
=  = =
2 5 3  2 5 3  
4 
( 3) ( 3) 23
5
5
 2 5 6
 
Another example is where the denominator contains a square root that is being added or subtracted.
In that case we use the conjugate to clear the square root. For example

6  6  2 + 5  12 + 6 5 12 + 6 5
=    = = = −12 − 6 5
2 − 5  2 − 5  2 + 5  4 − 2 5 + 2 5 −5 −1

We multiply the top and bottom by the conjugate of the denominator. The conjugate of a + b x is
a − b x . When the denominator is FOILed out, the square root disappears.

100
 2.14 Practice problems on exponents and radicals
2
1. 49 is equivalent to
6. 16 is not equivalent to
3

A. 7 only 3
A. 162
B. -7 only
( 16 )
3
C. -7 or 7 B.
D. -7 and 7 3
C. 44
E. all of the above 8
D. 2 3
2. 3
−27 is equivalent to
E. 6.35
A. 3 only
7. The solution to the equation
B. -3 only −7
C. -3 or 3 1− x= is
2
D. -3 and 3 A. x = 1.5
E. 3 3 B. x=2
C. x=4
3. Which of the following is the solution to
D. x = 20.25
the equation x 2 − 5 = 20 ?
E. x = 16
A. 5 only
8. 497 is ten less than three times the square
B. -5 only
of a number. The value of that number is
C. -5 and 5
I. −13
D.  15
II. 13
E. 15 III. 12.74
A. I only
4. 72 is equivalent to
B. II only
I. 6 2 C. III only
II. 3 8 D. I and II only
E. II and III only
III. 2 18
9. If 4
x + 3 −125 = 81 then x is equal to
A. I only
A. 16
B. II only
B. 196
C. I and III only
C. 256
D. I, II and III
D. 4,096
E. none are equivalent
E. 38,416
3
−384 is equivalent to
5.
( )
2
10. The expression 3 + x is equal to
A. 8 6 A. 9+ x
B. −8 6 B. 9 + 3 x + x2
C. 43 6 C. 9+6 x + x
D. −4 63
D. 9 + 6x + x 2
E. 4 24 E. 9 + x2
101
 15 16. The expression 330 x4 simplifies to
11. The quantity simplifies to
20
( 3x )
34
A.
3
A.
( 3x )
17
4 B.
3 C. 315 x 2
B.
2
D. 360 x 8
C. 3
( 3x )
68
E.
D. 2 3
E. 3/ 4 17. The expression 3
x3 y10 simplifies to
x+ x
12. The expression simplifies to A. x 9 y 30
2x
A. 1 B. xy 3 y
B. 2
C. 2 C. xy 2 3 y
2
D. D. xy3 3 y
2
E. x x E. x (2/3) y 5
13. If x2 = − ( x − 10)( x + 10) then the value of
x2 y x
x could be 18. Simplify 
z zy
A. 2 5
A. xy 2
B. 5 2
C. 5 B. x2 y2
D. 10
E. 25 C. x3 y 2
a
14. The expression x3  x 3 simplifies to x3
D.
A. x3 z2
B. xa
1+ a E. x3 y 3
C. x 3

9+ a 3
x15 y −2
D. x 3 19. Simplify
x −3 y 3
E. x9a
A. x 48 y −5
xa+2
15. The expression a +3 simplifies to
x B. x 4.5 y
2 a +5
A. x
1 C. x5 y 5
B.
x x8
C. x D.
2
y5
+5 a + 6
D. xa
E. x(2/3) E. x10.5 y 5
102
20. Solve x + a = 3 125 for x 25. The fully simplified form of the expression
5
A. 5−a is
12
B. 5+ a
C. 25 − a A.
5
D. 25 + a 12
E. 25
5
B.
2 12
21. If x −1 = , then x 2 must be
2
5
1 C.
A. 2 3
4
1 15
B. D.
2 6
C. 2
E. 0.1736
D. 4
E. 8 26. The fully simplified form of the expression

22. Which of the equations below is not 1+ 3

is
equivalent to the other three equations? 1− 3
A. 128 = 4 x A. 0
B. 2 x = 32
B. 2
C. 2x = 7
D. 27 = 4 x C. −2 − 3
E. 9 x = 2187
D. 2+ 3
x +1 x+2
23. Solve 9 = 3 for x
E. 4+ 3
2
A. x=− 27. The fully simplified form of the expression
3
B. x=0 6 2
is
5
2 486
C. x=
3
A. 213/10
D. x =1
E. x = −1 B. 217/10
C. 2 4/5
24. Solve 81x = 3 272 for x
1 D. 2−4/5
A. x=
2 E. 124/50
3
B. x=
4
4
C. x=
3
D. x=2
E. x=6

103
 2.14 Solutions to practice problems on exponents and radicals
1. (A) 15. (B)
49 = +7 only xa+2 1
a +3
= x( a + 2)−( a +3) = x −1 =
2. (B) x x
3
−27 = −3 because ( −3)( −3)( −3) = −27 16. (C)
1 1

3. (C) 330 x 4 = 330 ( )( ) 2 x4 2 = 315 x 2

x 2 − 5 = 20, x 2 = 25, x = 5 17. (D)
4. (D) 3
x3 y10 = 3 x3 y 9 3 y = xy 3 3 y
Start by dividing perfect squares into 72
18. (A)
72 = 36  2 = 36  2 = 6 2
x 2 y x  x 2 y   zy 
72 = 9  8 = 9  8 = 3 8  =    = xy
2

z zy  z   x 
72 = 4 18 = 4  18 = 2 18 19. (D)
5. (D) 3
x15 y −2 x5 y −2 x8
( 5−−3) ( −2−3) 8 −5
Start by dividing perfect cubes into 384 = = x y = x y =
x −3 y 3 x −3 y 3 y5
3
−384 = 3 −64  6 = 3 −64  3 6 = −4 3 6 20. (C)
6. (B)
x + a = 3 125, x + a = 5, x + a = 25, x = 25 − a
(( 2 ) )
2 2 8
16 = 16 = 3 ( 4
3 3 2
)
2 2
=3 2 2
=2 3
21. (C)
2 2
7. (D)  1   2  4
x2 =  −1 
=  = =2
−7 9 81 x   2 2
1− x = , x = , x = = 20.25
2 2 4 22. (B)
8. (D) All answers except (B) have the solution of x = 3.5
3x 2 − 10 = 497, 3 x 2 = 507 ( )
x
128 = 4 x , 27 = 22 , 27 = 22 x , 7 = 2 x, 3.5 = x
x 2 = 169, x = 13
33 x = 37 , x = 3.5
9. (E) 23. (A)
4
x + 3 −125 = 81, 4
x − 5 = 9, 4
x = 14, x = 14 4 1

( ) ( )
x +1

10. (C) 9 x +1 = 3x + 2 , 32 = 3x + 2 2 ,
1 3x −2
2 ( x + 1) = ( x + 2 ) ,
( 3 + x ) = ( 3 + x )(3 + x ) = −1, x =
2

2 2 3
= 9+3 x +3 x + x 24. (A)
11. (B)
((3 ) ) ,
1

(3 )
x 2
81 = = 34x = 32 , x = 0.5
x 3 2 4 3 3
27 ,
15  1   15 
15 3
= =   =
20 2 5  2   5  2 25. (D)
12. (B) 5 5 5  3 5 
15
= = =  =
x+ x 2 x 2 12 12 2 3  2 3  3  6
= = = 2
2x ( )( )
2 x 2
26. (C)
13. (B) 1 + 3  1 + 3  1 + 3  1 + 2 3 + 3 4 + 2 3
=   = = = −2 − 3
x = − ( x − 10 )( x + 10 ) = −( x − 100)
2 2
1 − 3  1 − 3 
 1 + 3  1− 3 −2
2 x 2 = 100, x 2 = 50, x =  50 = 5 2 27. (A)
14. (D) 6 2 6 2 2 2 23/ 2
a
3+
a 9 a
+
9+ a = = = 1/5
= 213/10
x3  x = x 3 3
=x 3 3
=x 3
5
486 5
243 2 5 5
2 2
104
2.15 Functions
A function defines a relationship between every possible value that can be accepted by the function
(this set is called the domain) to every possible value that can be produced by the function (this set is
called the range). For example the function f ( x) = x + 3 establishes a relationship between every
domain value and its corresponding range value. The relationship is simple: take the domain value
and add three in order to obtain the range value. A useful graphic representation of a function is
shown below.

Domain Range
Values (x) Values f(x)
Function “machine”

Imagine that you feed a value from the domain (the x-value) into the function machine. Next, turn the
crank on the machine. Then out comes the corresponding value from the range (the y-value or the
f ( x ) value). For a particular domain value that is placed into it, a function can only crank out one
range value (otherwise it is not a function). When functions are graphed, they pass the “vertical line
test,” meaning that if a vertical line is drawn anywhere on the graph, it passes through the graph of the
function at one and only one point.

Notation

On the ACT® some of the problems involve interpreting function notation. Doing this means replacing
the y with the function name and argument (usually functions are named f or some other lower case
letter and the argument is named x or some other lower case letter). For example, instead of writing
an equation as y = mx + b we write f ( x) = mx + b . They are both equations but the second one uses
function notation.
Changing the argument: To confuse matters, sometimes the ACT® will change the argument from a
simple x to something else. Do not let this throw you off your game; just remember that the function
is a kind of machine. Whatever goes into the function (the argument, or domain) gets treated the
same way every time.
For example suppose we are given the function f ( x) = 2 x + 1 . If the argument is changed from x to
a , just replace the letter x with the letter a and find that f (a) = 2a + 1 . No matter what is placed into
( )
this function, it is multiplied by 2 and then it is added to 1. Similarly f ( x 2 − 1) = 2 x 2 − 1 + 1 = 2 x 2 − 1.
We could even go so far as to replace x with something really weird, like f () = 2 + 1 . That makes
no sense mathematically speaking but it follows the rules of how this particular function works.

Solving equations: Consider the equation y = a ( x − 1) − 2 . If you are told that the graph of the
2

equation travels through the point (3, -14) and asked to find the value of a , you would set up the
equation −14 = a (3 − 1) − 2 and solve that equation for a . Rewriting that equation in function notation
2

we could say h( x) = a( x − 1) − 2 . Nothing has changed except we chose h instead of f for the
2

name of the function and we replaced y with h( x) . Because we are in function notation you

105
would be told that h(3) = −14 and be asked to find the value of a . The process is identical even
though the notation is different: you would solve the equation −14 = a (3 − 1) 2 − 2 for a .

Graphs
It is important to be able to navigate graphs of functions. A general graph of a function is

y=f(x)
(a, f(a))

a b
x

(b, f(b))

Notice that the domain is the horizontal axis (x-axis) and the range is the vertical axis (y-axis). The
function maps each value in the domain to a single value in the range (passes the vertical line test).
Any point that lies on the graph must satisfy the function rule. For example if the function were
f ( x) = x 2 + 1 then any arbitrary point on the graph of that function would have the coordinates of
( a, a 2 + 1).

Consider the function f graphed below, which is defined on the interval [-3,6]. We can say that the
following things about this function are true:
• The maximum value of the function is 5.
• The minimum value of the function is -1
• f (−2) = −1
• On the interval [0,2] the minimum value of the function is zero.
• On the interval [0,2] the maximum value of the function is one.
• Throughout the domain [-3,6], f ( x) = 1 twice, once when x=1 and again when x=4

106
Tables
Functions may also appear in tabular form. Consider the table below for two functions, named g and
h:
x g ( x) h( x )
-10 70 6
2 10 15
6 -10 20
8 -20 45
20 -80 65
30 -130 74

You may be asked to estimate g (25) , assuming that g is a linear function (see Unit 3.3 for more on
linear relations, an extremely popular topic on the test). Start by finding the slope over the interval
−130 − (−80) −50
[20,30] as = = −5 . That same slope must also apply to the interval [20,25]
30 − 20 10
g (25) − g (20) g (25) + 80
therefore −5 = , −5 = , − 25 = g (25) + 80, − 105 = g (25) .
25 − 20 5

Combinations of functions
Sometimes functions are combined together, using addition subtraction, multiplication or division.
Using the table above, for example: g (8) − h(2) = −20 − 15 = −35 , g (20)  h(6) = −80(20) = −1600 ,
h(6) 20
and = = 2.
g (2) 10

Sometimes functions are combined in a special way to form composite functions. Suppose we want
to find the value of h( g (6)) . The first step is to find g (6) = −10 . Then just replace g (6) with -10 as
follows: h( g (6)) = h(−10) = 6 . Another example is g (h(6)) = g (20) = −80 .

Less often you might be asked to combine functions that have variables. The process is exactly the
same. For example suppose f ( x) = x + 2 and g ( x) = x 2 . For addition/subtraction we can write
f ( x) − g ( x) = x + 2 − x 2 . Whereas for composites we can write f ( g ( x)) = f ( x 2 ) = x 2 + 2.
Note above that the first step for the composite is just substituting x 2 for g ( x) . Then the f function is
applied to the argument x 2 , yielding x 2 + 2 . We could go the other way around, namely
g ( f ( x)) = g ( x + 2) = ( x + 2) 2 . The expression x + 2 replaces f ( x ) and then the g -function is applied
to the argument x + 2 , yielding ( x + 2) .
2

107
 2.15 Practice problems on functions
x+c _____________________________________
1. If g ( x ) = and x  0 and g (−1) = −4
x 2 Use the following information to answer
then which equation below could be used to questions 6 and 7:
find the value of c ? The data below describe the average height of
x −1 tomato plants over time (in days). Some plants
A. = −4
x2 were given organic fertilizer and others were
x−4 given non-organic fertilizer.
B. = −1
x2 Elapsed Average Height ( in cm)
C. c −1 = −4
Time, t Organic Inorganic
D. c −1 = −1
E. c − 4 =1 (in days) Fertilizer f (t ) Fertilizer g (t )

6 4 6
2. If f ( x ) = ax 2 + x + c and f (0) = 5 and
8 6 10
f (2) = 15 , what is the value of a − c ?
9 7 12
A. -3
B. 2 10 8 14
C. 3 14 12 16
D. 5
E. 6
6. Which of the following statements are false?
3. If f ( x + a) = x then f ( x ) could be which of
I. g (8) − f (8) = f (6)
the following expressions?
A. x+a II. g ( f (10)) = f (14) − 2
B. x−a g (14)
2
III. f ( g (6)) =
C. x g (6)
x A. I only
D.
a B. II only
E. a−x C. III only
4. If f ( x) = 2 x + 3 which of the following is an D. I and II only
expression for f ( x + c) − f ( x) ? E. II and III only
A. 2c + 3 7. Which of the following statements are false?
B. c
C. 2c I. f (t + 4) = g (9) when t = 10
D. 2c + 6 II g (t ) − f (t ) = f (t − 2) when t = 8
E. 2c − 3 g (t ) f (6)
III = when t = 9
t 3
5. If f ( x ) = 2 x + x + a and the graph of
2
A. I only
f ( x − a) passes through the point (2, 20),
B. II only
what is the value of a ?
A. -1 C. III only
B. 0 D. I and II only
C. 1 E. None are false
D. 2 _____________________________________
E. 3
108
 a 1
8. If g (a ) = a 2 and h(a ) =then what is the 11. At how many points is g ( x) = ?
2 2
expression for g (h(2a − 2)) ? A. 0
A. a +1
2
B. 1
B. 2a 2 + 2 C. 2
C. a 2 − 2a + 1 D. 3
D. 2a − 4 a + 2
2
E. More than three
E. a2 −1
12. If g (a) = g (b) = 0 then what is the value of
_____________________________________ a −b ?
Use the following information to answer
questions 9-15: A. -2
B. -1
The function g ( x) is defined over the interval
C. 0
[-1,4] as shown in the graph below. D. 1
E. 3
g (0)
13. What is the value of ?
g (2)
A. -1
B. 0
C. 1
D. 2
E. 3
14. Which of the following are equal to 1?
I. g (−1)
II. g (1)
III. g (2)
9. For what value of x is g ( x) at its maximum?
A. I only
A. -1 B. II only
B. 0.5 C. III only
C. 1 D. None are equal to 1
D. 2 E. I and II only
E. 3
15. What is the value of g ( g (2)) ?
10. For what value of x is g ( x) at its minimum? A. -1
A. -1 B. 0
B. 0 C. 1
C. 1 D. 2
D. 2 E. 3
E. 3 _____________________________________

109
 2.15 Solutions to practice problems on functions
1. (C) 7. (E)
x+c −1 + c I. is true because f (14) = 12 = g (9)
g ( x) = , −4 = , −4 = c −1
x 2
( −1) 2
II is true because
2. (A) g (8) = 10, f (8) = 6, g (8) − f (8) = 4 = f (6)
(0,5) means c=5. III is true because
(2,15) means g (9) 12 4 f (6) 4
= = =
9 9 3 3 3
15 = a (2) 2 + 2 + 5, 8 = 4a, 2 = a 8. (C)
a − c = 2 − 5 = −3  2a − 2 
g (h(2a − 2)) = g   = g (a − 1)
3. (B)  2 
= (a − 1)2 = a 2 − 2a + 1
Backsolve this one.
9. (A)
If f ( x) = x − a then f ( x + a) = ( x + a) − a = x
Remember that g ( x) is the height of the graph.

4. (C) 10. (D)

f ( x + c) − f ( x) = [2( x + c) + 3] − (2 x + 3) = 2c Remember that g ( x) is the height of the graph.

5. (A) 11. (C)

f ( x) = 2 x 2 + x + a Remember that g ( x) is the height of the graph.

f ( x − a ) = 2( x − a ) + ( x − a ) + a = 2 x − 4ax + 2a + x
2 2 2
12. (A)
a and b are equal to 1 and 3. So a − b could
at (2,20) 20 = 2(4) − 4a(2) + 2a 2 + 2 be -2 or it could be 2.

0 = 2a 2 − 8a − 10 = 2(a − 5)(a + 1) 13. (A)

a = 5 or a = −1 g (0) 1
= = −1
g (2) −1
6. (C) 14. (A)
I. true because g (8) − f (8) = 10 − 6 = 4 = f (6)
I is true because g (−1) = 1
II true because II is false because g (1) = 0
g ( f (10)) = g (8) = 10 = f (14) − 2 = 12 − 2 III is false because g (2) = −1
III false because f ( g (6)) = f (6) = 4 , whereas
15. (C)
g (14) 16
= g ( g (2)) = g (−1) = 1
g (6) 6

110
2.16 Sequences
A sequence is a collection of terms, denoted by a1 , a2 , ..., an . A series is the sum of consecutive terms of
a sequence. There are two types of sequences, arithmetic and geometric.

Arithmetic sequences

Arithmetic sequences tend to be the most popular type of sequence on the ACT®. Arithmetic sequences
have what is called the common difference d , i.e., the difference between adjacent terms is always the
same. The expression for the nth term of an arithmetic sequence is

an = a1 + (n − 1)d

The sum of n consecutive terms of an arithmetic sequence is

n ( a1 + an )
sn = ,
2

where a1 is the first term to be summed, a n is the last term to be summed, and n is the number of terms to
be summed. For example, consider the sequence 3,11,19, … The sum of the first 100 terms of the
sequence would be:

100 ( a1 + a100 )
s100 =
2

From a100 = a1 + (n −1)d = 3 + (100 −1) 8 = 795 we get

100 ( a1 + a100 ) 100 ( 3 + 795 )

s100 = = = 39,900
2 2

Geometric sequences

Geometric sequences have what is called the common ratio r . The ratio of any term to the previous term
is always the same. The expression for the nth term of a geometric sequence is

an = a1r n−1

The sum of n consecutive terms of a geometric sequence is

a1 (1 − r n )
sn = ,
1− r

111
where a1 is the first term to be summed and n is the number of terms to be summed. For example,
consider the sequence 3,27,243, etc. The sum of the first 5 terms would be

3 (1 − 95 ) 3 ( −59,048)
s5 = = = 22,143
1− 9 −8

The sums above are called partial sums or finite sums because they involve adding only n consecutive
terms in the sequence. For infinite geometric sequences, if r  1 then the sum of all the elements of the
sequence will converge as n becomes larger and larger. Specifically, the sum will converge to

a1
s = , when r  1
1− r

Other sequences

Sequences do not have to be arithmetic or geometric. You are expected to be able to read the definition
of a sequence and figure out what the terms look like. For example

an = 2an −1 + n

If the first term is zero ( a1 = 0 ) then the second term would be a2 = 2a1 + 2 = 0 + 2 = 2 , the third term
would be a3 = 2a2 + 3 = 4 + 3 = 7 , etc. So far our sequence is 0, 2, 7. Notice that this is not arithmetic
because 2-0 is not the same as 7-2. The sequence is not geometric because 2/0 is not the same as 7/2.

112
 2.16 Problems on sequences
_______________________________________
Use the information below to answer 6. At the end of every year John deposits $1,500
problems 1 and 2. into his savings account. How many years will it
3, -1, ___, -9 take for John’s deposits to amount to $19,500?
A. 12
1. What is the missing value in this sequence?
B. 13
A. -6
B. -5 C. 14
C. -4 D. 15
D. 0 E. 16
E. 4
7. The number of carbon particles in the air over
2. What is the 33rd term of this sequence?
a certain city is reduced by 50% every year. If
A. -125 there are 1,499,968 particles now, how many
B. -128 years will it take to reduce the number to 23,437
C. -129 particles?
D. -131
E. -132 A. 4
_______________________________________ B. 5
Use the information below to answer C. 6
problems 3 and 4. D. 7
-3, ___, -12, 24 E. 8

3. What is the missing value in this sequence? 8. If a car depreciates in value by 20% per year,
what percentage of its original value will the car be
A. -6
worth when it reaches its third birthday?
B. -2
C. 0 A. 0.8%
D. 2 B. 4%
E. 6
C. 41%
4. What is the 19th term of this sequence?
D. 51%
A. -1,572,864
B. -786,432 E. 64%
C. -262,144 9. For the sequence -3,-9,-15, … what is the
D. 786,432 value of the 50th term?
E. -1,572,864
A. -291
_______________________________________
B. -294
5. Suppose the number of fish in a pond doubles
C. -297
every 5 years. If the number of fish is now 10, how
many fish will be in the pond 20 years from now? D. -300
A. 80 E. -303
B. 160
C. 320
D. 2,621440
E. 5,242,880
113
10. For the sequence -3,-9,-15, …what is the 15. John has an ant farm whose population
sum of the first 50 terms? doubles every 5 years. If he started the ant farm
20 years ago and there are now 160,000 ants,
A. -7,425
how many ants did he have when he started?
B. -7,500
A. 1
C. -14,850
B. 2,500
D. -15,000 C. 5,000
E. -15,150 D. 7,500
11. For the sequence 5,- 7.5, 11.25, -16.875, … E. 10,000
what is the 15th term? 16. Which of the models below fits the following
A. -2189 sequence: 4, 7, 12, 19, 28, …?

B. -1460 A. an = n3 −1
C. 292 B. an = 2n+1
D. 1460 C. an = 4 + (n − 1)3
E. 2189 D. an = n2 + 3
12. For the sequence 5,- 7.5, 11.25, -16.875, … E. an = 3n + 1
what is the sum of the first 15 terms?
17. Mr. Corn is on a diet and wants to eat 5 fewer
A. 582 calories every day. If he ate 375 calories on the
B. 873 first day, on what day will he eat 225 calories?
C. 878 A. day 29
D. 4379 B. day 30
E. 8780 C. day 31
13. What is the value of the infinite sum D. day 32
9+3+1+… ? E. day 150
A. 13.5 18. A sequence is defined as an = (n + 1)2 . What
B. 27.0 is the sum of the first five terms of the sequence?
C. 40.5
A. 15
D. 54.0
B. 20
E. Does not converge
C. 55
14. What is the sum of the odd integers between D. 85
100 and 300?
E. 90
A. 4,900
B. 9,800
C. 10,000
D. 19,800
E. 20,000

114
 2.16 Solutions to problems on sequences
1. (B) 10. (B)
The common difference is -4. 50 ( −3 − 297 )
s50 = = −7500
3, -1, -5, -9 2
2. (A) 11. (D)
an = a1 + ( n − 1) d = 3 + (33 − 1)(−4) This is geometric, with r=-1.5.
a15 = 5 ( −1.5)
15−1
= 3 + 32(−4) = −125 = 1459.646
3. (E) 12. (C)
The common ratio is -2 This is geometric, with r=-1.5.
-3, 6, -12, 24
s15 =
(
5 1 − ( −1.5 )
15
) = 5 (1 + 437.89) = 877.79
4. (B)
1 − −1.5 2.5
an = a1 ( r )
n −1
= (−3)(−2)19−1 13. (A)
This is geometric, with r=1/3.
= −3(−2) = −786, 432
18

9
5. (B) s = = 13.5
1
= 10 . The “trick” is to realize
First realize that a1 1−
3
that the problem is asking for a5 because four 14. (E)
periods of 5 years each will have elapsed after 20 This is an arithmetic sequence: 101, 103, …, 299
years. with d=2 and n=100.
a5 = 10 ( 2 ) = 160
4
100 (101 + 299 )
s100 = = 20, 000
6. (B) 2
The sum of deposits made into the account forms 15. (E)
an arithmetic sequence: 1500, 3000, 4500, etc. This is a geometric sequence, with r=2. Twenty
a = a + ( n − 1) d years later would be the fifth element in the
n 1
19,500=1500+( n−1)1,500
sequence:
a5 = a1 ( 2 )
5−1
19, 500 = 1500n, 13 = n , 160,000=16a1 , a1 = 10,000
It will take 13 years until his deposits amount to 16. (D)
$19,500. Sequences can sometimes be neither arithmetic nor
7. (C) geometric. an = n + 3 is the only model that fits
2

n −1
n −1 1 all of the data given.
1
a =a  
n 12
, 23, 437 = 1, 499,968  
2
1  1 n −1
17. (C)
=  , n −1=6, n =7 This is an arithmetic sequence: 375, 370, 365, with
64  2 
It will take six more years, because the first term is d = −5 and a1 = 375
the current value. 225 = 375 + (n − 1)(−5), 225 = 375 − 5n + 5,
8 (D)
− 155 = −5n, 31 = n
( 0.8) = 0.512 = 51%
3

Or substitute values using a starting value of 100: 18. (E)

100, 80, 64, 51.2 an = (n + 1)2 , a1 = (1 + 1)2 , a2 = (2 + 1) 2 , a3 = (3 + 1) 2
9. (C) a4 = (4 + 1) 2 , a5 = (5 + 1) 2 4 + 9 + 16 + 25 + 36 = 90
This is arithmetic, with d=-6.
a50 = −3 + (50 −1) ( −6) = −297

115
 3. Geometry
Although the ACT® does not place as much weight on geometry as it does on algebra, geometry can
play an important role in your score. For most students it will necessary to be able to solve the easier
geometry problems in order to achieve a mid-range target, say 20-30. For students with higher
targets, the more difficult geometry problems might prove to be the key to success. Geometry uses
different circuitry in your brain from that used by algebra. If you have not done geometry recently you
probably will need to get those wheels turning again. The first topic below is especially popular on the
ACT®.

3.1 Graphs and equations of lines

This unit continues our conversation about linear models. Earlier units, Unit 2.7 fractions and ratios,
and Unit 2.8 linear equations, covered the ideas of slope and intercept from the algebraic point of view
of average rate of change and equations, respectively. This unit has a focus on the graphs of linear
models in the x-y coordinate plane.

Given two points, find the equation

Remember how to find the equation of a line? The most useful form of a linear equation is called the
slope-intercept form, which is
y = mx + b ,

where m is the slope of the line and b is where the line crosses the y-axis (the y-intercept).

The equation of a line can be determined if you know two of the points through which it travels (two
points determine a line). We denote the points as ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) . The first step is to find the
slope
y2 − y1
m= .
x2 − x1
Once we have the slope, we can use one of the points to find the equation of the line. For example,
suppose we want the equation of the line that passes through (1,2) and (5,14). We determine the
slope to be
14 − 2 12
m= = = 3.
5 −1 4
Next write the partial equation
y = 3x + b .
Substitute the values (1,2) in the partial equation and solve for b:
2 = 3 1 + b, -1 = b .
So we know that the equation is y = 3x − 1 .

117
Given one point and a slope, find the equation
Instead of providing two points, some problems will provide the slope of the line and a single point that
the line travels thorough (the slope and a point determine a line). If a problem gives the slope and a
point, simply write the partial equation, plug in the point and solve for b. For example, given a slope of
-3 and the point (2,3) we write the partial equation
y = −3x + b
then plug in (2,3) to solve for b
3 = −3 ( 2) + b, 9 = b .
The equation of the line is y = −3x + 9 .

Parallel and perpendicular lines

Rather than provide the slope directly, sometimes the slope is provided indirectly through information
about another line. In order to do this type of problem you must remember that

• The slopes of parallel lines are the same

• The slopes of perpendicular lines are negative reciprocals of each other.

For example, if a line has a slope of 3 then all lines parallel to it must also have a slope of 3, whereas
1
all lines perpendicular to it must have a slope of − .
3

Special cases of slope

There are two special cases of slope to keep in mind:

• The slope of a horizontal line is zero. For example, the line y = 3 has a slope of zero.
• The slope of a vertical line is undefined. For example, the slope of the line x = 3 is undefined.

Given an equation, graph the line

Suppose you are given the equation of a line in
slope-intercept format, say y = 2 x − 4 . The first
step is to graph the y-intercept, which is the point
where the graph crosses the y-axis. In this case
the point is (0,-4). Next, place your pencil on the
y-intercept and use the idea that slope is just rise
over run, in this case the rise is 2 and the run is 1
because the slope is 2/1. Move your pencil up to
units and then to the right two units and mark
another point at (1,-2). You can repeat the
process using the slope to find other points if
desired. The last step is to connect the points.

118
Distance formula
The distance formula is something that you should memorize, or if memorizing does not suit you,
remember that it is a simple application of the Pythagorean Theorem. You are given two points and
need to find the distance between them.
(x2, y2)

y2-y1

(x1, y1)

x2-x1

Notice that the vertical distance is just y2 − y1 and the horizontal distance is just x2 − x1 . Applying the
Pythagorean Theorem gives
d 2 = ( y2 − y1 ) + ( x2 − x1 )
2 2

( y2 − y1 ) + ( x2 − x1 )
2 2
d=

Midpoint formula
The midpoint of the line segment with endpoints ( x1 , y1 ) and ( x2 , y2 ) has the coordinates

x +x y +y 
midpoint =  1 2 , 1 2 
 2 2 
Quadrants
In the x-y coordinate plane, the four quadrants are numbered. Sometimes students are not taught this
until they take pre-calculus, but it is a topic that can come up on the ACT®. The numbering scheme is
simple, running counter-clockwise as show below, and Roman numerals are used.

119
 3.1 Problems on graphs and equations of lines
1. The equation of the line passing through 6. If two vertices of rectangle ABCD are at
points (5,7) and (-15,23) is: A=(1,2) and B=(5,8), what is the slope of BC ?
A. y = −0.8x + 11 A. −2 / 3
B. y = −0.8 x + 3 B. −3/ 2
C. y = 0.8 x + 12.6 C. 2/3
D. y = −1.25x + 13.25 D. 3/ 2
E. y = −1.25x + 23.25 E. Undefined

2. What is the length of the line segment 7. What is the equation of the perpendicular
whose endpoints are (5,7) and (-15, 23)? bisector of the line segment whose endpoints
are (5,7) and (-5,11)?
A. 4.0
B. 25.6 A. y = −0.4 x + 9
C. 31.6 B. y = −0.4 x − 9
D. 36.0 C. y = 2.5 x + 9
E. 41.6 D. y = 2.5 x − 5.5
E. y = 2.5 x − 9
3. Find the equation of the line that passes
through (1,3) and is perpendicular to the line 8. The line y = 3 does not pass through
with the equation 3x − 2 y = 5. I. (1,3)
A. 2 y = 3x + 3 II. (3,1)
B. 2 y = −3x + 9 III. (3,3)
C. 3y = 2x + 4 A. I only
D. 3 y = −2 x + 11 B. II only
E. 3 y = −2 x − 11 C. III only
4. What is the slope of the line that passes D. I and II only
through the points (3,-2) and (3,2)? E. II and III only
A. 0.0 9. Which quadrants does the graph of
B. 0.4 y = − x − 3 not travel through?
C. 0.6 A. Quadrant I
D. 0.8 B. Quadrant II
E. Undefined C. Quadrant III
D. Quadrant IV
5. The diameter of a circle has as its endpoints
E. Quadrants I and II
(-1,2) and (9,24). What are the coordinates of
the center? 10. If a line passes through points (1,5), (3,8)
A. (4,11) and (x,-10) then x must be equal to:

B. (4,13) A. -11
B. -9
C. (5,11)
C. 9
D. (5,13)
D. 11
E. (-5,13)
E. 20
120
11. If a line passes through points (1,5) and 14. What is the length of BC ?
(3,8) then it must also pass through which
points?
A. 4
B. 8
I. (-1,2)
II. (3,2) C. 2 31
III. (2,3) D. 2 41
A. I only E. 2 51
B. II only
C. III only ____________________________________
D. I and II only
E. I and III only 15.
_____________________________________
Use the following information to answer
problems 12-14.

AB is a diameter of the circle and it is 12 units

long. Point M is the midpoint of AC .

In the diagram above, line passes through

points (0,2) and (1,0). If line  is perpendicular
to line , then the two lines intersect at the
point
A, (.4,.2)
12. What are the coordinates of point C? B. (.4,.8)
A. (-3,1) C. (.5,1)
B. (7,9) D. (.8,.4)
C. (9,7) E. (2,4)
D. (8,10) 16. If the graph of a line passes through the
E. (10,8) points (1,2) and (2, a ) what is the equation of
the line?
13. What is the slope of BC ?
A. y = (a − 2) x + (4 − a)
A. -2.0
B. y = (a − 2) x + (5 − 2a)
B. -1.0
C. y = (a − 2) x + (a − 4)
C. 1.0
D. y = (a − 2) x + (2a − 5)
D. 2.0
E. y = (2 − a) x + (4 − a)
E. 2.5

121
17. The graph below shows the progress of a 19. Line (shown below) and line  (not
swimming pool being drained of water. The shown below) intersect at the point (1.2,3.4). If
initial height of the water was 4 feet and it took the lines are perpendicular, line  must travel
3 hours to drain the pool. During what period through which of the following points?
of time was the pool draining at the fastest
rate?

A. (-7, 4.9)
B. (0, 0)
C. (7,2)
A. 0-1 hours (the first hour)
D. (10,-1)
B. 1-2 hours (the second hour)
E. (12,2)
C. 2-3 hours (the last hour)
D. The pool drained at about the same
rate throughout the 3-hour time period. 20. Bridget invented a secret function. When
E. Cannot be determined she puts the value -1 into the function, out
comes -5. When she puts the value 2 into the
18. Which of the graphs below could be the function, out comes -20. Which of the following
graph of the equation y = − x − 2 ? could be the equation for Bridget’s function?

A. B. A. f ( x) = −5 x − 10
B. f ( x) = 5 x − 10
C. f ( x) = −5 x + 10
D. f ( x) = 10 x − 5
E. f ( x) = −10 x + 5

C.' D.

E. None of the above

122
 3.1 Solutions to problems on graphs and equations of lines
1. (A) 3 −10 − 5
= , 3 x − 3 = −30, x = −9
23 − 7 −4 −4 2 x −1
m= = , y= x+b
−15 − 5 5 5 11. (A)
-4
at ( 5, 7 ) 7= ( 5 ) + b, 11 = b A line has constant slope. The slope must be:
5 y2 − y1 8 − 5 3
y = ( −4 / 5) x + 11 m= = = . Test the other points:
2. (B) x2 − x1 3 − 1 2
d = (23 − 7)2 + (−15 − 5)2 = 656
2 − 5 3 2 − 5 −3 3 − 5
= , = , = −2
3. (D)
−1 − 1 2 3 − 1 2 2 − 1
12. (C)
3
3 x − 2 y = 5, − 2 y = −3 x + 5, y = x − 2.5 1+ x y+3
-2 −2 2 11 5= , x=9 5= , y=7
y= x + b at (1, 3) 3 = (1) + b, =b 2 2
3−2 11 3 3 13. (A)
y= x+ or 3 y = −2 x + 11
3 3 5−3 1
slope AC = = , slope BC = neg reciprocal = −2
4. (E) 5 −1 2
This a vertical line with the equation is x = 3 . Its 14. (B)
slope is undefined.
AC = 2  AM = 2 (5 − 3) 2 + ( 5 − 1) = 2 20 = 80
2
5. (B)
 −1 + 9 2 + 24  CB = 122 − AC 2 = 144 − 80 = 64 = 8
center=midpoint=  ,  = ( 4,13) 15. (D)
 2 2 
6. (A) Equation of line : y = −2 x + 2
8−2 3 Equation of line  : y = (1/ 2) x
slope of AB = = , slope BC=(-2/3)
5 −1 2 At the point of intersection
7. (C) 1
11 − 7 4 −2 x + 2 = x , − 4 x + 4 = x,
original slope = = 2 4 1 4 2
−5 − 5 −10 −5 x = −4, x = and y = x = =
desired slope = 10/4 = 2.5 5 2 10 5
16. (A)
 5 − 5 , 11 + 7  = ( 0, 9 )
midpoint =   The slope is (a − 2) / (2 − 1) = a − 2 giving the
 2 2 
partial equation y = (a − 2) x + b . At (1,2) we get
at (0,9), equation is y = 2.5 x + 9
8. (B) 2 = (a − 2)(1) + b, 2 = a − 2 + b, 4 − a = b
I. is false because the line passes through (1,3) 17. (C)
II is true because the line does not pass through Slope is the rate at which the pool was draining.
(3,1) Slope was steepest during the last hour, 2-3.
III is false because the line passes through (3,3) 18 (C)
9. (A) Must have negative slope and negative y-intercept.
The graph looks like this 19. (D)
Looking at the graph we see that the slope is 2 and
that the y-intercept is 1. So the equation of line
must be y = 2 x + 1 . The slope of line  must be
-1/2 . At the point (1.2,3.4) the equation of line  is
y = −.5x + b, 3.4 = −.5(1.2) + b, 3.4 = −.6 + b, 4 = b
10. (B) Test answer choices to satisfy y = −.5 x + 4 .
y2 − y1 8−5 3 20. (A)
m= = = −20 − −5 −15
x2 − x1 3 −1 2 slope = = = −5
2 − −1 3
123
3.2 Angles and parallel lines
There are three types of angles to know:

0  acute angle  90
right angle = 90
90  obtuse angle  180

Supplementary angles comprise a straight angle (they sum to 180 degrees); whereas complementary
angles comprise a right angle (they sum to 90 degrees).

Remember that vertical angles are congruent (they have the same measure).

b
a=c
a c
b=d
d

The bulk of what you need to remember about angles and lines has to do with parallel lines with a
transversal line. The picture looks like this:

124
 a b
d c

e f
h g

There is a bit of terminology to be mastered with this. The interior angles are those angles that lie
inside the parallel lines, namely c, d, e and f. The exterior angles are those that lie outside the parallel
lines, namely a, b, h and g.

There are several sets of congruent pairs to remember, as you can see in the table below.

Vertical angles a=c

b=d
e=g
f=h
Alternate interior angles c=e
d=f
Corresponding angles a=e
d=h
b=f
c=g
Alternate exterior angles a=g
b=h

125
 3.2 Problems on angles and parallel lines
Questions 1 and 2 refer to the diagram A. I only
below. B. II only
C. I and II only
D. I and III only
b
E. II and III only
a c
4. Which of the following must be true?
d I. a=g
II. b+e=180
1. Which of the following must be true? III. d=h
I. a=c A. I only
II. a=d B. II only
III. a+b=c+d C. III only
A. I only D. I and III only
B. II only E. All must be true
C. III only 5. What is the measure of 2c + f + h ?
D. I and III only A. 90 degrees
E. II and III only B. 180 degrees
2. Which of the following may not be C. 270 degrees
supplementary? D. 360 degrees
A. a and b E. 450 degrees
B. a and c
_____________________________________
C. a and d
6. If A and B are complementary angles and
D. b and c
the measure of A is 20 degrees, what is the
E. c and d
measure of B?
_____________________________________
Use the following information to answer A. 70 degrees
questions 3-5. B. 90 degrees
C. 160 degrees
a b D. 180 degrees
d c
E. 270 degrees
7. If a and b are supplementary angles, and a
e f and c are complementary angles, then which of
h g the following must be true?
A. a+b+c = 270 degrees
3. Which of the following must be true? B. b - a = 90 degrees
I. a=c C. b - c = 90 degrees
II. a=h D. a+b-c = 90 degrees
III. a+c=e+g E. a+b = 90 degrees
126
 3.2 Solutions to problems on angles and parallel lines

1 (D) 6. (A)

I is true (a and c are vertical angles). II is not A + B = 90, B = 90 − 20 = 70

necessarily true. III is true (a+b=180=c+d).
7. (C)
2. (B)
This is a pair of equations:
A and C are congruent because they are
vertical angles; however they are not a + b = 180
necessarily supplementary. The only way they a + c = 90
could be supplementary would be if the lines
b − c = 180 − 90 = 90
were perpendicular.

3. (D)

I is true because a and c are vertical. II is false

because a and h are not alternate exterior. III
is true because a=c and e=g (vertical) and c=e
(alternate interior). Therefore a=c=e=g and
a+c=e+g.

4. (E)

I is true because a and g are alternate exterior

angles.

II is true because b=d, d=h and h+e=180.

III is always true because d and h are

corresponding angles.

5. (D)

e+f+g+h=360
c=g (corresponding angles)
c=e (alternate interior angles)
So e+f+g+h=c+f+c+h=2c+f+h=360.

127
3.3 Triangles
We begin with classifications of triangles. These can be useful generally and sometimes questions on
the test will ask about these directly.

Types of triangles

Triangles are popular on standardized tests, especially right triangles. But first we begin with
information about triangles in general. Using the sides as the criterion, there are three types of
triangles:

Sides Angles happen to be

Equilateral All congruent All 60 degrees
Isosceles Two congruent Two congruent
Scalene None congruent None congruent

Using the angles as the criterion, triangles can be classified as

Sides happen to be
Angles (c is the longest side)
Acute All angles < 90 degrees a 2 + b2  c 2
Right One angle = 90 degrees a 2 + b2 = c 2
Obtuse One angle > 90 degrees a 2 + b2  c 2
Area

The formulas for the area of a triangle are

Any triangle 1
A = bh
2
Right triangle 1
A = leg1  leg 2
2
Any triangle 1
A = ab sin C
2
Equilateral triangle s2 3
A=
4

The first formula above is familiar to most students. The second formula is just a special case of the
first: when the triangle is a right triangle, the legs are its height and base. The third formula may not
be known to most students and rarely comes up on the ACT®. It is very powerful because it can be
used with any triangle, but, on the other hand, you must have a SAS situation, where you know the
size of an angle and the lengths of the sides of the triangle that form the angle (see the diagram of a
general triangle below). The equilateral triangle formula is rarely used and can be derived using 30-
60-90 triangles (this is one of the practice problems).

128
Triangle Inequality

For reasons that are unclear, standardized tests are fond of the triangle inequality. The triangle
inequality simply states that any leg of any triangle is strictly less than the sum of the other two legs.
Graphically, it looks like this:

a<b+c
c a b<a+c
c<a+b

A
C
b

Note that it is only necessary to test whether the longest leg is strictly less than the sum of the other
two legs. In the diagram above, it is only necessary to test whether b is less than a + c . Using a
variety of means, a question may ask whether a particular triplet can form a triangle, for example
1,2,3. That cannot be a triangle because 3=1+2. However 1,2,2 can be a triangle because 2<1+2.

Largest and Smallest Angles and Sides

Along with the triangle inequality, remember that the longest side (b in the diagram above) is opposite
the largest angle (B in the diagram); whereas the shortest side (c in the diagram) is opposite the
smallest angle (C in the diagram). A special case is the right triangle. The hypotenuse of a right
triangle is the longest side (and it is opposite the largest angle, the right angle).

Congruent triangles
In school, a lot of time is spent proving that triangles are congruent. Although the syllabus for the
ACT® includes congruence, this topic has not been popular so far, and the test does not require
proofs. Nonetheless please remember that there are four ways to prove congruence for any triangles,
SSS, SAS, ASA, and AAS. If you are trying to establish congruence for right triangles, HL can be
used. Note that HL is just a variation of SSS because if the hypotenuse and one of the legs are
congruent, the other leg must be congruent because of Pythagorean Theorem.

Similar Triangles
Although congruence has not proved to be popular so far, similarity has. Two triangles are similar if
their corresponding angles are congruent and their corresponding sides are proportional. Similar
triangles are illustrated below. In the diagram below, ABC DEF . Take careful note of the
corresponding angles and sides. Also note that angles are labeled with capital letters; sides are
labeled with lower case letters.

129
 B

E
c a
f d

F
A C
b D e

A  D
a b c
B  E and = = = the constant of proportionality
d e f
C  F

A special case of similar triangles is where a line has been drawn through a triangle so that the line is
parallel to one of the sides of the triangle, as shown below. The result is two similar triangles, where
the larger triangle is similar to the smaller triangle.

A
C
E

Note that ADE and ABC are congruent because they are corresponding angles of parallel lines.
The same is true for AED and ACB . Having proved angles to be congruent we can conclude
that the triangles are similar (remember AA?). When writing out the similar statement, make sure you
get the corresponding sides lined up correctly, ABC ADE . Do you see how the corresponding
sides line up? The proportionality relationships are

AD AE DE
= =
AB AC BC

Right Triangles

The most famous theorem in all of math, the Pythagorean Theorem, applies to right triangles. The
theorem states
a 2 + b2 = c 2
where c is the length of the hypotenuse, and a and b are the lengths of the legs.

It is absolutely necessary to memorize the relationships of the sides of the two special triangles shown
below. You must be able to recognize these relationships when they show up on the test.

130
 45

60
x 2
x
2x
x

30 45
x 3 x

Be on the lookout for these special right triangles because they are very popular on standardized
tests. The table below gives some tips on how to spot them.

When you see: Look out for:

3 30-60-90
1 30-60-90
A side that is the hypotenuse
2
A hypotenuse that is twice the length of a side 30-60-90
An equilateral triangle 30-60-90
2 45-45-90
The diagonal of a square 45-45-90

A useful exercise is to use the Pythagorean Theorem to prove the relationships of the sides of each of
the special right triangles. The proof for the 45-45-90 triangle is shown below as an example, and the
30-60-90 triangle is left as an exercise.

( )
2
x2 + x2 = x 2

2 x2 = 2  2  x  x = 2 x2

131
 3.3 Practice problems on triangles

_____________________________________ 5. What is the side of an equilateral triangle

whose altitude is 3?
Use the following information to answer
questions 1-3. A. 3
B. 2 3
C. 3
D. 6
E. 1.5
6. What is the area of a square whose
diagonal is 2?
A. 1
1. What is the perimeter of ABC ?
B. 2
A. 3x + 15
B. x + 15 C. 2
C. x( x + 7)( x + 8) D. 4
D. x 2 + ( x + 7) 2 + ( x + 8) 2 E. 2 2
E. x 2 + ( x + 7)2 7. One leg of a right triangle is 5 and its
hypotenuse is 10. What is the size of its
2. If B is a right angle, what is the area of smallest angle?
ABC ? A. 15 degrees
A. 3x + 15 B. 30 degrees
1 C. 45 degrees
B. x( x + 7)
2 D. 60 degrees
1 E. 75 degrees
C. x( x + 8)
2 8. One leg of a right triangle is 7 and the
1 hypotenuse is 10. What is the length of the
D. ( x + 7)( x + 8) other leg?
2 A. 6
E. x + 15
B. 51
3. If B is a right angle, what is the value of x ? C. 36
A. 3 D. 149
B. 4 E. 9
C. 5 9. One side of a triangle is 7 and another side
D. 12 is 10. Which of the values below could be the
E. 13 third side of the triangle?
_____________________________________ I. 2 IV 16
4. What is the perimeter of an equilateral II. 3 V. 17
triangle whose area is 4 3 ? III. 4 VI. 18
A. 4 A. I and IV only
B. 8 B. II and V only
C. 12 C. III and IV only
D. 16 D. I, II and III only
E. 18 E. IV, V, and VI only
132
10. In the diagram below, ABC DEF . A. 2.0
What is the value of y-x?
B. 3.5
B
C. 5.0
E
9 x D. 7.5
3 5
E. 3.0
F
A C
21 D y 13. In ABC , side c=3 and side a=7. If B is
the largest angle, then side b could be

A. -8 A. 3

B. 5/3 B. 4
C. 7 C. 9
D. -63
D. 10
E. -53
E. 11
11. Which of the following statements would
be sufficient to conclude that ABC DEF ? 14. If ABC and EDB are right triangles and
I. AB=DE, AC=DF, A D CB=35, what is the value of CD ?

II. BC=EF, AC=DF, A D

III. BC=EF, A D, C F
A. I only
B. II only
C. I and III only
D. II and III only
E. All would be needed

12. In the diagram below, if AB ED , then

what is the value of x ?
A. 10

B. 14

C. 25

D. 49

E. 50

133
_____________________________________ 18. Suppose two buildings are 150 feet apart
Use the following information to answer and the taller building is 500 feet taller than the
questions 15 -17. smaller building. What is the distance from the
top of the taller building to the top of the
smaller building?
A. 18.7
B. 25.5
C. 193.6
D. 477
E. 522

19. In triangle ABC, AB=2, BC=3 and AC=5.

What type of triangle is triangle ABC?
A. isosceles
15. Which side of triangle ABC is the longest B. scalene and isosceles
side? C. scalene and acute
D. scalene and obtuse
A. AB
E. It is not possible for a triangle to
B. BC have those dimensions.
C. AC
20. If ABC DEF which of the following
D. AB and AC statements must be true?
E. AC and BC I. C  F

16. What type of triangle is triangle ABC? II. AB  DE

A. scalene and acute AB AC

III. =
DE DF
B. scalene and obtuse
A. I only
C. right
B. II only
D. isosceles and acute C. III only
E. isosceles and obtuse D. I and III only

17. If AB=2 and BC=3, what is the area of E. All are true
triangle ABC? 21. In triangle ABC, if AB= 5 and BC=7 then
A. 1.03 what value of AC would cause triangle ABC to
be obtuse and scalene?
B. 1.33
A. 6
C. 1.63
B. 8
D. 1.93
C. 9
E. 2.23 D. 12
_____________________________________ E. 13

134
 3.3 Solutions to practice problems on triangles
1. (A) 11. (C)
x + ( x + 7) + ( x + 8) = 3x + 15 I. True by SAS
2. (B) II. False, SSA does not prove congruence
1 1 III. True by AAS
A= bh = ( x)( x + 7)
2 2 12. (D)
3. (C) ABC DEC because of alternate interior
x 2 + ( x + 7) 2 = ( x + 8) 2 angles, E  B and A  D .
x 2 + ( x 2 + 14 x + 49) = x 2 + 16 x + 64 2 5
x 2 − 2 x − 15 = 0, ( x − 5)( x + 3) = 0, x = 5 = , 2 x = 15, x = 7.5
3 x
4. (C) 13. (C)
3 Side b is the longest side because angle B is the
A=s 2

4 largest angle. Therefore b must be greater than 3

s2 3 or 7. On the other hand, the triangle inequality
4 3= , s 2 = 16, s = 4, P = 12
4 requires b to be less than 3+7=10.
5. (B) 14. (A)
35 7
The altitude forms two 30-60-90 triangles. The = , 175 = 245 − 7CD, 10 = CD
altitude is opposite the 60 degree angle, so it is s/2. 35 − CD 5
If the altitude is 3 then 15. (B)
s 6 Angle C is 40 degrees and Angle A is 100 degrees.
3= 3, = s, 2 3 = s .
2 3 The longest side is opposite Angle A, side BC.
6.(B) 16. (E)
Angle C is 40 degrees and Angle A is 100 degrees,
The diagonal of a square forms two 45-45-90 which means that triangle ABC is isosceles.
triangles, with the diagonal being the hypotenuse of Because Angle A is greater than 90 degrees, the
each right triangle. So if the diagonal is 2 then triangle is also obtuse.
s2 + s2 = 22 , 2s2 = 4, s= 2, A = s2 = 2 . 17. (D)
7. (B) 1 1
A= ab sin C = (2)(3)sin 40 = 1.93
This must be a 30-60-90 triangle because the 2 2
hypotenuse is twice as long as of one of the sides. 18. (E)
Therefore the smallest angle is 30 degrees.
8. (B)
x2 + 72 = 102 , x2 = 100 − 49 = 51, x = 51
9. (C)
I. False 10 not  2 + 7
II False 10 not  3 + 7
III. True 10  4 + 7
19. (E)
IV True 16  7 + 10 The dimensions violate the triangle inequality
V. False 17 not  7 + 10 because 5=2+3
VI. False 18 not  7 + 10 20. (D)
I. is true because corresponding angles are
10. (A) congruent
3 y II. is false because corresponding sides are
= , 9 y = 63, y=7
9 21 proportional, not necessarily congruent
3 5 III. is true because corresponding sides are
= , 3x = 45, x=15
9 x porportional
y - x = 7 -15 = -8 21. (C)
To be obtuse, AC  5 + 7 , AC  8.6
2 2 2

To satisfy the triangle inequality AC<12.

135
3.4 Circles

There are just a few things to remember about circles, and most of them are things you probably know
already. Everyone remembers that the central angle of an entire circle measures 360 degrees and
that the measure of the entire arc of a circle is 360 degrees. But you must also remember the
relationship between arcs, central angles, and inscribed angles, as shown below.
A

B A

2x
2x
O
O
x C
B
C

Take a look at circle O on the left. It has a central angle AOC ( AOC is a central angle because
its vertex is the center of the circle). Note that the measure of central angle AOC is the same as
the measure of its inscribed arc, AC . On the other hand, ABC is an inscribed angle, not a central
angle (its vertex is not at the center of the circle). Its measure is one-half the measure of its inscribed
arc, AC .

Circle O on the right above illustrates a special case of an inscribed angle. ABC is inscribed in a
semi-circle, where chord AC is a diagonal of the circle. Therefore AC is a semi-circle and must be
180 degrees (half of a 360 degree circle). Because ABC is inscribed in a semi-circle, its measure
must be 90 degrees (half of the 180 degree arc in which it is inscribed). For some reason, questions
about inscribed right angles are popular.

Sectors
Another favorite topic has to do with sectors of circles. Think of these as slices from a pizza pie. You
need to memorize formulas for the area of the pizza slice (area of the sector) and the length of the
crust of the pizza slice (arc length). These are shown below.

136
In the figures above, notice that the central angle, which is x degrees, is the key to understanding how
these formulas work. As x increases, the size of the slice increases. If the slice were half of the
pizza, x would be 180 degrees. The formulas simply take the fraction of the whole that the central
angle represents and then multiply that fraction by the area of the whole pie (  r 2 ) or by the
circumference of the whole pie ( 2 r ).
To learn how to solve a problem where the central angle is measured in radians, see Unit 6.2.

Equation of a circle and completing the square

Another favorite topic is the equation of a circle. If you know the coordinates of the center of the circle
(h, k ) and you know that the radius is r , then the equation of the circle is:
( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = r 2
Unfortunately test problems may not be quite so straightforward. More advanced problems may ask
you to find the equation of a circle by completing the square, a technique that was covered in Unit
2.12 concerning equations of parabolas. If you are not comfortable with completing the square please
review that earlier unit. In this unit we complete the square in two variables. For example, suppose
you are asked to find the center and radius of a circle with the equation x 2 − 2 x + y 2 + 4 y = −4 .

Group the terms involving x and y separately ( x 2 − 2 x) + ( y 2 + 4 y ) = −4

Add (b / 2) 2 to the x terms and y terms ( x 2 − 2 x + 1) + ( y 2 + 4 y + 4) = −4 + 1 + 4

Factor the x terms and y terms ( x − 1)( x − 1) + ( y + 2)( y + 2) = 1

Simplify ( x − 1) 2 + ( y + 2) 2 = 12

The circle in question has a center at (1, -2) and a radius of 1.

Tangents
Lastly, it is necessary to remember that the tangent to a circle forms a right angle with the radius of a
circle at the point where the tangent and radius meet. This is illustrated below.

In addition to the right angles that are formed at the points of tangency, notice that we have two
congruent right triangles, AOB  COB . Of particular interest is that the external point B is
equidistant from the points of tangency, or AB  CB .

137
Circle graphs (pie charts)
Most people rely on computers to construct a circle graph (also known as a pie chart). But sometimes
you will see a question that asks you to construct it by hand. To see how, consider a sock drawer with
10 red socks, 40 white socks and 30 blue socks. To construct a circle graph, just calculate the size of
the central angle for each color:

 10   40   30 
red =   360 = 45 , white =   360 = 180 , blue =   360 = 135
 80   80   80 

Once the central angles are calculated, it is easy to draw the circle graph. In this case it would look
like

138
 3.4 Practice problems on circles
1. If circle A has a radius that is twice the A. 4
length of the radius of circle B, then the B. 8
following must be true: C. 12
I. The area of circle A is two times the D. 16
area of circle B. E. 18
II. The circumference of circle A is two 4. If a sector has an arc length of  and a
times the circumference of circle B. radius of 10, what is the size of its central
III. The area of circle A is four times the angle (in degrees)?
area of circle B. A. 4
A. I only B. 8
B. II only C. 12
C. III only D. 16
E. 18
D. II and III only
E. I and II only 5. Billy ordered a pizza with a crust that is 10
inches long. What is the area of the pizza?
2. In the figure below, which of the following A. 5
must be true? B. 10
60 degrees C. 20
d
D. 25
E. 30
a

b 6. A tangent is drawn to a circle from an

external point that is 20 inches from the center
of the circle. If the external point is 10 inches
from the point of tangency, what is the radius
of the circle?
c
50
A. 10
B. 10 3
I. a=60
C. 10 5
II. c-d=50
D. 20
III. b=120 E. 2 5
A. I only
7. About 20% of the clothes that Rachel has
B. II only are from Italy. If she were to construct a circle
graph of her clothes, what would be the size (in
C. III only
degrees) of the central angle representing
D. I and II only Italy?
E. I and III only A. 20
B. 36
3. If a circle is divided into eight congruent
C. 72
sectors and each sector has an area of 8 ,
D. 80
what is the radius of the circle?
E. 88

139
8. If the area of a circle is 25 and the area of 12. A circle graph is to be constructed from the
a sector of that circle is 7 then what is the data below. What is the size (in degrees) of
measure of the central angle of that sector? the angle representing math majors?
A. 4 degrees
Major Number of
B. 8 degrees
Students
C. 55 degrees Math 50
D. 101 degrees Science 150
E. 150 degrees Business 300
Other 400
9. Chloe rides her bicycle at the speed of 
feet per second. If her bicycle wheel has a A. .05
radius of 1.5 feet, how many revolutions does B. 5
the wheel turn in one minute?
C. 10
A. 0.05 D. 20
B. 0.30 E. 25
C. 0.60 13. If a circle is tangent to the x-axis at x=5
D. 20 and is tangent to the y-axis at y=-5, what is the
equation of the circle?
E. 26.7
( x + 5) + ( y + 5) = 25
2 2
A.
10. If a sector of a circle has an area of 
( x + 5) + ( y − 5) = 25
2 2
units squared and the measure of its central B.
angle (in degrees) is an integer, then the radius
( x − 5) + ( y + 5) = 25
2 2
of the circle must be C.

( x − 5) + ( y − 5) = 25
2 2
A.  D.

B. 6 E. x 2 + y 2 = 25
C. 10 14. What are the coordinates of the center of a
D. 36 circle whose equation is x 2 + 6 x + y 2 − 2 y = 6 .
E. 42 A. (6,-2)
11. In the diagram below, find the value of x B. (-6,2)
(in degrees). C. (3,-1)
D. (-3,1)
E. (3,-2)

15. What is the center of a circle whose radius

is 2 2 and travels through the point (3,-1)?

A. (3, -1)
A. 20 B. (1, -3)
B. 30 C. (2, 2)
D. (-3, -2)
C. 40
E. (3.3)
D. 50
E. 60

140
 3.4 Solutions to practice problems on circles
1 (D) 10. (B)
I is false and III is true:  n 
 =  r
2

 360 
AA  rA2 ( 2rB )
2
n 2
= = =4 1= r
AB  rB 2 rB 2 360 2
360 = nr , n = 10 and r 2 = 36, r = 6
II is true:
11. (C)
CA 2 rA rA 2rB
= = = =2
CB 2 rB rB rB
2. (B)
I is false; a=30, inscribed angle
II is true because c=90 and therefore d=40
III is false because b=60, central angle.
12. (D)
3. (B)
 50 
 45  2
8 = 
1 2   360 = 20
  r , 8 = r , 64 = r , 8 = r
2
 900 
 360  8
4. (E) 13. (C)
 x   x 
 =  2 10, 1 = 20  
 360   360 
1 x
= , x = 18
20 360
5. (D)
2 r = 10 , r = 5 (5,-5)

A =  r = 25
2

6. (B)
r 2 + 102 = 202 center= ( 5,-5) , radius=5
( x-5) + ( y + 5)
2 2
r 2 = 400 − 100 = 300 = 52
r = 300 = 10 3 14. (D)
7. (C) Complete the square
.20(360) = 72 ( x 2 + 6 x) + ( y 2 − 2 y ) = 6
8. (D) ( x 2 + 6 x + 9) + ( y 2 − 2 y + 1) = 6 + 9 + 1
7 x ( x + 3) 2 + ( y − 1) 2 = 16
= , x = 100.8
25 360 15. (B)
9. (D) ( x − h) 2 + ( y − k ) 2 = r 2 , (3 − h) 2 + (−1 − k ) 2 = 8
Chloe travels at 60 feet minute. Each You must backsolve the answer choices to find
revolution is 2 r = 3 feet. Therefore, the that (1,-3) works:
wheel makes 60 / 3 = 20 revolutions per (3 − 1) 2 + (−1 − −3) 2 = 22 + (−2) 2 = 4
minute.

141
3.5 Polygons
A polygon is a closed shape with n straight sides. If n=3 the polygon is a triangle. If n=4 the polygon
is a quadrilateral, etc. There are two formulas to be memorized for polygons:
sum of interior angles = ( n − 2 )180
sum of exterior angles = 360
A regular polygon has all sides congruent and all interior angles congruent. A three sided regular
polygon is an equilateral triangle, whereas a four sided regular polygon is a square. To find the
measure of an angle of a regular polygon, take the sum of the angles and divide by the number of
sides.

Quadrilaterals
The most popular polygon is the four-sided polygon, or quadrilateral. There are quite a few properties
to remember about quadrilaterals, and the easiest way to remember them is to use a “quadrilateral
tree,” as shown below.

The key to understanding the tree is that properties are inherited by the “children” from the “parents.”
The parallelogram is a special type of quadrilateral, the rectangle is a special type of parallelogram,
and the square is a special type of rectangle. For example, the diagonals of a rectangle bisect each
other because that property is inherited from the parallelogram.

142
 3.5 Practice problems on polygons
1. How large (in degrees) is the interior angle 5. If a rectangle has an area of 60 units and a
of a regular pentadecagon (all 15 sides are width of 5 units, what is the length of its
congruent)? diagonal?
A. 40 A. 61
B. 110 B. 12
C. 13
C. 125
D. 156 D. 119
E. 15
E. 163
6. In the parallelogram below, what is the
2. How large (in degrees) is the exterior angle measure (in degrees) of z?
of a regular dodecagon (all 12 sides are
congruent)? 3x+19

A. 15
B. 30
C. 60 z 8x-1
D. 90
A. 14.7
E. 105
B. 63.2
3. If sum of the interior angles of a regular C. 116.8
polygon is 1800 degrees, how many sides
D. 149
does it have?
E. 155
A. 6
7. If the base of a parallelogram is doubled
B. 8 and its height is tripled, the ratio of the area of
C. 12 the new parallelogram to the area of the old
parallelogram is
D. 14
A. 2
E. 16
B. 3
4. In the parallelogram below, what is the C. 6
measure of z (in degrees)?
D. 8
E. 36
z
8. If the area of a square is 10 square units,
what is the sum of its diagonals?
A. 2 5
2x 5x+75
B. 4 5
A. 15
C. 2 10
B. 30
C. 45 D. 4 10
D. 60 E. 6 10
E. 75

143
9. If the area of the trapezoid below is 140 12. If AE is 10 units long, then how long is
square units, what is the height? CD?
A. 5
B. 10
C. 15
D. 20
A. 4 E. 25
B. 6 13. What is the measure (in degrees) of C ?
C. 8
A. 30
D. 28
B. 45
E. 32
____________________________________ C. 60
Use the following information to answer D. 120
questions 10 and 11. E. 160
Point E is the center of square ABCD. _____________________________________
14. A circle is inscribed in a square, as shown
below. If the diagonal of the square is 36 units,
what is the diameter of the circle?

10. If the area of ADE is 4/3, then the area

of square ABCD would be
A. 9/4
B. 3/1 A. 3 2
C. 4/1 B. 9 2
D. 16/3 C. 18 2
E. 9/2 D. 36 2
11. If DE is 5 units long, then the area of E. 4 2
square ABCD would be
15. If the perimeter of the regular hexagon
A. 5 2
below is 12 3 , what is the height (h) of the
B. 10 triangle shown?
C. 25
D. 50
E. 75
_____________________________________
Use the following information to answer
questions 12 and-13.
Quadrilateral ABCD is a parallelogram and
ABE is equilateral.
A. 1
B. 2
C. 3
D. 4/3
E. 3/4

144
 3.5 Solutions to practice problems on polygons
1. (D) 9. (C)

Interior angles sum to (15 − 2)180 = 2340. 140 =

1
h(20 + 15), 280 = 35h, 8 = h
2
Each interior angle must be 2340/15 = 156
degrees. 10. (D)

2. (B) The shaded region comprises 1/4 of the

square. So the area of the square is four times
Each exterior angle must be 360/12 = 30
 4  16
degrees. the area of the shaded region, A = 4   =
3 3
3. (C)
11. (D)
1800 = (n − 2)180
If DE=5 then AE=5. By Pythagorean Theorem
10 = n − 2, n = 12 sides
Area = AD2 = 52 + 52 = 50
4. (B)
12. (B)
Because they are supplementary,
2 x + ( 5x + 75) = 180, x = 15 If AE is 10 units long then AB is also 10 units
long because triangle ABE is equilateral. If AB
z = 2 x = 2 15 = 30 is 10 units long then CD is 10 units long
5. (C) because opposite sides of a parallelogram are
congruent.
5l = 60, l = 12
13. (D)
52 + 122 = d 2 , 169 = d 2 , 13 = d
If triangle ABE is equilateral then BAE is 60
6. (D)
degrees. Then BAD is 120 degrees because
Because of alternate interior angles of parallel it is supplemental. Therefore C must also be
lines, 120 degrees because opposite angles of a
3x + 19 = 8 x − 1, 5 x = 20, x = 4 parallelogram are congruent.

Angle z and 8x-1 are supplementary, so 14. (C)

The diameter of the circle is equal to the side
z + (8x −1) = 180, z + 31 = 180, z = 149
of the square. By Pythagorean Theorem
7. (C)
s2 + s2 = 362 , s2 = 648, s = 648 = 18 2
old = bh
15. (C)
new = (2b)(3h) = 6bh
new / old = 6 /1 The hexagon consists of six congruent
triangles, including the one shown. If you draw
8. (B)
an altitude from the center of the hexagon to

( ) +( ) the base of the triangle as shown, it forms two

2 2
10 10 = d2
congruent 30-60-90 triangles. The base of
10 + 10 = d 2 each right triangle is 3 which means that the
d = 20 = 2 5 height must be 3  3 = 3.
d +d =4 5
145
3.6 Solids
Fortunately there are only three solids that are popular on the ACT®: the rectangular solid, the cube,
and the cylinder.

Rectangular solids

Take a look below at a diagram of a rectangular solid. Think of a sandbox filled with sand. It has a
certain width and a certain length, which define the base of the sandbox, and it has a certain height.
The box has six faces. Each face is a rectangle with a surface area (SA) equal to the area of its
respective rectangle. The total surface area of the rectangular solid is the sum of the surface areas of
the faces.

height

length

width

Volume=lwh
SA=2hw+2lw+2lh

Cubes

An important special case of the rectangular solid is the cube. The width, length and height of a cube
are all the same, represented by the letter s which stands for side. The volume and surface area of
the cube are:

Volume = lwh = s  s  s = s 3
SA = 2hw + 2lw + 2lh = 2s 2 + 2s 2 + 2s 2 = 6s 2

Cylinders

When you think of a cylinder, think of a can of soup (or soda or beer, whichever you prefer). The
volume of a cylinder is the area of the circular base times the height of the cylinder. The surface area
is a bit trickier. It is the sum of the areas of the two circular bases plus the area of the side. To get
the area of the side, pretend to have removed both lids of the can. Then cut the can vertically and

146
flatten out the sides. The length of the resulting rectangle will be the circumference of the circular
base, and the width of the rectangle is the height of the cylinder.

height

radius

Volume =  r 2 h
SA = 2 r 2 + 2 rh

Diagonals of rectangular solids

An important type of question that you might see on a standardized test involves the diagonal of a
rectangular solid. When you see a question of this sort, use the Pythagorean Theorem twice. First
find the legs of the right triangle formed by the diagonal, then find the diagonal itself.

How many small things fit in a big thing?

Another important type of problem involving solids is the question of how many small solids can fit in a
large solid. To find the answer, calculate the volume of the large solid and then divide by the volume
of the small solid. For a fun example, find the number of glasses of beer that can be served from a
keg (assuming all glasses are the same and all participants are over 21) by dividing the volume of the
keg by the volume of the glass. IMPORTANT NOTE: This same reasoning can be applied to area.
How many tiles are needed to cover a floor? Calculate the area of the floor and divide by the area of
each tile.

147
 Practice problems on solids (unit 3.6)
1. What is the width of a rectangular solid with 7. A roll of wallpaper is 3 feet wide and 25 feet
a volume of 375, length of 5 and height of 5? long. How many rolls will be needed to cover a
A. 5 cube whose edge is 15 feet?
B. 10 A. 3
C. 15 B. 12
D. 25 C. 16
E. 75
D. 18
2. How many cubes of length 2 would it take to E. 45
fill a rectangular solid with a volume of 120?
A. 15 8. What is the length of the diagonal of a
B. 30 rectangular solid with a length of 4 and a width
C. 45 of 3 and a height of 6?
D. 60 A. 5
E. 75 B. 6
3. What is the height of a cylinder whose
volume is 18 and whose radius is 3? C. 7.8
A. 2 D. 8.5
B. 4 E. 9
C. 6
9. If 50 guests are expected at a party, and
D. 8
each guest is expected to drink 3 cylindrical
E. 10
glasses of punch, and each glass has a radius
4. How long is the edge of a cube whose
of 5cm and a height of 10 cm, what must be
surface area is 150 square units?
the minimum capacity of the punch bowl (in
A. 2
cubic centimeters)?
B. 5
A. 7500
C. 2.5 6
B. 12500
D. 5 6
E. 25 C. 25000
5. What is the surface area of a cylinder with a D. 37500
radius of  and a height of  ? E. 50000
A. 2 2
10. A cylindrical bowl with a radius of 3 inches
B. 2 3
contains 54 cubic inches of punch. If each
C. 4 2 ice cube has an edge of 2 inches, what will be
D. 4 3 the height (in inches) of the liquid after 9 ice
E. 4 4 cubes are added to the bowl?
6. What is the length of the diagonal of a cube
whose side is 3 units? A. 6 + (8 /  )
B. 9 + (8 /  )
A. 2 2 C. 18 + (8 /  )
B. 2 3 D. 6 + (9 /  )
C. 3 E. 9 + (24 /  )
D. 3 2
E. 3 3
148
 Solutions to practice problems on solids (unit 3.6)

1.(C) 8. (C)
375 = 5  5  h, 15 = h . Find the diagonal of the base:
32 + 42 = d 2 , 5=d

2. (A) Find the diagonal of the cube:

120 6 + 52 = d 2 ,
2
36 + 25 = d 2 , 61 = d
= 15
23
9. (D)
3. (A) Glasses are 50  3 = 150

18 =  32 h, 2=h Each glass holds   52 10 = 250

Capacity must be 150  250 = 37500

4. (B)

SA = 150 = 6 s 2 10. (A)

25 = s 2 , 5 = s Punch only:  32 h = 54 , h = 6

72 8
Ice only:  32 h = 9(8), h = =
5. (D) 9 

SA = 2 r 2 + 2 rh = 2 3 + 2 3 = 4 3

6. (E)
Find the diagonal of the base:
32 + 32 = d 2 , 3 2 =d
Find the diagonal of the cube:

( )
2
32 + 3 2 = d 2, 9 + 18 = d 2 , 3 3=d

7. (D)
Each roll has 3  25 = 75 square feet.

Cube has 15 15  6 = 1350 square feet.

1350/75 = 18 rolls

149
3.7 Trigonometric ratios
Most of the time the ACT® contains some trigonometry problems. But many of them are easy if you
know the basic information that is reviewed here. It is not necessary to be a trigonometry wizard to do
well on the test. Before starting this unit you might want to refresh your knowledge of triangles (see
unit 3.3).
This unit contains the trigonometry derived from the properties of right triangles. The main idea is
captured in the infamous mnemonic, SOHCAHTOA. Take a look at this diagram:

hypotenuse
opposite


adjacent

Notice that we have a right triangle, and we want to find the trigonometric ratios for one of its angles,
labeled  in the diagram. The three basic ratios, sine, cosine and tangent, are remembered through
SOHCAHTOA:

S= sin  is equal to
O= opposite over
H= hypotenuse.
C= cos  is equal to
A= adjacent over
H= hypotenuse.
T= tan  is equal to
O= opposite over
A= adjacent.

Reciprocals
The other three trigonometric ratios are the reciprocal functions: secant, cosecant and cotangent.
These are defined below:
1 1 1
sec  = csc  = cot  =
cos  sin  tan 
Complementary angles
You may remember from geometry that if two angles are complementary their measures add up to 90
degrees. It turns out that trigonometric ratios behave in an interesting way when two angles are
complementary, and this is illustrated below.
150
 a b
sin A = sin B =
c c
b a
cos A = cos B =
c c
a b
tan A = tan B =
b a
Notice that angles A and B are complementary. Also notice that sin A = cos B, cos A = sin B, and
tan A = cot B . This gives rise to the following relationships between complementary angles:

sin(90 −  ) = cos  , cos(90 −  ) = sin  , tan(90 −  ) = cot 

Identities

There are two identities from trigonometry that might be useful on the test. Using the diagram above,
we will prove
opp
sin  hyp opp
= = = tan  and
cos  adj adj
hyp

sin 2  + cos 2  = 1
The proofs of these identities are
b
sin B c b b2 a 2 a 2 + b2 c2
= = = tan B sin 2 B + cos 2 B = + = = 2 =1
cos B a a c2 c2 c2 c
c

Special right triangles (reference angles)

For some angles, called reference angles, you are expected to know the exact values of their
trigonometric ratios. Fortunately, these can be derived easily from the special right triangles that were
covered earlier in Unit 3.3, Triangles. The 30-60-90 and 45-45-90 triangles are shown below, along
with a table of their trigonometric ratios.

45

60
x 2
x
2x
x

30 45
x 3 x

151
 Reference sin  cos  tan 
Angle
0 0 1 0

30 x 1 x 3 3 x 1 3
= = = =
2x 2 2x 2 x 3 3 3
45 x 1 2 x 1 2 x
= = = = =1
x 2 2 2 x 2 2 2 x
60 x 3 3 x 1 x 3
= = = 3
2x 2 2x 2 x
90 1 0 Undefined

Similar triangles
This may sound obvious, but the sine of a 30 degree angle is always one-half, no matter how large or
how small the right triangle happens to be. This is true because the trigonometric functions are ratios,
and the ratio of the opposite side to the hypotenuse is always one-half, provided the angle is 30
degrees. From the triangles Unit 3.3 you may recall that if two triangles have congruent angles and
proportional sides, they are similar. If you know the measure of the angles and the sides in one
triangle, these can be used to find the angles and sides in the similar triangle.

In the diagram above, suppose triangle ABC is similar to triangle DEF, ABC DEF . Because
3
angles A and D are congruent, sin A = sin D = . If you were given that DE=3 then you could find the
5
3 EF EF
EF by using the fact that sin D = = = .
5 DE 3

Inverse trigonometric functions

Inverse trigonometric functions are used to find the measure of an angle when you know one of its
−1
trigonometric ratios. For example, sin (1/ 2) = 30 . In words this says that the angle whose sine is
one-half has a measure of 30 degrees. You can find the inverse trigonometric ratios above the keys
on the calculator for the regular trigonometric functions.

152
 3.7 Practice problems on trigonometric ratios
_____________________________________ sin 2  − sin 4 
5. The expression simplifies to
Use the following information to answer cos 4 
questions 1-3. A. sin 2 
B. cos2 
B
C. tan 2 
D. tan 4 
13
5 E. cot 2 

6. The (cos 30 )(sin 45 ) is equal to:

A
12
C 5
A.
2
1. For the right triangle above, the sec A is
5
A. 12 / 5 B.
4
B. 13/ 5 6
C.
C. 12 /13 2
D. 13/12 6
D.
E. 12/13 4
2. For the triangle above, sin A + cos B equals E. 1
A. 10 /13 7. If the ratio of the angles in a triangle is 3:2:1
then the sine of the smallest angle is
B. 17 /13
C. 24/13 A. 1/ 2
D. 30/13 B. 2/4
E. 36/13 3
C.
3. The following are equal to 5 /12 EXCEPT 2
A. tan A 3
D.
B. cos B 3
E. Cannot be determined
C. cot(90 − A)
8. If sin x = cos y then which of the following
D. 1/ cot A
could be false?
E. All are equivalent
I. cos x = sin y
_____________________________________
II. tan x = tan y
4. If 0    90 and sin  = 5/ 7 then the cot 

equals III. x + y = 90
A. 5 /12
A. I only
B. 7 /12
B. II only
C. 13 /12 C. III only
D. 2 6 /5 D. I and II only
E. 13/12 E. None are false
153
9. If 0    90 and sin  = .75 what is the 12. If sin x = cos y and x − y = a then y can be
secant of  ? expressed as
A. 90 − a
A. 5 /3
B. a − 90
B. 7/4
a
C. 45 −
C. 4/ 7 2
D. 5/4 a
D. − 45
E. 3/ 5 2
E. None of the above
a
10. In the diagram below, if sin y = then 13. In the diagram below, AB is parallel to
b
DE . If sin E = a , then the cos A would be
sin x would be
equal to

a a
A. A.
b 2
b B. a
B.
a a
C.
b−a 1 − a2
C.
b
D. 1 − a2
b −a
2 2
D. E. a2
b
14. If a ramp is 15 feet long and rises to a height
E. b − a2
2
of 10 feet, which of the equations below could
not be used to find the angle of the ramp?
d 2 − e2 d −e
11. If sin x = and cos x = 2 then
e e
tan x would be
e
A.
d +e
e
B.
d −e A.  = tan−1 (2 5 / 5)
d 3 − e3 B.  = sin −1 (10 /15)
C.
e3
C.  = cos−1 ( 5 / 3)
e −d
3 3
D. D.  = csc −1 (3 / 2)
e3
E. e(d + e) E.  = tan −1 (10 /15)

154
 3.7 Solutions to practice problems on trigonometric ratios
1 (D) 8. (B)

12 If sin x = cos y then x and y are

cos A =
13 complementary angles.
1 13
sec A = = 9. (C)
cos A 12
2. (A)
5 5 10
sin A + cos B = + =
13 13 13
3. (B)
5 10. (D)
cos B =
13 Because x and y are complementary
4. (D)
a
If a right triangle has a hypotenuse of 7 and sin y = cos x = .
b
one of its legs is 5, then the length of the other
leg is: a 2 b2 − a 2
sin 2 x = 1 − cos 2 x = 1 − =
b2 b2
72 − 52 = 49 − 25 = 24 = 2 6
11. (E)
2 6
cot  =
5 d 2 − e2
 (d − e)(d + e)   e 
2
sin x e
tan x = = =    = e( d + e)
cos x d −e  e  d − e 
5. (C) e2
12. (C)
sin 2  − sin 4   sin 2   (1 − sin 2  )
=  Because x and y are complementary we have
cos 4   cos   cos 
2 2

a system of equations
x + y = 90 . Subtracting
 cos 2   x− y =a
= tan 2    = tan 
2

 cos  
2
these gives 2 y = 90 − a .

6. (D) 13. (B)

3 2 6 Because D and E are complementary ,
(cos30 )(sin 45 ) =  =
2 2 4 a = sin E = cos D . D A because they
7. (A) are alternate interior angles of parallel lines.
Therefore a = cos D = cos A .
This is a 30-60-90 triangle.
3x + 2 x + x = 180, 6 x = 180, x = 30 14. (E)

1 The base of the triangle is 125 = 5 5

sin 30 =
2

155
 4. Data Analysis
Lately the ACT® has evolved to place more emphasis on topics concerning the analysis of data sets.
High schools are responding by adding this type of content to their Algebra 2 classes, but students do
not really get a thorough exposure unless they take a statistics elective. This chapter attempts to
refresh the basic content and fill gaps that are likely to appear on the test.

4.1 Data interpretation

This should be the easiest topic in this chapter for most students, and unfortunately it does not appear
very often on the ACT®. This unit provides an overview of the various tables and graphs that you are
likely to see on the test, along with some simple calculations that can be made such as fractions,
percentages, and slope (yes, linear models show up in these problems as well).

One way tables

Consider the life expectancy in the United States from 1930 through 1990.

Year US Life Expectancy (years)*

1930 59.7
1950 68.2
1970 69.7
1990 75.4
*From the National Center for Health Statistics.

This table shows some improvement in life expectancy over time, presumably due to better living
conditions and health care. But be careful: the data do not explain why life expectancy improved.

You might be asked to make calculations using these data, like the percent improvement in life
 69.7 − 59.7 
expectancy from 1930 through 1970, which would be  100 = 16.8% . Or the average
 59.7 
annual rate of change in life expectancy from 1930 through 1970, which would be
69.7 − 59.7 10
= = .25 .
1970 − 1930 40

One way frequency tables

Another type of one-way table is the one-way frequency table. For example, suppose the number of
television sets per family living in Smallville USA is given below.

Number of TV sets Number of families

0 10
1 20
2 50
3 20
4 10

157
More elaborate calculations might be asked for this table (see the next two units for more examples),
but suppose you are asked for the average number of TV sets per family. That calculation would be
10(0) + 20(1) + 50(2) + 20(3) + 10(4) 220
= =2
10 + 20 + 50 + 20 + 10 110

Cumulative frequency tables

Cumulative frequency tables are tricky to read. Consider a group of 85 high school students who
were asked how many text messages they send per month. Instead of showing the number of
students, the cumulative table shows the cumulative number. Cumulative tables are very convenient
for certain uses. For example, a quick look tells us that 63 students had 10 or fewer messages.
Based on the study you might conclude that the probability of sending 10 or fewer texts is 63/85 or
74%.

Text messages per month Cumulative number of students

0 5
1-2 8
3-10 63
27-50 73
51+ 85

Do not confuse this table with a traditional frequency table. For example the number of students who
texted once or twice per month is 3 students, not 8. Eight students texted twice or less per month.
The number of students who texted 11-26 times per month was 73-63=10.

Two-way tables

US Life Expectancy (years)*

Year White Black Overall
1930 61.4 48.1 59.7
1950 69.1 60.8 68.2
1970 71.7 64.1 69.7
1990 76.1 69.1 75.4
*From the National Center for Health Statistics.

Two-way tables provide more information and therefore more insight. This particular table enables
you to see differences between life expectancy in races but does not explain the cause. You might be
asked to compare the percent improvement in life expectancy for whites vs blacks from 1930-1970:

 71.7 − 61.4   64.1 − 48.1 

Whites:   = 17% Blacks:   = 33%
 61.4   48.1 

Line graphs

Line graphs are pretty simple to read and interpret. In this example you might be asked where the
rate of improvement in life expectancy was smallest, 1930-1950, 1950-1970, or 1970-1990. The rate
of improvement is the slope, and the slope is smallest in 1950-1970.

158
Bar graphs

Bar graphs (histograms) are best for getting a quick impression of the underlying data without having
to read details in a table. The first bar graph below clearly illustrates that life expectancy rose during
the period of 1930-1990.
80
Life 70
Expectancy 60
(years)
50
40
30
20
10
0
1930 1950 1970 1990

In just a glance, you can see from the bar graph below that life expectancy has been rising over the
period 1930-1990, and that life expectancy has been higher for whites than for blacks throughout
those years.

80
Life
Expectancy 70
(years) 60
50
40 White
30 Black
20
10
0
1930 1950 1970 1990

159
 4.1 Practice problems on data interpretation
1. The table below shows the number of 4. What was the percentage decrease in the
people without health insurance in AnyWhere, number of girls without cell phones from grade
USA by age group. 2 through grade 4?
Age (years) Number of uninsured A. 25%
under 18 1,890 B. 50%
18-44 33,600
45-64 18,900 C. 60%
D. 83%
Of those under the age of 65 who are E. 95%
uninsured, what fraction are under 18? _____________________________________
Use the following information to answer
A. 18/126
questions 5-6.
B. 1,890/54,390
The bar graph shows cell phone ownership by
C. 33,600/54,390 grade and gender in Lilly's school.
D. 18,900/54,390
E. 18,900/35,490 Students with cell
_____________________________________
Use the following information to answer
phones in grades 1-5
questions 2-4. 40

The table below shows cell phone ownership 20 Boys

by grade and gender in Emily's school. Girls
0
Boys Girls 1 2 3 4 5
Grade With Without With Without
Phone Phone Phone Phone
1 5 35 10 30 5. If there are 80 students in the third grade,
2 15 20 20 25 approximately what percent of them have cell
3 18 32 25 15
phones?
4 22 15 30 10
5 30 5 35 5 A. 35%
B. 50%
2. What fraction of third grade boys have cell C. 65%
phones? D. 80%
A. 18/50 E. 90%
6. What conclusion can be drawn from the
B. 18/32
histogram?
C. 25/40 A. As fractions of the total student body,
D. 22/37 the fraction of girls with cell phones is larger
E. 22/15 than the fraction of boys with cell phones.
3. If Emily's school consists of grades 1 B. More students in sixth grade than fifth
grade have cell phones.
through 5, what percent of the student
population has cell phones? C. Girls use cell phones more frequently
than boys.
A. 22%
D. More girls have cell phones than boys
B. 30% in Lilly’s school.
C. 43% E. There are more students in grade 5
D. 52% than in grade 4.
_____________________________________
E. 55%
160
7. Alexandra started walking to her friend's 9. How many students played video games 3
house. She stopped to call and wait for an hours per week?
Uber car. Then she took the car to her friend's
A. 3
house. If the total trip took 45 minutes,
approximately how many more minutes were B. 8
spent in the car than were spent walking? C. 12
D. 20
E. Cannot be determined

10. How many students played 11-21 hours

per week?
A. 3
B. 5
C. 8
D. 12
E. 28

A. 5
11. How many students played 10 hours per
B. 10 week or less?
C. 15 A. 5
D. 20 B. 8
E. 25 C. 20
_____________________________________ D. 28
Use the following information to answer E. 31
questions 8-13.
Luke interviewed the students in his class to 12. If a student were selected at random from
find out how many hours they spent playing Luke’s class, what is the probability that he
video games. played fewer than 22 hours per week?
A. 20/92
Time spent playing Cumulative
video games (hours number of B. 20/31
per week) students
C. 31/92
0 5
1-2 8 D. 28/92
4-10 20 E. 28/31
11-21 28
22+ 31
13. If a student were selected at random from
8. How many students did Luke interview? Luke’s class, what is the probability that he
A. 8 played 1-2 hours per week?
A. 8/31
B. 20
B. 8/92
C. 28
C. 5/31
D. 31
D. 5/92
E. 92
E. 3/31
161
 4.1 Solutions to practice problems on data interpretation
1. (B) 7. (B)

car − walk = 20 −10 = 10

2. (A) 8. (D)

18 18 This is a cumulative frequency table.

=
18 + 32 50
9. (C)

There is no entry for 3 hours but the amount

3. (D) can be found by 20-8=12.

 90 + 120   210  10. (C)

 100 =  100 = 52
 90 + 107 + 120 + 85   402  This can be found by 28-20=8.

11. ( C)

4. (C) The value can be read directly off the table.

 25 − 10  12. (E)
 100 = 60
 25  The value can be read directly off the table.

13. (E)
5. (B) The number who played 1-2 hours is 8-5=3.

 18 + 22 
 100 = 50
 80 

6. (D)

A) The bar graph does not tell us how many

boys and girls are in the school.

B) and C) are inferences that are not supported

by the histogram

(E) The bar graph does not show the total

number of students in each grade.

162
4.2 Probability
Probability has become a popular topic on the ACT®. It was always in the syllabus for the test, but
now it appears more frequently. Unless you are taking a statistics course in school, you should spend
a lot of time here.

Counting

You may be thinking "I already know how to count!" but I think you will find that counting on
standardized tests has its challenges.

Suppose you are having a contest and there are three contestants, Alan, Bob and Charlie. One will
be awarded first prize, one will be awarded second prize and one will be awarded third prize. How
many different outcomes could there be? You could make a list of outcomes: ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA,
CAB, and CBA. That makes six outcomes. A faster way is to use this rule:

The number of ways that n objects can be arranged sequentially is n !

You may not recognize the factorial symbol, (!). It is used widely in counting problems. The formal
definition is

n ! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)(n − 3).....1

Also it is useful to note that 0! = 1.

The factorial key may be found on your graphing calculator by

pressing math-prb-!. Try using the calculator to solve the
problem above by finding that 3! = 3  2 1 = 6 . Just press 3-
math-prob-!-enter.

Now that you have mastered ordering n objects sequentially, it is time to consider changing the
problem (you didn't think things were going to stay so easy did you?). Let's say that there are four
contestants (Alan, Bob, Charlie, and David) and we are going to award two prizes: a first prize and a
second prize. Now how many outcomes will there be? You could make a list: AB, AC, AD, BA, BC,
BD, CA, CB, CD, DA, DB, and DC. That makes 12 outcomes. A faster way is to use this rule, called
permutations. Note that in this situation order matters. The outcome AB is not the same as BA. In
AB Alan wins first prize, but in BA Bob wins first prize.

n!
The number of ways that n objects can be arranged sequentially, r at a time is n Pr =
( n − r )!

163
 The permutation key may be found on your graphing calculator
by pressing math-prb-nPr. Try using your calculator to solve the
4! 4  3  2 1
problem above by finding that 4 P2 = = = 12 .
(4 − 2)! 2 1
Just press 4-math-prob-nPr-2-enter.

Now that you have mastered selecting where order matters (permutations), we will discuss selecting
where order does not matter (combinations). Let's say that there are four contestants (Alan, Bob,
Charlie, and David) and two of them will be selected to continue into the next round of the competition.
In this situation, order does not matter. The outcome AB is the same as the outcome BA because
both Alan and Bob will make it into the next round. The list of outcomes would be AB, AC, AD, BC,
BD, and CD. That makes six outcomes. A faster way is to use this rule, called combinations:

n!
The number of ways that n objects can be selected (without order), r at a time is n Cr =
r !(n − r )!
The combination key may be found on your graphing calculator
by pressing math-prb-nCr. Try using your calculator to solve
the problem above by finding that
4! 4  3  2 1
4 C2 = = = 6 . Just press 4-math-prob-nCr-2-
2!(4 − 2)! 2 1  2 1
enter.

Some counting problems combine these concepts. Suppose Cooper wants to order two slices of
pizza and one drink. If there are five types of pizza slices and three drink choices, how many ways
can Cooper place his food order? The order of items in his food order does not matter, so for pizza he
5! 5  4  3  2 1
would have 5 C2 = = = 10 and for the drink he has 3. There would be 30 ways he
2!(5 − 2)! 2 1  3  2 1
could place his food order.

There is one last topic in counting and this is distinct permutations. Consider this problem: how many
ways can the letters A, B, B and C be ordered? If this were a classic permutation where the Bs could
be distinguished from each other the answer would be 4! = 4  3  2 1 = 24 . But the letters B cannot be
distinguished from each other. In this case we use the idea of distinct permutations. There are only
12 distinct permutations: BBAC, BBCA, BABC, BCBA, BACB, BCAB, ABBC, CBBA, ABCB, CBAB,
ACBB, and CABB.
164
To find the number of ways n things can be arranged where there are duplicate entries, use the
formula
n!
distinct permutations =
m1 !m2 !...
where m1 is the number of members in the first set of duplicates, m 2 is the number of members in the
second set of duplicates, etc.

In this example we have one set of duplicates with two members

n! 4! 4  3  2 1
distinct permutations = = = = 12
m1 !m2 !... 2! 2 1

Counting and probability

You may be wondering what counting has to do with probability. One way to define the probability of
an event is

number of outcomes that include the event

probability of an event =
number of all possible outcomes

To illustrate this let's go back to the first example, where there are three contestants, Alan, Bob and
Charlie. One will be awarded first prize, one will be awarded second prize and one will be awarded
third prize.

ABC , CBA 2 1
probability of Bob winning second prize = = =
ABC , ACB, BAC , BCA, CAB, CBA 6 3

In this case the event is that Bob wins second prize. That happens in two outcomes, and there is a
total of six possible outcomes.

Now we will use this definition of probability with the example, where there are four contestants (Alan,
Bob, Charlie, and David) and we are going to award two prizes: a first prize and a second prize.

AB, CB, DB 3 1
probability of Bob winning second prize = = =
AB, AC , AD, BA, BC , BD, CA, CB, CD, DA, DB, DC 12 4

In this case the event is that Bob wins second prize. This happens in three outcomes, and there is a
total of twelve possible outcomes.

Lastly consider the example where there are four contestants (Alan, Bob, Charlie, and David) and two
of them will be selected to continue into the next round of the competition.

AB, BC , BD 3 1
probability of Bob entering the next round = = =
AB, AC , AD, BC , BD, CD 6 2

In this case the event is that Bob enters the next round. This happens in three outcomes and there is
a total of six possible outcomes.

165
Sets and probability

A set is a collection of numbers (or other objects). Each number in the set is called a member or
element of the set. A set may be finite or infinite. For example:

A = {1, 2,3} and B={1,3,5,...} .

Set A is finite with three members. Set B contains the positive odd integers. It is infinite.

There are two operations to be done with sets: union and intersection. The union of two sets, denoted
by  , is a collection of elements that belong to either of the parent sets. The intersection of two sets,
denoted by  , is a collection of elements that belong to both of the parent sets. In the example
above

A  B = {1, 2,3,5, 7,9,11,...} and A  B = {1,3} .

Union and intersection may also be depicted graphically in what is called a Venn diagram. A general
Venn diagram for two sets is shown below.

Set A Set B

a c b

In this diagram, the quantity a represents elements that are in Set A but not Set B. Quantity b
represents elements that are in Set B but not in Set A. Quantity c represents elements that are in Set
A and Set B. Quantity d contains elements that are not in Set A and are not in Set B. When
expressed in terms of union and intersection,

A  B = {a, b, c} and A  B = {c} .

Area and probability

Previously we defined probability in terms of counting outcomes. In this unit, we take that general
idea and expand it. Take a look at the Venn diagram above. It should be intuitive that the
a+c
probability of an element being in Set A =
a+b+c+d

b+c
probability of an element being in Set B =
a+b+c+d
d
probability of an element not being in Set A and not in Set B =
a+b+c+d

166
In some problems you will see probability expressed in terms of area. Suppose that without looking,
you drop a ball into this special carton shown below, divided into three sections:

If the special carton is drawn to scale (trust what your eye is telling you), it should be intuitive that the
1
probability of the ball landing in Section A = , and the
2
1
probability of the ball landing in Section B = = probability of the ball landing in Section C .
4
Conditional probability
Sometimes you are asked to calculate a conditional probability (though the phrase "conditional
probability" is not used, the word “given” is often used). In the diagram above, the probability that a
ball lands in Section B, given that the ball does not land in Section A is one-half. In the Venn diagram
on the previous page, the probability an element is in Set A and Set B, given that the element is in Set
c
A, is . From these examples you can see that conditional probability impacts the denominator.
a+c

Independent Events
If you don't much care for the topic of probability, you are not alone. There is just one more concept to
be covered: independent events.

If event A and event B are independent, then the probability of event A happening
and event B happening is the product of their individual probabilities.
This sounds like a lot to learn, but it is simple and intuitive.
Suppose you are throwing a die (a die is a cube with six sides, each with a different number of dots
showing). We know that the probability of throwing any particular number is 1/6. We also know that
each throw of the die is independent of the other throws. Using the rule above, the
1 1 1
probability of throwing a 1 followed by a 2 = (prob of throwing 1)(prob of throwing 2) =  =
6 6 36
Consider another simple example. Andy has three different hats, one red, one white and one blue.
Bob has three different hats, one red, one white and one blue. If Andy and Bob choose their hats
independently then the probability that they both choose red hats is
1 1 1
probability of the two reds = (probability of Andy red)(probability of Bob red) =  =
3 3 9

167
 4.2 Problems on probability
_____________________________________ 5. Caroline never wears two pieces of clothing that
Use the following information to answer are the same color. If the colors of her shirts are
red, white, and blue, and the colors of her pants are
questions 1-3: red, white, and blue, how many different outfits
The pizza place in town offers two kinds of could Caroline wear?
A 2
crust (regular and whole wheat) and four
B. 3
different toppings (mushroom, onion,
C. 5
pepperoni, and sausage).
D. 6
1. How many different pizzas (each with one E. 9
topping) could a person order?
6. John is casting for the school musical. He has
A. 6 10 singers on stage and will choose the best singer
to play the hero, and the next best singer to play the
B. 8 villain. How many choices does John have for
C. 12 casting these roles?
A. 45
D. 16 B. 60
E. 18 C 75
2. How many different pizzas with regular D. 90
crust and two toppings could a person order? E. 105
A. 4 _____________________________________
B. 6 Use the following information to answer
questions 7-9.
C. 8
Amy, Bill, Caroline, and David must line up in
D. 12
single file
E. 16
7. How many arrangements of students can there
3. A big birthday party ordered five different be in that single file line?
pizzas. If they are to be arranged along a A. 10
buffet table, how many arrangements could B. 12
there be? C. 24
A. 5 D. 36
B. 10 E. 72
8. What is the probability that Amy and Bill will
C. 20
stand next to each other?
D. 40 A. 1/9
E. 120 B. 1/4
_____________________________________ C. 1/3
D. 1/2
(n + 2)! E. 4/9
4. The expression simplifies to
n! 9. If Amy and Bill are lined up in the first two places
what is the probability that David will be lined up
A. 2 last?
B. 3 A. 1/2
C. n B. 1/3
C. 1/4
D. n2
D. 2/3
E. n2 + 3n + 2 E. 3/4
168
_____________________________________ 14. Suppose the band and orchestra each
Use the following information to answer play once at different times on the same day.
questions 10-12. How many student performances will there be
on that day?
A = {1, 2,3} and B = {3, 4}
A. 50
10. The elements of A  B are
B. 200
A. {2}
C. 250
B. {3}
C. {2,3} D. 300
D. {1, 2,3} E. 350
E. {1, 2,3, 4} _____________________________________
11. If two numbers are chosen at random from
Use the following information to answer
set A, what is the probability that they sum to
three? questions 15 and 16.
A. 0
B. 1/2 A dart board consists of three concentric
C. 1/3 circles. The smallest circle (the bullseye) has a
D. 2/3 radius of 1 unit; the middle circle has a radius
E. 3/4 of 2 units; and the outer circle has a radius of 3
12. How many distinct ratios are formed when units.
the numerator is taken from set A and the
denominator is taken from set B?
A. 0
B. 2
C. 4
D. 6
E. 8
_____________________________________ 15. What is the probability that a dart will land
Use the following information to answer in the bullseye?
questions 13 and 14. A. 1/9
B. 1/3
This diagram illustrates band and orchestra
participation for the 1000 students at Central C. 2/9
High School. D. 2/3
Band Orchestra
E. 4/9

150 50 100 16. What is the probability that a dart will land
in the shaded area?
700
A. 1/9
13. What is the probability that a student will B. 1/4
play in the band? C. 1/3
A. 0.15 D. 1/2
B. 0.20
E. 4/9
C. 0.30
D. 0.50
E. 0.67
169
17. Sarah wants to form a band consisting of 22. Maggie likes to throw darts at random onto
three guitars and one drums. She will choose a board divided into three congruent sectors.
them from 20 guitarists and 5 drummers. How Each sector is numbered 1-3, representing the
many different rock bands could she form?
points to be awarded. If the dart is thrown
A. 100
B. 120 twice, what is the probability that the product of
C. 1,140 the points awarded on the throws is odd?
D. 5,700
E. 6,840
18. How many unique ways can you arrange
the letters of the word accommodate?
11!
A.
2!2!
A. 1/9
B. 11!
B. 2/9
C. 11 P11
C. 4/9
11!
D. D. 6/9
2!2!2!2!
E. 8/9
11! _____________________________________
E.
11 C2 Use the following information to answer
19. If the probability of manufacturing a questions 23 and 24.
defective light bulb is 1% and defects occur The table below shows the numbers of juniors
independently, what is the probability that 1 out and seniors who do or do not play a varsity
of the next 100 light bulbs will be defective? sport in high shool.
A. (.99)99 (.01)
Juniors Seniors Total
B. 100 C1 (.99)99 (.01)
Play a sport 70 150 220
C. 100 1P (.99)99 (.01) Do not play 100 50 150
Total 170 200 370
D. [(.01)(.99)]100
100
 1  23. What is the probability that a student does
E. 100  not play a varsity sport, given that the student
20. Kenly decides to play a coin toss game is a senior?
three times. What is the probability of her A. 100/170
getting at least two heads?
A. .125 B. 100/370
B. .25 C. 50/200
C. .50 D. 50/370
D. .75 E. 150/370
E. .875 24. Assume that juniors and seniors make
21. A bowl contains 5 red, 10 white and 15 their own independent decisions about playing
blue balls. How many red balls need to be sports. If one senior is chosen at random and
added to the bowl so that the probability of one junior is chosen at random, what is the
randomly selecting a red ball is equal to one- probability that they both play a varsity sport?
half? A. 0.050
A. 5 B. 0.309
B. 10
C. 0.525
C. 15
D. 20 D. 0.625
E. 30 E. 0.750
170
 4.2 Solutions to problems on probability
1. (B) 14. (E)
Multiply 2x4=8 or count: RM, RO, RP, RS, WM, There will be 200 band student performances plus
WO, WP, WS. 150 orchestra student performances, or a total of
2. (B) 350 student performances.
15. (A)
Use 4 C2 = 6 or count: MO, MP, MS, OP, OS, PS.
area of bullseye  12 1
3. (E) = =
5! = 5  4  3  2 1 = 120 area of board  32 9
4. (E) 16. (C)
(n + 2)! ( n + 2)( n + 1) n ! shaded area  22 −  12 3 1
= = (n + 2)(n + 1) = n 2 + 3n + 2 = = =
n! n! area of board  32 9 3
5. (D) 17. (D)
Count: RW,RB,WR,WB,BW,BR. Six. Or, given Start with the easy one, the drummer. There are 5
three possibilities of shirts there are only two choices of drummer. For guitarists, the order of
possibilities of pants. Multiply 3x2. selection does not matter. So
6. (D) 20! 20  19 18
10! 20
C3 = = = 1,140 choices of
3!(20 − 3)! 3  2 1
10 P2 = = 10  9 = 90
(10 − 2)! guitarists. The number of possible bands is
7. (C) 5(1,140) = 5, 700 bands.
4! = 4  3  2 1 = 24 18. (D)
8. (D) There are 11! arrangements possible but for distinct
permuatations we must compensate for the four
Of the 24 possible arrangements, they stand next
pairs of duplicates.
two each other in 12 of them. 12/24 = 1/2.
ABCD, ABDC, DABC, CABD, CDAB, DCAB, 19. (B)
BACD, BADC, DBAC, CBAD, CDBA, DCBA The probability of one defect out of 100 bulbs is
9. (A) (.01)(.99)99 but there are 100 C1 or 100 different
There are only two possible outcomes for the last ways this can happen.
two positions, CB or BC. 20. (C)
10. (E) There are four ways to get two heads are HHT,
The union consists of elements in either A or B. HTH, THH, or HHH. There are 23 or 8 possible
A  B = {1, 2,3, 4} outcomes. So, 4/8.
11. (C) 21. (D)

There are C2 = 3 ways to choose two numbers 5+ x 1

3 = , 10 + 2 x = 30 + x, x = 20
from a set of three numbers. The ways are: 30 + x 2
{1,2} sum=3 22. (C)
{1,3) sum=4 1 2 3
{2,3} sum=5 1 1 2 3
The sum is three for only one way. Therefore the 2 2 4 6
probability is 1/3. 3 3 6 9
4 out of 9 products are odd.
12. (D)
1 1 2 2 3 3 23. (C)
Possible ratios are , , , , , and they all This is conditional probability. The denominator is
3 4 3 4 3 4
have distinct values. So there are six of them. the number of seniors.
13. (B) 24. (B)
150 + 50 200 1
= = = 0.20  70  150 
1000 1000 5    = 0.309
 170  200 
171
4.3 Statistics
In this unit we cover the various statistics that you are expected to calculate or estimate from various
types of tables and graphs.

Most of this unit covers descriptive statistics, which are numbers that tell you something about a data
set (set of numbers). The goal is to convey some general idea of what the data are like without
having to look at every data point in the set. This unit also covers the use of statistical and graphing
methods to make inferences or reach conclusions, and the ways in which this can be done improperly.

Describing a data set: measuring central tendency (mean, median, mode)

Mean, median and mode tell you something about the center of a data set

Mean
Standardized tests sometimes contain the phrase “average (arithmetic mean).” Don’t let this confuse
you. That phrase refers to the average, something you learned in grade school. It is the sum over the
count. A simple example is
“Find the average (arithmetic mean) of 2, 3, -1 and 0.” The sum is 4 and the count is 4.
So the average is 4/4 or 1.
Median
The value of the median depends on whether the count is odd or even. To find the median, list the
numbers from smallest to largest. If the count is odd, the median is the middle number. If the count is
even, the median is the mean of the middle two numbers.
“Find the median of 5, -1, 6, 2, and 0.” First, list the numbers from smallest to largest.
The ordered list is -1, 0, 2, 5 and 6. Next we notice that the count is odd (the count is
5). The median is the middle number, 2.

“Find the median of 5, -1, 6, -3, 2, and 0.” First, list the numbers from smallest to
largest. The ordered list is: -3, -1, 0, 2, 5 and 6. Next we notice that the count is even
0+2
(the count is 6). The median is mean of the middle two numbers, which is = 1.
2
Mode
The mode is the number that appears most frequently. Remember that there can be no mode at all,
there can be one mode, or there can be more than one mode (this is called multi-modal). To find the
mode(s), list the numbers from smallest to largest. The modes are the numbers that appear most
frequently.
"Find the mode of 1, -2, 3, and 4." Every number appears once and so there is no
mode.

“Find the mode of 5, -1, 6, -3, 2, 0, and 6.” First, list the numbers from smallest to
largest. The ordered list is -3, -1, 0, 2, 5, 6, 6. The mode is 6 because it is the only
number that appears twice.

“Find the mode of 2, -1, 6, -3, 2, 0, and 6.” First, list the numbers from smallest to
largest. The ordered list is -3, -1, 0, 2, 2, 6, 6. The modes are 2 and 6 because they
are the only numbers that appear twice.

172
 The ACT® typically does not give you a list of numbers from which you are to calculate
the mean, median or mode. Usually you are asked to calculate or estimate these from
a table or graph. Consider the life expectancy in the United States from 1930 through
1990.
Year US Life Expectancy (years)*
1930 59.7
1950 68.2
1970 69.7
1990 75.4
*From the National Center for Health Statistics.

For the four years given, let's find the mean, median and mode. The mean is the sum over count,
which in this case is 273/4 = 68.25. The median is (68.2+69.7)/2 = 68.95, and there is no mode.

Another table that could be used is the one-way frequency table. For example suppose the number of
television sets per family living in Smallville USA is given below:

Number of TV sets Number of families

0 10
1 20
2 50
3 40
4 10

10(0) + 20(1) + 50(2) + 40(3) + 10(4) 280

= = 2.15
10 + 20 + 50 + 40 + 10 130
Frequency tables may be a nuisance for calculating means but they are really convenient for medians
and modes. For the median, cross out the top 50 numbers -- that brings you into the 2s. If you cross
out the bottom 50 numbers that also brings you into the 2s. So the median is 2. The mode is
obviously 2 because that appears most frequently.

Sensitivity of the mean, median and mode to changes in the data

Let's take the life expectancy data and add a data point for the year 2010 and the fictional life
expectancy of 100 years. Now let's look at what happens to the mean, median mode from this
fictional data set. The mean is sum over count, which is 373/5 = 74.6. Just that one data point
causes the mean to jump by more than 6 years! But the median and mode remain pretty stable. The
median becomes the middle number which is 69.7, a change of just 0.75 years, and there continues
to be no mode.

Describing a data set: measuring spread (range and standard deviation)

The range and standard deviation tell you something about how widely the numbers are spread about
the center of the data set.
The range is simply the largest number in the data set (maximum value) minus the smallest number in
the data set (minimum value).

The standard deviation is the square root of the average of the sum of all the squared differences for
each number in the data set from the mean of the data set. If m is the mean of n numbers,
1
( x1 − m) + ( x2 − m ) + ( x3 − m ) + ... + ( xn − m ) 
2 2 2 2
standard deviation =
n 

173
Standard deviation is not something that you would ever have to calculate by hand. It might be given
to you in a problem, but you are more likely to be asked to compare standard deviations for data sets
that are described by data sets or by graphs.

In the diagram above, two data sets are shown in the same frequency graph. In both cases, the
graphs are symmetric about zero, which means that their means, medians and modes are all zero.
Notice that although their measures of central tendency are the same, their ranges and especially
their standard deviations are different. The taller curve has a small range and smaller standard
deviation (it is more tightly arranged around the mean).

To find the mean, median and To use a frequency table like the
standard deviation of the life TV data set, enter data values into
expectancy data set, enter the data L1 and frequencies into L2.
by using stat-edit. Then enter data
values into L1.

Next use stat-calc-1var stats to

Next use stat-calc-1var stats to find calculate the mean x ,median
the mean x ,median (Med) and (Med) and standard deviation X .
standard deviation  X . You will Use L1 for the List and 2nd-L2 for
need to scroll down. the FreqList. You will need to scroll
down.

174
Calculating an expected value based on probabilities (or estimated probabilities)
Consider the census of TV set data given earlier, and suppose we want to know the expected number
of TV sets per family in Smallville, USA. That could be calculated by the following:
 10   20   50   40   10 
0  + 1  + 2  + 3  + 4  = 2.15 expected TV sets per family
 130   130   130   130   130 
The expected value is calculated by multiplying each possible number of TV sets by the probability of
that number of TV sets. In this case we have a probability because a census was taken (see the
difference between a census versus a sample below).

Suppose you are playing a coin toss game where you win $5 if the coin is heads and lose $3 if the
1 1
coin is tails. The expected winnings per coin toss is $5   − $3   = $1 . If you had to pay $1 to
2  2
play the game it would be a fair game. Anything above $1 would be unfavorable to you.

Describing a data set: using graphs to illustrate central tendency and spread

Suppose Mr. Corn had 13 students take the ACT® and their scores were 15, 18, 19, 22, 22, 25, 25,
25, 31, 31, 31, 34 and 35. Just looking at the data list you could find the median by crossing out data
values to get a measure of central tendency, but spread is difficult to see.

Stem and Leaf Plot

The stem and leaf plot is an easy way to find central tendency and get a sense of the spread and
shape of the distribution of numbers. A stem and leaf plot for Mr. Corn’s students is shown below.
Because the ACT® scores are just two digits, the stem (the first column on the left) consists of the first
digit of the score. The numbers in the other represent the second digit of each of the 13 scores. We
can see very quickly that the median lies in the upper 20s because there are more scores in the 30s
than the teens. We can speculate that the mean will be higher than the median because of the
skewed distribution, with more results in the 30s than in the teens.

1 5 8 9
2 2 2 5 5 5
3 1 1 1 4 5

Key: 3Ɩ1 means 31

Box and Whiskers Plot

This is not just a graph for cat lovers. It is a useful way to see how a data set looks by plotting the
minimum, first quartile, median, third quartile, and maximum values. The three vertical lines in the box
are the first quartile, median and third quartile. The whiskers on either end are the minimum and
maximum values. A box and whiskers plot for Mr. Corn’s 13 students is shown below.

The minimum value in the data set is the whisker on the left (15) and the maximum (35) is the whisker
on the right. To find quartiles, divide 13 stuents into quarters to find that students 1, 2, and 3 will be in
the first quartile. The value of the first quartile is the average of students 3 and 4, (19+22)/2 = 20.5.
The median is the middle line of the box (25). The third quartile (31) is the right hand edge of the box.
The plot shows that the median is not centered in the box, meaning that the distribution of scores was
not symmetric (this is called skewed). In this case the mean will be higher than the median rather

175
than equal to the median because the bulk of the upper data values are farther away from the median
than the lower data values.

Follow these steps to generate a Step 2. Use 2nd-stat plot to see a

box and whiskers plot of the ACT list of stat plots. Toggle down to
data values. one of them and hit enter.
Choose the plot options shown
below. Your screen should look
Step 1. Use stat-edit to enter the like this:
ACTdata values into L1.

Step 3. Press zoom-ZoomStat-

enter to display the box and
whiskers plot.

Interpolating and extrapolating from data sets

Scatter plots are often the starting point for interpolating and extrapolating from data sets because
they illustrate trends. Scatter plots are not particularly useful for illustrating central tendency or
spread. The scatter plot for life expenctancy is shown below.

176
A scatter plot is useful for taking a quick look at trends in the data. On the ACT® these might be called
associations (though in school you might have heard this called correlation). The scatter plot above
illustrates a positive association because as time goes on (and presumable living conditions
improve) the life expectancy increases. An association can be positive like the plot above, negative (if
life expectancy were decreasing over time), or there might not be an association at all (if life
expectancy was fluctuating over time with no particular up or down trend).

Line of best fit

It is very common to have the calculator or graphing program calculate a "line of best fit" and draw
that line along with the scatter plot. Do not worry about calculating the line; that is not required on the
ACT®. In this case the calculator has given us the equation of the line of best fit as
y = 0.243x − 408.03 . A positive slope for the line of best fit indicates a positive association,
whereas a negative slope indicates a negative association. If the slope of the line of best fit is close
to zero, this indicates no association.

Although you do not need to calculate the equation for the line of best fit, it is useful to know how the
calculation is made. The computer program finds the line that is overall closest to the data points.
Closeness is measured by the residual: the difference between the predicted y-value using the
equation of the line versus the actual y-value. The line of best fit is the line whose sum of squared
residuals is less than any other line’s sum of squared residuals.
In the table below we take a closer look at squared residuals for the life expectancy data set.

177
 Year Observed Life Predicted Life Residual Squared
Expectancy* Expectancy* (observed – expected) Residual
1930 59.7 60.96 -1.26 1.59
1950 68.2 65.82 2.38 5.66
1970 69.7 70.68 -0.98 0.96
1990 75.4 75.54 -0.14 0.02
Sum: 8.23

Looking at the table more closely, we can see that the best prediction occurred at 1990 (smallest
squared residual) and the worst prediction occurred at 1950 (largest squared residual). If any other
line were drawn, it would have a sum of squared residuals larger than 8.23.
Interpolation versus extrapolation
The line of best fit is very useful to estimate a hole in the data, which is called interpolation. Notice
we only have data for odd number decades. If we wanted to estimate the life expectancy in 1940 we
would plug 1940 into the equation of the line of best fit y = 0.243(1940) − 408.03 = 63.39 , interpolating
a life expectancy of 63.39 years.
However, you must never extrapolate beyond the data given without stating the assumption that life
expectancy has a linear relationship with time. An extrapolation is valid only to the extent that that
linear assumption holds. Using the line of best fit to extrapolate to 1993 we would expect the life
expectancy to be 76.3 years. But the life expectancy in 1993 was only 75.5 years. That decrease
was attributed to H.I.V.-related deaths, causing a departure from the linear relationship.
Making an inference by taking samples
The best way to know something about a population is to observe every member of that population.
This is called a census. Because a census can be very expensive, it is often more practical to take a
survey. In a survey a subset of the population is observed and from the results of the sample an
inference is made about the population as a whole.
For example, suppose you want to know what residents of AnyTown, USA think about their electrical
service. Using a detailed map of AnyTown, you visited every tenth house one day and interviewed
the resident who answered the door. This sample is not representative of the town because because
it is biased and therefore any inference to AnyTown as a whole would be invalid. You only
interviewed residents who happened to be home on that day, excluding from the sample residents
who were not home on that day and residents with day jobs. The sample was biased, it was not
representative of the population as a whole and an inference made from the sample is flawed.

Drawing a conclusion by conducting experiments (observational versus experimental studies)

Sometimes the objective is to prove a hypothesis rather than make an inference. In a survey or
census, people are observed or interviewed to get data. A survey or census may show that people
who smoked were more likely to also have lung cancer. This does not prove the hypothesis that
smoking causes lung cancer. An observational study can show a statistical association between
smoking and lung cancer, but it cannot demonstrate causation.
When the goal is to demonstrate causation or prove some other hypothesis, an experiment is more
useful than an an observational study. Suppose you want to prove that the public drinking water is
unsafe. The best way would be to randomly have some people drink bottled water while others drink
public water. Over time, if the percentage of disease is higher in the public water drinkers that
strongly indicates that the public water causes disease. If instead you had taken a sample of people,
noted whether they were ill and asked what water they drank, this might show an association between
public water usage and disease, but only an indication of possible causation.
178
 4.3 Practice problems on statistics
_________________________________
4. How much more likely is an 18-year old
Use the following information to answer student to be a boy versus a 17-year old
questions 1-5. student?
The age and gender breakdown of students at A. 0.01
AnyTown High School is shown below: B. 0.02
Number of students C. 0.03
Age (years) Boys Girls D. 0.04
15 25 35
16 30 45 E. 0.05
17 40 55
18 50 60 5. If the students in AnyTown are
TOTAL 145 195 representative of the 15 million high school
students in the entire USA, what number of
1. What is the probability that a student USA high school students would be expected
chosen at random is a 16-year old girl? to be 15-year old girls?
A. .09
A. 1.1 million
B. .13
B. 1.2 million
C. .57
C. 1.4 million
D. .60
D. 1.5 million
E. .70
E. 1.6 million
2. What is the probability that a student __________________________________
chosen at random is 17 years old?

A. 0.18

B. 0.22

C. 0.28

D. 0.32

E. 0.35

3. What is the probability that a 15-year old

student chosen at random is a boy?

A. 0.40 6. In the frequency graph above, three points

are shown (a, b, and c). Which points could
B. 0.42 represent the mean, median and mode?
C. 0.45 A. a=mean, b=median, c=mode
D. 0.71 B. a=mode, b=median, c=mean

E. 0.78 C. a=mode, b=mean, c=median

D. a=mean, b=mode, c=median
E. a=median, b=mode, c=mean

179
_____________________________________ _____________________________________
Use the following information to answer Use the following information to answer
questions 7 and 8. questions 9 and 10.

A bar graph of the income (in thousands of Danielle wanted to find out how the population
dollars) versus number of households is shown of her town felt about constructing a new
below for AnyTown, USA. For example, 27 playing field at her school.
households have an income of less than
$25,000. 9. Danielle decided to stand at the door of the
only grocery store in town, every day after
school and all weekend for an entire week.
40
She asked every person entering the store to
35 share their opinion. What could improve
30 Danielle's approach?
25 I. Have some friends stand with her at the
20 grocery store
15 II. The following week, Danielle could stand at
10 the post office and do the same thing.
5 III. Danielle could ask her Mom to stand at the
0 grocery store when Danielle is in school.
<25 25-40 50-99 100-159 >150
A. I only
B. II only
7. Which of the following could be the median
household income for AnyTown, USA? C. II and III only
D. I and III only
A. $20,000
E. All are improvements
B. $35,000
10. Which of the approaches below would give
C. $60,000 Danielle the least biased measure of public
opinion?
D. $90,000
A. Place an advertisement in the local
E. $110,000 newspaper asking people to send a text
message to one number if in favor of the new
8. If a household from AnyTown, USA is playground, or to another number if opposed.
selected at random, which of the following B. From a list of property owners, send a
could be the probability that the household questionnaire to every address, asking people
income is $100,000 or higher? to respond with their opinions by mailing a
response in a pre-paid envelope.
A. 0.09
C. Have all the students at her school
B. 0.23 interview their parents and record their
opinions.
C. 0.31
D. Have the Town place the issue on the ballot
D. 0.36 during the upcoming local elections.
E. Using the school directory, call every listed
E. 0.40
family to get their opninion on the new
_____________________________________ playground.
180
11. Which of the scatter plots below shows a 12. How many households with an income of
negative association? $150,000 would be expected to have internet
access?
A) B)
A. 50
B. 100
C. 150
D. 200
E. 1,500
13. The number of households with an income
C) of $75,000 who have internet access is about
D)
how many more than the number predicted by
the line of best fit?
A. 50
B. 100
C. 150
D. 200
E. 1,000
A. A
_____________________________________
B. B
C. C 14. A company wants to prove that their cream
D. D makes pimples go away faster than just soap
E. None of the plots and water. Which of the following approaches
would produce the best proof?
_____________________________________
Use the following information to answer A. Ask teenage volunteers how long their
questions 12 and 13. pimples typically last. Then give them a
sample of the cream to use for the next two
The scatter plot below shows the number of months and ask whether the cream helped.
households (in hundreds) in AnyTown, USA
with internet access by household income (in B. Send free samples of the cream in the mail
thousands). Also shown is the line of best fit. to teenagers and ask them to contact you
about their experiences.

C. Divide teenage volunteers into two groups.

One will get samples of the active cream and
the other will get samples of the crèam that has
no active ingredient. After a period of time, ask
whether the cream had helped.

D. Have teenagers put the cream on pimples

one one side of their face and not other side of
their face. Observe which pimple heals faster.

E. Give the cream to teenage volunteers and

ask them whether it makes a difference.

181
15. A random sample of 8 high school juniors
were asked for their Grade Point Average
(GPA) and the number of hours per week they
study. What conclusion can be reached from
the scatter plot shown below?

I. Half of the scores are below approximately

82.
A. If you spend more time studying your II. Half of the scores range from approximately
grades will increase. 75 to 90.
B. Students who study more tend to get higher III. Most student got Bs or better (a B is is a
grades. score of at least 80).
C. There is no relationship between studying
and grades. A. I only
D. You will need to study more than 12 hours B. II only
per week to get a 4.0 GPA. C. III only
E. None of these are valid conclusions. D. I and III only
_____________________________________ E. I, II and III only

_____________________________________
Use the following information to answer
questions 16 and 17. 18. A jar contains 20 red, 30 white and 40 blue
The 20 grades on Mr. Corn’s math test are beans. If you win $1, $2 and $3 for drawing a
shown in the stem and leaf plot below. red, white, or blue bean, respectively, how
6 3 5 5 8
much would you expect to win?
7 2 8 8 8 9 A. $2.00
8 1 1 2 5 6 7 B. $2.22
9 3 5 5 6 8
Key: 6Ɩ1 means 61
C. $3.00
D. $3.22
16. What is the difference between the median E. $6.00
and the mode? 19. If the probability of 0,1, 2 or 3 inches of
A. 0.0 rain tomorrow is forecasted at .4, .3, .1, and .2,
respectively, what is the expected rainfall?
B. 0.25
A. 1.0 inches
C. 1.0
B. 1.1 inches
D. 3.0
C. 2.0 inches
E. 3.25
D. 2.1 inches
17. The box and whiskers plot for the data is
shown below. Which of the following E. 6.0 inches
statements is true?
182
 4.3 Solutions to practice problems on statistics
1. (B) B. Only asking property owners excludes people in
town who are renting. Also many people will treat
45
= 0.13 the questionnaire as junk mail and throw it away.
145 + 195 C. and E. Parents of school age children are
2. (C) undoubtedly more likely to favor the playground,
40 + 55 versus other residents who do not have children
= 0.28 attending school.
145 + 195
D. This restricts responses to residents who turn
3. (B) out to vote, but it is the best alternative because it is
This is conditional probability. least biased and will probably produce the largest
25 number of responses. Turning out to vote may not
= 0.42
25 + 35 be expected to be related to opinions regarding
4. (C) school improvements.
50 40 11. (B)
− = 0.45 − 0.42 = 0.03 A and C show positive associations. D shows no
50 + 60 40 + 55
association.
5. (D)
12. (E)
 35  Watch out for the scale of the y-axis.
 15,000,000 = 1,544,118
 145 + 195  13. (E)
6. (B) Watch out for the scale of the y-axis.
a is the mode because it represents the most actual − predicted = 3500 − 2500 = 1000
frequent number
14. (D)
b is the median because about half the population
of numbers lies below it and half lies above it. B and E are clearly bad ideas. All the data are self-
c is the mean because the larger numbers pull the reported.
mean to the right of the median. A is flawed because the baseline time to heal is
7. (C) subjective.
C is a pretty good design but it will take large
To estimate the median, cross off the first 27
sample sizes to be sure that overall skin differences
households in the far left category and balance that
are approximately the same for the two groups.
out by crossing off the 25 households from the two
D is the best design because it compares pimples
categories on the far right. The median must fall
on each person’s skin.
somewhere between $25,000 and $99,000. The
15. (B)
$50,000-$99,000 category is larger so the median
must fall in there. (A), (C) and (D) are not valid conclusions because
8. (B) an observational study cannot establish cause and
effect, only a statistical association.
15 + 12 16. (D)
= 0.23
27 + 28 + 34 + 15 + 12 There are 20 students, so the median will be the
9. (E) average of the 10th and 11th students. These
Although all have their flaws, each is an scores are both 81. The mode is the most frequent
improvement over the original plan. number, 78. Median-mode=3.
I. is an improvement because if Danielle is there 17. (E)
alone, shoppers will walk past her while she is I. is true because the median is approximately 82.
interviewing someone. II. is true because Q1 is 75 and Q3 is 90. The
II. is an improvement because some people may difference is called the Interquartile Range or the
buy their groceries elsewhere, or may be away that middle 50%.
first week. III. is true because half of the students scored
III. is an improvement because many people buy above the median, approximately 82. An 80 is
groceries while school is in session. below the median, so a majority of students got a
10. (D) grade of B or better.
A. Some people do not subscribe to or buy the 18. (B)
local newspaper. Many readers of the newspaper  20   30   40 
will probably not respond. Some people who have 1  + 2   + 3   = 2.22
the local newspaper do not have cell phones or  90   90   90 
know how to use their cell phones to send text 19. (B)
messages. 0(.4) + 1(.3) + 2(.1) + 3(.2) = 1.1

183
 PART TWO: Review of advanced topics
Part 2 contains a review of advanced topics that sometimes appear on the ACT®. Unfortunately, there
is no way to predict how often these topics will appear. They are typically used to get some spread in
the upper tail of the distribution of raw scores. If you have a very high target score, a few questions on
these advanced topics can make the difference between reaching or missing your goal.
In this section topics appear in no particular order. I suggest you focus on the areas where your
knowledge is weakest. To a reasonable extent, units in the book are independent and can be studied
in any order. However, advanced topics are often built on top of a core topic covered in an earlier
unit. You will find some lesson examples and homework problems that require skills from multiple
units. That type of problem appears in the book because it also appears on the ACT®.

5. Algebra
Advanced topics are grouped into two chapters, those related to algebra and those related to pre-
calculus.

5.1 Systems involving quadratic equations and inequalities

A system of equations can be solved algebraically or graphically, whereas a system of inequalities
must be solved graphically. We begin with systems of equations.

Systems of equations
A typical system of equations will involve a line and a parabola. The goal is to find the point or points
of intersection, if any.

Two points of intersection: Suppose the parabola has the equation y = 2 x 2 − 3x − 2 and the line has
the equation y = x + 4 . Shown below are the algebraic and graphical solutions that are used to find
the points of intersection.
Algebraic solution Graphical solution
Equate the expressions for the line and Carefully graph each equation and find the
parabola and solve for x points of intersection.
x + 4 = 2 x 2 − 3x − 2
0 = 2 x2 − 4 x − 6
0 = x2 − 2 x − 3
0 = ( x − 3)( x + 1)
x = −1, x = 3
Plug each x-value into the equation of the line to
find the y-values of the points of intersection:
(-1, 3) and (3,7).

185
 Enter the equations into the Y= equation
editor. Then press graph. If you cannot
see the graph, try adjusting the window
by pressing zoom-ZStandard. If that
does not help, press window and adjust
the size of the graphing window.
Press 2nd-calc-intersect. Follow the
dialog, choosing one graph, then the
other graph. Then position the cursor
near the intersection of interest and
press enter. The exact coordinates of
the intersection of interest are shown at
the bottom of the screen and the cursor
is placed at the intersection.

One point of intersection: Consider the same parabola y = 2 x 2 − 3x − 2 and the equation y = −25 / 8 .
These will have a single point of intersection and the point of intersection will be the vertex of the
parabola. The algebraic and graphical solutions are shown below.

Algebraic solution Graphical solution

Equate the expressions for the line and parabola Carefully graph each equation and find the
and solve for x points of intersection.
−(25 / 8) = 2 x 2 − 3 x − 2
0 = 2 x 2 − 3x + (9 / 8)
0 = 16 x 2 − 24 x + 9
0 = (4 x − 3)(4 x − 3)
x = 3 / 4 = 0.75

No points of intersection: Of course, the line may never intersect with the parabola. Consider the
same parabola y = 2 x 2 − 3x − 2 and the equation y = x − 6
Algebraic solution Graphical solution
Equate the expressions for the line and parabola Carefully graph each equation and determine
and solve for x that there are no points of intersection.
x − 6 = 2 x 2 − 3x − 2

0 = 2x2 − 4 x + 4

4  16 − 4(2)(4) 4  −16
x= =
4 4
No real solution

General case -- use the discriminant: Sometimes you will not be given the equations of interest but
will be asked to find equations that produce a certain outcome: two intersections, one intersection, or
186
no intersections. This can be done with the discriminant (see Unit 2.12). The discriminant is the
expression under the radical when using the quadratic formula, b 2 − 4ac .
Consider the general case of a parabola y = ax 2 + bx + c and a line y = mx + k . Set them equal to
each other to get ax 2 + bx + c = mx + k . Set to zero to get ax 2 + (b − m) x + (c − k ) = 0 . Now you can
use the discriminant to find values of a, b, c, m and k that produce two solutions (discriminant is
positive), one solution (discriminant is zero) and no solutions (discriminant is negative). A few
examples of this approach appear in the homework problems at the end of this unit.
Systems of inequalities
An inequality requires you to shade either inside or outside the parabola. Consider the inequality
y  2 x 2 − 3x − 2 . First, we graph the equation of the parabola using a solid line because the
inequality involves an equals sign (otherwise we would use a dotted line). Then we test a convenient
point; in this case we are using (0,0). Because the inequality 0  0 − 0 − 2 is true we shade inside the
parabola because the point (0,0) is part of the solution region (see Unit 2.9 to refresh your skills at
graphing inequalities). The graph of the solution region is shown on the left, below:

Now we will combine this parabola inequality with the linear inequality y  x + 4 to form a system of
inequalities. First, we plot the graph of the line using a dotted line because the inequality does not
involve an equals sign. To decide whether to shade above the line or below the line, we test the point
(0,0). Because the inequality 0  0 + 4 is true, we will shade the region that contains the point (0,0)
which in this case is below the line. The graph of the solution region of the system of inequalities is
shown above, on the right.
To obtain a graph similar to the example
above, enter the equations into the Y=
equation editor. For the quadratic
equation, toggle the cursor until it is on top
of the box on the far left of the screen, and
press enter. Scroll through the line
choices to find the greater than symbol and
press enter. For the second equation
scroll through the line choices to find the
less than symbol and press enter. Your
screen should look like the one on the top.
When you press the graph key you should
see a graph like that shown on the bottom.

187
 5.1 Problems on systems involving quadratic equations and inequalities
1. What are the solution(s) to the system 5. The graph below shows the solution region
y = 2(2 x − 1)( x − 5) and y − 14 x = −62 ? to which of the following systems of
inequalities?
A. (3,0) and (6,0)
B. (3,-20) and (6,22)
C. (-3,112) and (-6,286)
D. (2.25, -19.25)
E. (-3,0) and (6,0)
2. What are the solution(s) to the system
y = 2 x 2 + 20 and y = 0.5 x 2 − 5 x + 48.5 ? A. y  x 2 + 3x − 5 and y  2 x + 2
A. (3, 38) B. y  x 2 + 3x + 2 and y  2 x + 2
 −19 2 C. y  x 2 + 3x − 5 and y  2 x + 2
B. (3, 38) and  , 300 
 3 3
D. y  x 2 + 3x − 5 and y  2 x + 2
 −19 2 E. None of the above
C. (3, 38) and  , 100 
 3 9
6. The graph below shows the solution region
D. (-3,38) to which of the following systems of
E. No real solution inequalities?

3. How many ordered pairs (x, y) satisfy this

system of equations: y = x 2 + 2 x + 1 and
y = 2x + 4 ?
A. 0
B. 1
C. 2
D. 3
E. Infinitely many A. y  ( x − 1) 2 + 3 and y  ( x + 3) 2
4. What values of k would cause the following B. y  ( x − 1) 2 + 3 and y  ( x + 3) 2
system of equations to have no real solutions: C. y  ( x − 1) 2 + 3 and y  ( x + 3) 2
D. y  ( x − 1) 2 + 3 and y  ( x + 3) 2
y = 3 x 2 + 2 x + 1 and y = −2 x + k ?
E. None of the above
A. k  −4 / 3
7. What relationship between c and k would
B. k  −1/ 3 cause the graphs of these two equations to
intersect at two points
C. k  1/ 3 y = 2 x 2 + 3x + (c − k ) and y = 3x + k ?
D. k  4/3 A. ck
E. k  1/ 3 B. c  2k
C. ck
D. c  2k
E. c  −2k
188
 5.1 Solutions to problems on systems involving quadratic equations and
inequalities
1 (B) 5. (D)
The solution region is above the line so (0,0)
y = 14 x − 62 = 2(2 x − 1)( x − 5) lies outside the solution region. Eliminate (A).
7 x − 31 = 2 x 2 − 18 x + 36
0 = x 2 − 9 x + 18, 0 = ( x − 6)( x − 3) The parabola has a y-intercept that is negative.
Eliminate (B).
When x = 3, y = 14(3) − 62 = −20
When x = 6, y = 14(6) − 62 = 22 The solution region lies inside the parabola.
Eliminate (C).
2. (C) 6. (D)

2 y = 4 x 2 + 40 = x 2 − 10 x + 97 The solution region is inside both parabolas

and the point (0,0) is outside both parabolas.
0 = 3 x 2 + 10 x − 57 = 3 x 2 + 19 x − 10 x − 57
Using the factoring method from Unit 2.12:
Test the first parabola, y = ( x − 1) 2 + 3 . At (0,0)
0 = (3x + 19 x) − (10 x + 57) = x(3 x + 19) − 3(3 x + 19)
2
we get 0  1 + 4 so we will look for a greater
0 = ( x − 3)(3x + 19) than. Eilminate (A) and (B).
When x = 3, y = 2(9) + 20 = 38
−19
2 Test the second parabola, y = ( x + 3) 2 . At
 −19  2
When x = , y = 2  + 20 = 100 (0,0) we get 0  9 so we will look for a greater
3  3  3
than. Eliminate (C).
3. (C)

7. (B)
y = 2 x + 4 = x2 + 2 x + 1
0 = x 2 − 3, x =  3 y = 3 x + k = 2 x 2 + 3 x + (c − k )
0 = 2 x 2 + (c − 2 k )
4. (B)
Discriminant = 0 − 4(2)(c − 2k )  0
y = −2 x + k = 3x 2 + 2 x + 1 −8c + 16k  0, 16k  8c, 2k  c

0 = 3x 2 + 4 x + (1 − k )
Discriminant = 16 − 4(3)(1 − k )  0
16 − 12 + 12k  0, 12k  −4, k  −1/ 3

189
5.2 Higher order polynomials
In Unit 2.12 we covered second degree polynomials (called quadratic equations) and their graphs
(called parabolas). In this unit we cover general nth degree polynomials that take the form

p( x) = cn xn + cn−1xn−1 + ... + c1x + c0

5.2.1 Operations on two (or more) polynomials
In the sections below, we will discuss the operations of addition, subtraction, and multiplication using
the example polynomials

p( x) = x 4 + x 3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1

q( x) = x 2 − 2 x − 1
Addition and Subtraction
To add or subtract polynomials, it is simply a matter of combining like terms, that is terms that have
the same power. In the examples we are using

p( x) + q( x) = x 4 + x3 + (−6 + 1) x 2 + (−5 − 2) x + (−1 − 1)

p( x) + q ( x) = x 4 + x 3 − 5 x 2 − 7 x − 2

p( x) − q( x) = x 4 + x3 + (−6 − 1) x 2 + (−5 + 2) x + (−1 + 1)

p( x) − q ( x) = x 4 + x 3 − 7 x 2 − 3x
Multiplication
To multiply two polynomials, we take each term of one polynomial and distribute these across all the
terms of the other polynomial. In our example:

q( x)  p( x) = x 2 ( x 4 + x 3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1) − 2 x( x 4 + x 3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1) − 1( x 4 + x 3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1)

= ( x 6 + x5 − 6 x 4 − 5 x3 − x 2 ) + (−2 x5 − 2 x 4 + 12 x3 + 10 x 2 + 2 x ) + (− x 4 − x 3 + 6 x 2 + 5x + 1)

= x 6 − x5 − 9 x 4 + 6 x3 + 15x 2 + 7 x + 1

5.2.2 Graphing rational functions (ratios of polynomials)

p( x)
Some problems involve rational functions, which are a ratio of two polynomials , but division is
q( x)
not what is indicated. Instead the question is asking about the graph of the ratio.
In this situation the first step is to replace x with zero to find the y-intercepts. Then factor p(x) and q(x)
fully and simplify the ratio by cancelling out the factors that are common to p(x) and q(x). If a common
factor, say (x+5), is cancelled, it means that the graph has a hole at x=-5. Factors remaining in the
numerator create x-intercepts. Factors remaining in the denominator create vertical asymptotes.
Horizontal asymptotes are determined by using this chart:

190
 Condition Equation of the horizontal asymptote
degree of p(x) > degree of q(x) There is no horizontal asymptote.
degree of p(x) = degree of q(x) y = the ratio of the leading coefficients of p(x)
and q(x).
degree of p(x) < degree of q(x) y=0

The following will illustrate the process of examining a rational function. Suppose

p( x) x 2 + 3x + 2 ( x + 1)( x + 2) x + 2
= = = , x  −1
q( x) x 2 − x − 2 ( x + 1)( x − 2) x − 2
The y-intercept is found to be (0,-1) by replacing x with zero. Simplification of the ratio tells us that the
graph has a hole at x=-1. Plugging zero into the numerator tells us that the graph has x-intercept at
y=-1. The factor in the numerator tells us that there is an x-intercept at x=-2. The factor in the
denominator tells us that there is a vertical asymptote at x=2. The numerator and denominator both
have the same degree (two), so the equation of the horizontal asymptote is y=1/1, or y=1 (each
leading coefficient is equal to 1). A graph of p(x)/q(x) is

Note: Limitations of the graphing utility prevent displaying an empty hole in the graph shown
above, but an empty hole exists. The ratio is not defined at x=-1.

5.2.3 Dividing polynomials

Polynomial long division

One of the skills that you are expected to have is the ability to divide two polynomials using long
division. Continuing with the example from above, suppose

p ( x) x 4 + x 3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1
= .
q ( x) x2 − 2x −1
191
Sometimes you get lucky and p( x) and/or q( x) factors. When that happens, just factor each
polynomial and simplify. In this example, the polynomials do not factor so the only thing left to do is
polynomial long division.

Step 1. Set up the long division x2 − 2x −1 x4 + x3 − 6x2 − 5x −1

x2
Step 2. Multiply by x 2 x 2 − 2 x − 1 x 4 + x3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1
x 4 − 2 x3 − x 2
x2
Step 3. Subtract x 2 − 2 x − 1 x 4 + x3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1
x 4 − 2 x3 − x 2
3 x3 − 5 x 2 − 5 x − 1
x2 + 3 x
x 2 − 2 x − 1 x 4 + x3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1
Step 4. Multiply by 3x x 4 − 2 x3 − x 2
3 x3 − 5 x 2 − 5 x −1
3 x3 − 6 x 2 − 3 x
x2 + 3 x
x 2 − 2 x − 1 x 4 + x3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1
Step 5. Subtract x 4 − 2 x3 − x 2
3 x3 − 5 x 2 − 5 x − 1
3 x3 − 6 x 2 − 3 x
x 2 − 2 x −1

x2 + 3x +1
x 2 − 2 x − 1 x 4 + x3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1
x 4 − 2 x3 − x 2
Step 6. Multiply by 1 3 x3 − 5 x 2 − 5 x − 1
3 x3 − 6 x 2 − 3 x
x2 − 2 x −1
x2 − 2 x −1

x2 + 3x +1
x 2 − 2 x − 1 x 4 + x3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1
x 4 − 2 x3 − x 2
Step 7. Subtract to find the remainder is zero 3 x3 − 5 x 2 − 5 x − 1
3 x3 − 6 x 2 − 3 x
x2 − 2 x −1
x2 − 2 x −1
0

192
In this problem the remainder is zero, and we can write that
0
p( x) = x 4 + x3 − 6 x 2 − 5 x − 1 = ( x 2 + 3x + 1)( x 2 − 2 x − 1) +
x − 2x −1
2

Because the remainder is zero we can say that x 2 + 3x + 1 and x 2 − 2 x − 1 are factors of
x 4 + x3 − 6 x 2 − 5x − 1 . If we wanted to find the zeros or roots of x 4 + x3 − 6 x 2 − 5x − 1 we would find
the values of x for which either of its factors are equal to zero. This is the same process that we
followed in Unit 2.12 with quadratic equations, though polynomial long division was not needed
because if the quadratic did not factor we could use the quadratic formula.

Special case where q( x) = x − c (synthetic division)

Sometimes the denominator q(x) is equal to x plus or minus a constant. When that occurs, you could
still use polynomial long division. For example

p( x) x3 + 7 x 2 + 13x + 15
= .
q ( x) x+5
The solution using long division looks like this:

x2 + 2x + 3
x + 5 x 3 + 7 x 2 + 13 x + 15
x3 + 5 x 2
2x 2 + 13 x + 15
2 x 2 + 10 x
3x + 15
3 x + 15
0

But there is a much faster way to get the same result, and that is called synthetic division. The steps
are as follows:

1 7 13 15
Step 1. Set up the synthetic division −5

1 7 13 15
Step 2. Bring down the first coefficient −5
1

1 7 13 15
Step 3. Multiply (−5)(1) −5 -5
1

193
 1 7 13 15
Step 4. Add 7 + (−5) −5 -5
1 2
1 7 13 15
Steps 5+. Continue multiplying and adding −5 -5 -10 -15
1 2 3 0
From the coefficients in the bottom row, we can see that the answer is 1x + 2 x + 3 with no remainder.
2

Thus we conclude that x + 5 and 1x + 2 x + 3 are factors of x + 7 x + 13x + 15 and that −5 is a zero
2 3 2

or root of x + 7 x + 13x + 15 .
3 2

5.2.4 The remainder theorem

p( x) R ( x)
A general way to consider remainders is illustrated by the equation = q( x) + . The
h( x ) h( x )
polynomial q( x) is called the quotient and the polynomial R( x) is called the remainder. An equivalent
form of the above equation is sometimes more useful, namely p( x) = q( x)h( x) + R( x) .

Special case where h( x) = x − c

An interesting thing happens when h( x) = x − c , where c is a constant. When that is the case,
p(c) = R(c) . So if you want to evaluate p( x) at some point where x = c , instead of plugging the value
of c into the expression for p(x), you can plug the value of c into the expression for the remainder
R( x) , which can be much simpler than the original expression for p(x). Another way to think of this is
that if you know the value of R(c) then you know the value of p(c) .

In an earlier example we used synthetic division to show that when p ( x) = x 3 + 7 x 2 + 13 x + 15 was

divided by q( x) = x + 5 , the remainder was always zero. If we wanted to find the value of p(−5) the
long route would be to find p (−5) = (−5)3 + 7(−5) 2 + 13(−5) + 15 = 0 , but the shorter route is to see that
p(−5) must be zero because R(−5) = 0 .

Amazing things happen if when p(x) is divided by h(x), the remainder is zero AND if h( x) = x − c .
Under those circumstances the following statements are true:
a) c is a zero of the polynomial p(x)
b) c is a root of the polynomial p(x)
c) p(c) = 0
d) (c,0) is an x-intercept of the polynomial p(x)
e) The graph of p(x) goes through the point (c,0)
f) (x-c) is a factor of the polynomial p(x)
g) p (c ) = q ( x )  ( x − c ) + 0
h) R( x) = 0 for all values of x
i) The polynomial p(x) is divisible by (x-c)

194
Believe it or not, it is necessary to be familiar with the many different ways the same meaning is
conveyed in the list above. Problems can use a variety of phrases to indicate that c is a zero. Take
some time to familiarize yourself with the equivalent statements above.

5.2.5 Finding the zeros (roots) of a polynomial by hand

In Unit 2.12, we found the zeros of a second-degree polynomial by factoring and setting each factor to
zero. If the quadratic polynomial could not be factored, we used the quadratic formula to find them.
For some students it may be easier to find the zeros of a polynomial without using the calculator.

Finding the zeros without a calculator

Chances are that if you are asked to find the zeros of a polynomial, the polynomial you are given will
have at least one real zero, that is it will cross the x-axis at least once. (If it does not then all the zeros
are imaginary.) Recall the general form of the polynomial is: p( x) = cn xn + cn−1xn−1 + ... + c1x + c0 . If

there is a real zero that is also rational (irrational numbers are quantities like  and 2 ) then the
factors of c0
zeros must be .
factors of cn
The best way to understand this is by example. Suppose you want to find the zeros of
x 4 + 3x3 − x 2 − 13x − 10 . All possible rational real zeros are factors of 10 divided by factors of 1. You
would have to test 10,  5,  2,  1 to determine whether any of these values are zeros, either by
plugging them back into p( x) = x + 3 x − x − 13x − 10 or by using synthetic division to find a value
4 3 2

that produces a zero remainder. Eventually you would discover that

p(2) = 24 + 3(23 ) − 4 − 13(2) − 10 = 0 . The synthetic division is:

1 3 -1 -13 -10
2 2 10 18 10
1 5 9 5 0
Next, we examine the reduced polynomial x + 5 x + 9 x + 5 that is found on the last row of the
3 2

synthetic division. All possible rational real zeros of this reduced polynomial are 5,  1 . After some
trial and error, we discover that -1 is a zero. That synthetic division is:

1 5 9 5
−1 -1 -4 -5
1 4 5 0
Finally, we have a simplified polynomial that is a quadratic! It is x + 4 x + 5 . At first it looks like it
2

might factor but it does not. So, we use the quadratic formula to find the other two zeros:

195
 −4  16 − 20 −4  2i
x= = = −2  i
2 2
We can now say that the zeros (roots) of x + 3x − x − 13x − 10 are 2, −1, −2 + i, and − 2 − i . Note
4 3 2

that imaginary zeros always come in conjugate pairs. An equivalent statement is that

x 4 + 3x3 − x 2 − 13x − 10 = ( x − 2)( x + 1)( x − (−2 + i ))( x − (−2 − i ))

Finding the zeros on the calculator

Finding the zeros on the calculator is often much easier, but the calculator can only be used to find
real zeros; that is the places where the graph of the polynomial crosses the x-axis. The imaginary
zeros need to be found by hand. But first we do the easy part by following the calculator tip below.

Enter the polynomial into the Y= equation editor (see first screen shot
on the left).
Then press graph. If you cannot see the graph, try adjusting the
window by pressing zoom-ZStandard. Then press window to adjust
the size of the graphing window (see middle screen shot for the
window settings used for this example).
Press 2nd-calc-zero. Follow the dialog to position the cursor to the left
of the zero, to the right of the zero, and then place it close to the zero.
Press enter. This will produce the result shown in the last screen shot
on the right below. The exact coordinates of the zero are shown at the
bottom of the screen and the cursor is placed at the zero.
Follow the same procedure to find the other zero.

If at this point you need to find the imaginary zeros you would use synthetic division to confirm the two
zeros you found on the calculator and then use the quadratic formula on the simplified polynomial, as
shown in the above no calculator version of the solution.

196
5.2.6 Graphing polynomials by hand
There can be situations on the ACT® where it is useful to know how to graph a polynomial by hand
because all that is needed is a quick sketch to eliminate answer choices. To sketch a graph quickly
by hand, there are just a few things you need to know.

Y-intercept
The y-intercept is easy and quick to find. Take a look at the general form of the polynomial above and
note that p (0) = c0 . In other words, the polynomial will always travel through (0, c0 ) , where c 0 is the
constant term of the polynomial.

X-intercepts and tangents

The easiest way to find the x-intercepts is to factor the polynomial. The polynomial will typically factor.
If you cannot see how to factor the polynomial then you can find the zeros by following the procedure
described above.
When you find the factors you have found the real zeros. The multiplicity of the factor tells you
whether the zero is a point where the curve crosses the x-axis (multiplicity is odd) or whether the zero
is a point where the curve is tangent to the x-axis (multiplicity is even). Multiplicity is the power to
which the factor is raised. See the example below.
End behavior
End behavior describes the direction in which the graph is moving as the x-values become very small
or very large. It is easy to remember end behavior by considering the chart below which uses graphs
of the relatively simple parent functions of y = x 2 and y = x 3 to illustrate end behavior. Note that when
the degree is even, the curve starts and ends the same way, up-up or down-down. But when the
degree is odd, the curve starts and ends in opposite ways.

Leading coefficient >0 Leading coefficient <0

Degree Starts Starts

even high low
Ends Ends
high low

Degree Starts Starts

odd low high
Ends Ends low
high

197
Examples

Consider the mother of all parabolas y = x 2 . The equation can be written in factored form as
y = ( x − 0) 2 . The factor tells you that the x-intercept is at (0,0). Because the multiplicity is even, you
know that the curve is tangent to the x-axis at (0,0); it does not cross over the x-axis. Because the
degree is even and the leading coefficient is positive, end behavior tells you that the curve starts high
and ends high. Check the curve of y = x 2 shown in the top left box of the figure on the previous page.

Consider the equation y = x 3 . The equation can be written in factored form as y = ( x − 0)3 . That tells
you that the x-intercept is at (0,0). Because the multiplicity is odd, you know that the curve passes
through the x-axis at that point. Because the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is positive, end
behavior tells you that the curve starts low and ends high. Check the curve of y = x 3 shown in the
bottom left box.

Lastly, consider a more complicated polynomial y = −( x − 1) 2 ( x + 1) . The factors and their

multiplicities tell you that there is a tangent at (1,0) and that the curve crosses the x-axis at (-1,0). If
you were to FOIL the factored polynomial, the leading term would be − x 3 . End behavior tells you that
the curve will start high and end low because the degree is odd and the leading coefficient is negative.
The curve of y = −( x − 1) 2 ( x + 1) is shown below.

198
 5.2 Practice problems on higher order polynomials

1. Which of the following is the sum of 5. When x + x − bx + 2 is divided by x + 1 the

3 2

5 x − 3x + 2 x + 2 and −3x + 5x − 2 x + 8 ?
4 3 4 2
remainder is 3. What must be the value of b ?

A. 8 x 4 − 3x3 − 5 x 2 + 4 x − 6 A. -1
B. 0
B. 8 x 4 − 8 x3 + 4 x − 6
C. 1
C. 2 x 4 − 3x3 + 5 x 2 + 10 D. 2
D. 2 x − 8 x + 10
4 3
E. 3
E. 2 x 4 − 6 x3 + 5x 2 + 10 6. What is the remainder when x + x − x + 2
3 2

is divided by x − x − 1 ?
2
2. Which of the following is equivalent to
3x5 − 2 x + 5 x 2 + 8 − (4 x 4 − 2 x 2 + x − 6) ? A. 2x + 4
B. x+2
A. 3x5 − 4 x 4 + 3x 2 + 2
C. 2x
B. − x4 + 2 x2 − x + 2 D. x
C. 3x − 4 x + x + 14
5 4
E. 1
D. − x − 4 x + 7 x − 3x + 14
5 4 2
7. How many times does the graph of
E. 3x5 − 4 x 4 + 7 x 2 − 3x + 14 p ( x) = x 3 + x 2 − x + 2 cross the x-axis?
3. Which of the following are zeros (roots) of A. 0
B. 1
the polynomial p ( x) = x + 2 x − 3x ?
3 2

C. 2
I. −3 D. 3
II. 0 E. 4
III 1 8. If x − 2 and x + 2 are factors of
A. I only p ( x) = x 4 + 5 x 2 − 36 , which of the following is
B. II only NOT a zero (root) of p( x) ?
C. I and III only A. - 3i
D. II and III only B. 1
E. I, II and III C. 2
D. 3i
4. If 5 is a zero (root) of x − 5 x − x + 5 then
3 2
E. they are all zeros
another zero (root) is:
9. If 2 x − 1is a factor of 8 x5 − bx 2 + 6 x − 10
A. −i
then what is the value of b ?
B. i A. -27
C. -5 B. -3
D. -1 C. 3
E. 0 D. 27
E. 18
199
10. Which of the following is equivalent to y = −( x + 1)( x + 2)( x − 1) 2
A.
3x 4 + x3 − 2 x 2 + x + 8
x2 + 2 x + 1
? B. y = ( x + 1)( x + 2)( x − 1) 2
36 x + 23 y = −( x + 1)( x + 2)( x − 1)
A. 3x 2 − 5 x − 15 + C.
x2 + 2 x + 1
16 x + 3 D. y = ( x + 1)( x + 2)( x − 1)
B. 3x 2 − 5 x − 5 + 2
x + 2x +1
E. y = ( x + 1) 2 ( x + 2)( x − 1)
16 x + 13
C. 3x 2 − 5 x + 5 + 2
x + 2x +1 2x2 + 2x
14. If the graph of has a holes, b
−4 x + 3 x3 − x
D. 3x 2 − 5 x + 5 + 2
x + 2x +1 vertical asymptotes and c horizontal
E. 3x − 5 x + 5
2
asymptotes, what is the sum of a, b, and c ?
11. What is the difference of A. 1
x8 − 3x5 + 6 x3 − 8 and −3x8 − 2 x7 + 3x3 ? B. 2
A. −2 x + 2 x − 3x − 9 x − 8
8 7 5 3
C. 3
B. −2 x8 − 2 x7 − 3x5 + 9 x3 − 8 D. 4
C. 4 x8 + 2 x 7 − 3 x 5 + 3 x 3 − 8
E. 5
D. 4 x8 − 2 x 7 − 3 x 5 + 3 x 3 − 8
E. 4 x8 − 2 x 7 + 3 x 5 + 3 x 3 − 8 15. Which of the following statements are true
12. For what real value of x is the following 1
function undefined? about the graph of y = ?
x2
1 + p2 I. The graph is tangent to the x-axis.
f ( x) =
x 2 − 2 px + 1 + p 2 II. The graph has horizontal and vertical
A. x = −p asymptotes
B. x= p III The graph never crosses the x-axis or
C. x= p 2
the y-axis
D. x=0 A. I only
E. The function is defined for all real
values of x. B. I and II only
C. II and III only
13. Which of the following polynomials could
produce a graph that looks like the one below? D. I and III
E. I, II and III

200
 5.2 Solutions to practice problems on higher order polynomials
1. (C) 9. (A)
2. (E) If 2 x − 1is a factor then 1/2 is a zero and
5 2
3. (E) 1 1 1 1
p   = 8   − b   + 6   − 10 = 0
x3 + 2 x 2 − 3x = x( x 2 + 2 x − 3) = x( x + 3)( x − 1) 2 2 2 2
1 b b 27
Zeros are at x=0, x=-3 and x=1 − + 3 − 10 = 0, − − = 0, b = −27
4 4 4 4
4. (D)
1 -5 -1 5
10. (D)
5 5 0 -5 3x 2 − 5 x + 5
x 2 + 2 x + 1 3x 4 + x3 − 2 x 2 +x + 8
1 0 -1 0 3x 4 + 6 x3 + 3x 2
The simplified polynomial is x − 1 = ( x + 1)( x − 1)
2
− 5 x3 − 5 x 2 + x + 8
Zeros are at x=-1 and x=1. −5 x3 − 10 x 2 − 5 x
5. (C) 5x2 + 6 x + 8
5 x 2 + 10 x + 5
by the remainder theorem, p(−1) = 3 − 4x + 3
p(−1) = −1 + 1 + b + 2 = 3, b + 2 = 3, b = 1 11. (C)
x8 − 3x5 + 6 x3 − 8 − (−3x8 − 2 x 7 + 3x 3 ) =
6. (A)
x+2 x8 + 3x8 + 2 x 7 − 3x 5 + 6 x 3 − 3x 3 − 8 =
4 x8 + 2 x 7 − 3 x 5 + 3 x 3 − 8
x 2 − x − 1 x3 + x 2 − x + 2
x3 − x 2 − x 12. (E)
2x 2 +2 A ratio of polynomials is undefined where a vertical
2x2 − 2x − 2 asymptote (or hole) exists. A vertical asymptote
2x + 4
exists when the denominator is zero.
7 (B)
By hand or calculator find that -2 is a zero. 1 + p2 1 + p2
=
1 1 -1 2 x 2 − 2 px + 1 + p 2 ( x − p)2 + 1
−2 -2 2 -2 But the denominator can never be zero because it
1 -1 1 0 is the sum of a square and positive 1
Use quadratic formula to solve the simplified
13. (A)
polynomial x2 − x + 1 = 0 . A tangent at x=1 means that the factor x-1 is raised
1 1− 4 1  3i to an even power. The degree must be even and
x= =
2 2 the leading coefficient must be negative because
There is only one real zero to the polynomial. the graph starts and ends negative.
8. (B) 14. (D)
Do synthetic division using 2 as a root. Make sure
2 x2 + 2 x 2 x( x + 1)
to use zero placeholders for the
3
x and x terms. =
x −x
3
x( x + 1)( x − 1)
1 0 5 0 -36
2 Holes at x=0 and x=-1, VA at x=1 and HA at y=0.
2 4 18 36 2+1+1=4
1 2 9 18 0
Further simplify the polynomial using -2 as a root by 15. (C)
doing another synthetic division. I is false. The y-value can never be zero because
1 2 9 18 when y is zero x is undefined.
−2 -2 0 -18
II is true. The graph has a horizontal asymptote at
y=0 and a vertical asymptote at x=0.
1 0 9 0 III is true. The x-value cannot be zero because the
You are left with x + 9 which gives
2
3i as the graph is not defined at x=0.
remaining two zeros.
201
5.3 Exponential growth and decay
Exponential growth and decay occur in nature. For example, populations might grow exponentially, or
radioactive material might decay exponentially. In the world of finance, the value of an investment can
grow exponentially and the value of an asset, like a house or a car, could decrease exponentially. It is
important for you to understand exponential growth and decay models, and to be able to distinguish
them from linear models.

Exponential models
The equation
y = ab x
describes the exponential model, where a is usually referred to as the starting amount and b is
referred to as the base. The variable x usually represents time. When time is zero (the starting
time), y = ab 0 = a (1) = a (the starting amount). Exponential growth occurs when b  1 and exponential
decay occurs when 0  b  1 . The graphs of exponential growth and decay are show below.
Exponential growth (a>0, b>1) Exponential decay (a>0, 0<b<1)

Determining the base ( b ) and the power ( x )

It is fairly easy to determine the base, keeping in mind that 0  b  1 produces decay and b  1 produces
growth. ACT® problems may use the idea of a rate. For example, an investment grows at a rate of 5%,
or population of an endangered species is decreasing at a rate of 3%. To find the proper base, just use
the formulas
For growth: b = 1 + r For decay: b = 1 − r

For the base in the investment example we would use b = 1 + .05 = 1.05 . Notice that the base is larger
than 1. For the base in the endangered species example we would use b = 1 − r = 1 − .03 = 0.97 .
Notice that the base is smaller than 1.
Power and base must agree
Finding the power is simple if the units of time in the growth or decay rate and the units of time in the
power already agree. In the investment example, let's say that the investment grows at a rate of 5%
per month and that we want to know what the investment would be worth 20 months after an initial

202
investment of $500. We would use the formula 500(1.05) 20 to find the value of the investment after
20 months. In the endangered species example, suppose that the animal population decreases at 3%
per year and that we want to know how many animals will remain 10 years from now if there are 5,000
animals today. We would use the formula 5000(.97)10 to find the animal population in 10 years.

But what if the units of time do not agree? Then you should adjust the power so that its units of time
match the units of time in the base. Suppose the investment grows at a rate of 5% per month and we
want to know what the investment would be worth 20 years after an initial investment of $500. In that
case we would use the formula 500(1.05)( )( ) . Note that the time units of the power (240 months)
20 12

match the time units of the base (5% per month). Suppose the endangered species population
decreases at 3% per year and we want to know how many animals will be remaining after 30 months
30
if there are 5,000 animals today. In that case we would use the formula 5000(0.97) 12 . Note that the
time units of the power (30/12 years) match the time units of the base (3% per year).

Exponential versus linear models

Suppose you buy two cars, each costs $15,000 and after four years of ownership they are both worth
$6,144. The values of the cars for each year of ownership are shown in the table below. Which car
decreased in value exponentially and which are decreased in value linearly?
Years of ownership Car A Car B
0 15,000 15,000
1 12,000 12,786
2 9,600 10,572
3 7,680 8,358
4 6,144 6,144

The way to distinguish between exponential versus linear decay is to look at how the values are
changing. Notice that for Car A the annual values are decreasing every year by the same rate:
12000/15000 is 80%, 9600/12000 is also 80%, 7680/9600 is also 80%, etc. For Car B notice that the
annual values are decreasing by the same amount every year: 12786-15000 is -2214, 10572-12786 is
also -2214, 8358-10572 is also -2214, etc. This enables us to conclude that Car A is decreasing
exponentially whereas Car B is decreasing linearly.
The distinction between exponential decay and linear decay is very important. Suppose you wanted to
know what these cars would be worth in 6 years. Although they are worth the same in the fourth year
that does not mean they will continue to be worth the same. The exponential decay in Car A can be
modeled by 15000(1 − 0.2) because we know the starting value was 15,000 and the rate of decay is
x

20% per year. The linear decay in Car B can be modeled by 15000 − 2214x because the initial value
(y-intercept) is 15,000 and the annual change in value (slope) is -2214 every year. If we plug 6 into
each of these expressions we find that Car A will be worth $3,932 in six years, whereas Car B will be
worth $1,716 in six years. The graph of these car values is shown below. In the longer run, Car A will
hold its value far better than Car B.

203
An exponential growth or decay function can easily be entered
into the graphing calculator. But the only way to solve a certain
type of exponential problem (without using logarithms) is to use
the calculator.
Suppose you deposit $2 in a bank account that pays 3% interest
every year. How many years will it take for your money to
double? The equation to be solved is 4 = 2(1.03) x and it can be
solved easily using logarithms. Instead, you could try testing
values of x on your calculator, but a more elegant way is to
enter the equations as shown in left screen below. Next adjust
the window to match the settings shown below. When you
press the graph key your screen should look like the one on the
right below. For most multiple choice problems, you can toggle
the cursor onto the intersection to get a solution that is close
enough, but if you want an exact answer you can follow the 2nd-
calc-intersect dialog. The solution is 23.4 years.

204
 5.3 Practice problems on exponential growth and decay
1. Suppose you deposit $500 in a bank 5. Alexandra is trying to choose a bank in
account that pays 4% interest per year. What which she will deposit $1,000 and leave it there
would your account balance be if you leave for 5 years. If Bank A pays 3% interest per
year and Bank B pays 4% interest, at the end
your money in the bank for 10 years?
of 5 years how much more money will she
A. .04(10) + 500 have at Bank B than Bank A?
B. 10(.04)(500) A. $10.00
C. 500(.04)10 B. $57.37
D. 500(1.04)10
C. $91.14
E. 500(0.96)10
D. $186.35
2. Suppose a certain endangered species
declines 20% every 10 years. If there are x E. $296.15
animals of that species alive today how many _____________________________________
will be alive in 50 years?
Use the following information to answer
A. 50(.8)x questions 6 and 7.
B. x (.8)5 The data below describe the size of a sink hole
C. x (.2) 5 (a mysterious hole that forms in the ground)
over a period of three weeks.
x (.8 )
50
D.
Week Diameter (in feet)
E. x(.2)50
0 38.0
3. See the calculator tip: Suppose E. coli
bacteria double in quantity every 30 minutes. If 1 41.8
an animal is currently infected with 500 E. coli 2 46.0
cells, how long will it take the number of cells 3 50.6
to reach 128,000?
A. 2 hours
6. Which of the following best describes the
B. 3 hours change in size over time?
C. 4 hours
D. 5 hours A. increasing linear
B. decreasing linear
E. 6 hours
C. increasing exponential
4. Suppose the half-life of a radioactive D. decreasing exponential
isotope is 20 minutes, meaning that every 20
E. logarithmic increasing
minutes the amount of isotope remaining is half
the previous amount. If you have a sample of 7. Which of the equations below best relates
50 grams, what will be the weight of the the diameter of the sink hole (in feet) to time (in
sample at the same time tomorrow? weeks)?
A. 25 A. d = 4w + 38
1
B. 50 2 B. d = 38 − 4w
C. 50(.5) 24 C. d = 38(1.1) w
D. 50(.5)3(24) D. d = 38(0.9) w
24
E. d = 38w
E. (50) 2

205
 5.3 Solutions to practice problems on exponential growth and decay
1. (D) 5. (B)
The starting amount is 500, the rate is .04, and 1000(1.04)5 − 1000(1.03)5
this is growth: 500(1 + .04)10 = 500(1.04)10 = 1216.65 −1159.27 = 57.38

2. (B) 6. (C)
The starting amount is x , the rate is .20 and This is growth, but is it linear or exponential?
this is decay. Notice that diameter increases by different
50
amounts each week (3.8, 4.2, and 4.6) but size
. x (1 − .2) 10
= x(.8)5
always increases by the same rate, namely
But the rate is per 10-year period so the power 10%, each week:
must be adjusted ( 41.8 = 1.1(38), 46 = 1.1(41.8), etc.).
3. (C)
So the growth is exponential, not linear.
2x
Plug the answer choices into 500(2) . Or put
Y 1 = 500(2) 2 x and Y 2 = 128000 into the
7. (C)
equation editor of the graphing calculator and
find the intersection. In question 6, it was established that the
relationship is exponential growth with a growth
rate of 10% and a starting diameter of 38.

d = 38(1 + .1) w = 38(1.1) w

4. (D)
The starting amount is 50, the rate is .5 and
this is decay. But the rate is per 20 minutes
and there are 3(24) 20 minute periods in 24
hours. 50(1 − .5)3(24)

206
5.4 Logarithms
It is rare when a formal definition in math is particularly useful when solving problems, but that is the
case with logarithms. Take a close look at the definition:

If y = logb x then b y = x.
If x = b y then y = log b x
There are many problems that make use of this definition and you can get them easily with a little
practice. But first, take a look at two special cases of the base, b .

If b = 10 then we write log x instead of log10 x

If b = e then we write ln x instead of loge x

ln x is called the “natural logarithm” of x .

Calculator tip: The values of log x and ln x can be found on the graphing calculator, using the keys
marked “LOG” and “LN”. Use your calculator to find that log 250 = 2.4 and ln 250 = 5.5 .

Practice translating the following log expressions to exponentials

log x = 5 translates to 105 = x , or x = 100, 000

ln x = 3 translates to e3 = x , or x = 20.09
log 3 x = 5 translates to 35 = x , or x = 243 .

Practice translating the following exponential expressions to logs:

x = 102 translates to log x = 2

x = e3 translates to ln x = 3

x = 512 translates to log 5 x = 12

Properties of Logarithms
Now that you have refreshed the way logarithms work and their relationship to exponentials, it is
necessary to memorize and know how to use the four laws of logarithms. They are
log b xy = log b x + log b y
x
log b = log b x − log b y
y
log b x y = y log b x
log x ln x
log b x = =
log b ln b

207
The last law, called the “change of base formula,” is very useful when calculating the numeric value of
a log that is using a base other than 10 or e .
A simple illustration of the first three laws:

5
 xy   xy 
logb   = 5logb   = 5 ( log b xy − log b z ) = 5 ( log b x + log b y − log b z )
 z   z 

Some illustrations of the change of base formula are:

log170 2.23
log 5 170 = = = 3.2
log 5 0.70
or
ln170 5.14
log 5 170 = = = 3.2
ln 5 1.61

Finding a logarithm with base 10 (the common logarithm) is easy, just

use the log key.

Finding a logarithm with base e (the natural logarithm) is also easy, just
use the ln key.

On most calculators you can also find a logarithm with an arbitrary

base. This is faster and easier than using the change of base formula.
Follow math-math-A logBASE( and press enter. Fill in the base and the
argument to find the logarithm of interest.

The screen below on the left shows how to find the log 5 20 using the
logBASE key. The screen on the right shows how to find the same
thing using the change of base formula.

208
 5.4 Problems on logarithms
1. The equation x3 = e57 is equivalent to 5. If x = 15log15 3 + 15log15 5 then x is equal
A. log x = 19 to

B. log x = 57 A. 0

C. ln x = 19 B. 1

D. ln x = 57 C. 3

E. None of the above D. 5

E. 15
2. The equation 5 x = y is equivalent to
6. If 5x = 125x+ 4 then x is equal to
I. log 5 x = y
A. -6
II. log 5 y = x
B. -2
log y C. 2
III. =x
log 5
D. 6
A. I only E. 10
B. II only
7. If log3 ( 2x −1) = 2 then x is equal to
C. III only
A. 3
D. I and III only
B. 3.5
E. II and III only
C. 4
5
 ab 2 3
3. If x =  2 
, then log x is D. 5
a+c 
E. 6
A. 5log a + 15log b − 10log c
8. If log x + log 2 = 2 then x is equal to
B. 10 log a + 15log b − 5log( a + c ) 2
A. 5
C. 5log a + 15log b − 5log c B. 10

D. 15log a + 15log b + 10log c C. 25

D. 50
E. None of the above
E. 100
21 ln 8
4. If log x 55109 = , then x is equal to 9. Without a calculator, find the value of
4 ln 2
A. 4/21 A. 2

B. e B. 3

C. 1.25 C. 4

D. 5.25 D. 6

E. 8 E. 8
209
 5.4 Solutions to problems on logarithms
1. (C) 6. (A)

5 x = 125 x + 4
5 x = ( 53 )
x+4
x3 = e57 = 53 x +12
57 x = 3 x + 12, x = −6
ln x3 = 57, 3ln x = 57, ln x = = 19
3
2. (E)
7. (D)

log 3 ( 2 x − 1) = 2
By definition, I is false and II is true. Use the
change of base formula to see that if II is true 32 = 2 x − 1
then III is true. 9 = 2 x − 1, x = 5
log y
x = log 5 y =
log 5
8. (D)
log x + log 2 = 2
3. (B) log 2 x = 2
 a 2b3 
5
 a 2b3  102 =2x, 100=2 x, x = 50
x= 2 
, log x = 5log  2 
a+c   a+c 
(
log x = 5 log a 2b3 − log ( a + c 2 )) 9. (B)

log x = 5 ( 2 log a + 3log b − log ( a + c ) )

2 Use the change of base formula
ln 8
log x = 10 log a + 15log b − 5log( a + c 2 ) = log 2 8
ln 2
x = log 2 8, 2 x = 8, x = 3
4. (E)
21
log x 55109 =
4
21
55109 = x 4
4
55109 21 = x, 8 = x

5. (E)
x = 15log15 3 + 15log15 5
x = 15(log15 3 + log15 5)
x = 15log15 ( 3  5 ) = 15log15 15 = 15 1 = 15

210
5.5 Transformations of functions
There are three categories of ways that functions can be transformed: translations (moving the graph
up, down, left and right), reflections (flipping the graph over the x-axis or y-axis) and scale changes
(altering the shape of the graph by multiplying the function by a constant). But before we cover these
transformations it is important to become familiar with the popular parent functions.

Parent functions
High scoring students should be able to sketch the more popular parent functions by hand. It is often
easier than graphing on a calculator. The more popular parent functions and their graphs are shown
below:

Line Absolute Value

f ( x) = x f ( x) = x

Quadratic Exponential Growth

f ( x) = x 2
f ( x) = b x , b  1

211
 Cubic Exponential Decay
f ( x) = x 3
f ( x) = b x , 0  b  1

Square Root Hyperbola

f ( x) = x , x  0 1
f ( x) =
x

Translations
A translation involves sliding the graph of the function left or right, or up or down. Some of the parent
functions have a critical point, which is can be useful when sliding the graph. A translation moves that
critical point along with the rest of the curve up/down left/right, but it does not change the shape of the
curve.
If you want to translate the curve left or right, just replace f ( x ) with f ( x − h) , where h is the number
of horizontal units to be moved. If h itself is positive then the curve moves right, whereas if h itself is
negative the curve moves left. If you want to translate the curve up or down, just replace f ( x ) with
f ( x) + k , where k is the number of vertical units to be moved. If k is positive then the curve moves
up, whereas if k is negative the curve moves down.

212
The table below shows how the graph of y = f ( x) moves with translations. It also gives the (x,y)
mappings between the original function and the translated function.
Original function y = f ( x) Translated function (x,y) mappings
Move up k units y= f ( x) + k ( x, y) → ( x, y + k )
Move down k units y= f ( x) − k ( x, y) → ( x, y − k )
Move left h units y= f ( x + h) ( x, y) → ( x − h, y)
Move right h units y= f ( x − h) ( x, y) → ( x + h, y)

The graphs below show two parent functions before and after they are translated left 1 unit (h = −1)
and down 2 units (k = −2) . Notice that the critical point moves from its original location to its
translated location of (h, k ) .

Line Absolute Value

parent: y = f ( x) = x parent: y = f ( x) = x
child: y = f ( x + 1) − 2 = x + 1 − 2 = x − 1 child: y = f ( x + 1) − 2 = x + 1 − 2

Reflections
A reflection is achieved by flipping the graph over the x-axis or over the y-axis. Reflections do not
change the shape of the curve, just its orientation. To reflect over the x-axis, y = f ( x) is replaced by
y = − f ( x) . To reflect over the y-axis, y = f ( x) is replaced by y = f (− x) .

Original function y = f ( x) Translated function (x,y) mappings

About the x-axis y = − f ( x) ( x, y) → ( x, − y)
About the y-axis y = f ( − x) ( x, y) → (− x, y)

The graphs below show examples of reflecting two of the parent functions.

213
 Quadratic Exponential Growth
parent: y = f ( x) = x2
parent: y = f ( x) = b x , b  1
reflected over the x-axis: y = − f ( x) = − x 2 reflected over the x-axis: y = − f ( x) = −b x

Scale changes
In this book we will cover what are called vertical scale changes (scale change questions are rare and
are more likely to be vertical scale changes).
Original function y = f ( x) Translated function (x,y) mappings
Vertical stretchc 1 y = cf ( x) ( x, y) → ( x, cy)
Vertical shrink 0  c  1 y = cf ( x) ( x, y) → ( x, cy)

Vertical shrinks and stretches are illustrated below for two of the parent functions. In a vertical stretch,
for any given value of x, the y-value increases. This causes the parabola to get narrower and it
causes the absolute value slopes to increase. The vertical shrink does the opposite: for any given
value of x, the y-value decreases, causing the parabola to get wider and it causes the absolute value
slope to decrease.

Quadratic Absolute Value

f ( x) = x 2
f ( x) = x

214
Combinations of transformations
It is possible that you will encounter a transformation that is a combination of translations, reflections
and sometimes scale changes. Two combinations are illustrated below.

Square Root Exponential Growth

parent: y = f ( x) = x , x  0 y = f ( x) = b x , b  1
reflect over y-axis, then move right 1 and down 2 reflect over x-axis, then move left 1 and down 1
y = − x then y = − x + 1 − 2, x  1 y = −b x then y = −b x +1 − 1

Note that the critical point moves from (0,1) to (0,-1)

because of the reflection. Then it moves from (0,-1)
to (-1,-2) because of the translation.

215
 5.5 Practice problems on transformations of functions
1. What is the result when the transformation 5. Which of the graphs of the following
( x, y) → (2 x,3 − y) is applied to (-1, -1)? functions never goes below the x-axis?
A. (2, 2) A. f ( x) = ( x − 2) 2
B. (2,4)
B. f ( x) = 5x − 2
C. (-2,-2)
C. f ( x) = −2 − x
D. (-2,2)
E. (-2,4) D. f ( x) = x − 2
2. Which of the functions below has been E. f ( x) = 1/ ( x − 2)
translated left 2 and down 2? 1
A. f ( x) = ( x − 2) 2 − 2 6. If f ( x) = which of the following is the
x
B. f ( x ) = 3x − 2 − 2 graph of − f ( x + 2) ?
C. f ( x) = 1.5 x + 2 − 2 A. B.
D. f ( x) = −2 x − 2
E. f ( x) = 2 − (1/ ( x − 2))
3. Which of the following functions has been
reflected over the x-axis only?
A. f ( x) = − − x
C. D.
B. f ( x) = −x
C. f ( x) = 2− x
D. f ( x) = − x
E. f ( x) = (− x) 2
4. A parent function f(x) and a child function
g(x) are graphed below. Which of the following
could be an expression for g(x)?
7. The graph below shows f ( x ) and
g ( x) = cf ( x) . What can be concluded about
the value of c ?

A. g ( x) = f ( x + 1) + 2
A. c0
B. g ( x) = f ( x + 1) − 2
B. 0  c 1
C. g ( x) = f ( x − 1) + 2
C. c =1
D. g ( x) = f ( x − 1) − 2 D. c 1
E. g ( x) = f ( x + 2) + 1 E. Cannot be determine

216
 5.5 Solutions to practice problems on transformations of functions

1. (E) 4. (C)
(−1, −1) → (2(−1),3 − (−1)) = (−2, 4) f(x) has been translated right 1 and up 2.
Replace x with x − 1 and add 2.

2. (C)
5. (A)
In the parent function, replace x with x + 2 and
then subtract 2. f ( x) = ( x − 2) 2 is a parabola shifted right two
units. It is tangent to the x-axis but does not go
below it.
6. (A)
A) shifted left 2 units and reflected over x-axis.
B) shifted right 2 units and reflected over x-
axis.
C) shifted left 2 units but not reflected
D) shifted right 2 units but not reflected.
7. (D)
3. (D)
This is a vertical stretch so c  1 . If c  0 the
Parent: y = f ( x) = x graph would be reflected over the x-axis. If
c = 1 the graph does not change. If 0  c  1
Child: y = − f ( x) = − x there would be a vertical shrink.
If f ( x) = x − a then f ( x + a) = ( x + a) − a = x

217
5.6 Matrix algebra
A matrix is a collection of numbers arranged into rows and columns. A matrix is denoted by a bold
capital letter, and its members are denoted by lower case letters. There are only a few basic
operations that you need to know.
In the material below, we will use these two general expressions for the matrices A and B

 a1,1 a1,2   b1,1 b1,2 

A =   B =  
 a 2,1 a 2,2   b 2,1 b 2,2 
It will also help to use a specific example, so we will let

1 2  5 6
A=  B=  
3 4  7 8
Multiplication by a scalar

 ka1,1 ka1,2   kb1,1 kb1,2 

If k is a scalar, then kA =   kB =  
 ka ka 
 2,1 2,2   kb 2,1 kb 2,2 

 5 1 5  2   5 10   5  5 5  6   25 30 
Suppose k=5. Then kA =  =  kB =  = 
 5  3 5  4  15 20   5  7 5  8   35 40 
Addition and subtraction
Addition and subtraction can only take place when both matrices have the same dimensions. When
this occurs, simply add or subtract corresponding elements:

 a1,1 a1,2   b1,1 b1,2   a1,1  b1,1 a1,2  b1,2 

A  B =      =  
 a 2 ,1 a 2 , 2   b 2 ,1 b 2 , 2   a 2,1  b 2,1 a 2,2  b 2,2 
Suppose we want to calculate 5A - 2B . This would be

 5 1 5  2   2  5 2  6   5 10  10 12   5 −10 10 −12   −5 − 2 

5A − 2B =  − = − = = 
 5  3 5  4   2  7 2  8  15 20  14 16  15 −14 20 −16   1 4

Multiplication
Multiplication is the most difficult of the matrix operations. Remember that multiplication may only
take place when the inner dimensions of the two matrices are identical. The dimensions of the
resulting product will have the outer dimensions of the matrices that have been multiplied. This
sounds complicated, but it’s not.
Suppose C is a matrix with two rows and three columns (2x3), and D is a matrix with three rows and
two columns (3x2). The product CD will have dimensions (2x2) because

218
 CD = C  D = E
(2 x 3) (3 x 2) (2 x 2)

the inner dimensions sort of “cancel out” leaving the outer dimensions for the result.
The product DC will have dimensions (3x3) because:

DC = D  C = F
(3 x 2) (2 x 3) (3 x 3)

The graphing calculator can do a lot with matrices. First, we enter into
the calculator the values of the matrices A and B used in the lesson
above. To enter values for A press 2nd-matrix-edit-1:[A] to get to the
data entry area. Enter the dimensions of A and then enter the data
values (see the screen shots on the left below). Follow the same steps
for matrix B.

To perform operations on matrices, press 2nd-quit to go back to the main

screen. Use the 2nd-matrix-names to multiply matrices by a scalar or to
add/subtract matrices. See the screen shots on the right below.

It’s important to understand dimensions before actually doing some problems because dimensions are
used to guide the way things are set up. Notice that E and F are different matrices with different
dimensions, proving that in the world of matrices C  D  D  C . Now we are ready to take a look at
how multiplication actually works. Suppose

1 2 
 1 3 -1  
C=  D =  0 -1 
 0 -2 1   -2 1 
 
Then

11+3  0+-1 -2 1 2+3  -1+-11  1+0+2 2-3-1   3 -2 

CD =  = = 
 0 1+-2  0+1 -2 0  2+-2  -1+11  0+0-2 0+2+1  -2 3 
Notice that the first row and first column of the resulting product matrix consists of the first row of C
multiplied by the first column of D. The first row and second column consist of the first row of C
multiplied by the second column of D, etc.

219
Now take a look at DC . Notice that DC  CD .

1 1+2  0 1  3+2  -2 1  -1+2 1  1+0 3-4 -1+2  1 -1 1 

     
DC =  0 1-1  0 0  3-1  -2 0  -1-1 1  =  0-0 0+2 0-1  =  0 2 -1
 -2 1+1 0 -2  3+1 -2 -2  -1+1 1   -2+0 -6-2 2+1  -2 -8 3 
     

Determinant
In some schools, matrices are taught as a method to solve systems of equations. When this
approach is taken, you learn how to solve systems using inverses of matrices. So far, the ACT® has
not tested inverses but they have tested the determinant. The determinant is a value that is used to
find an inverse. The symbol used to indicate a determinant looks like an absolute value symbol. Only
square matrices (where the number of rows equals the number of columns) have determinants. For a
2x2 matrix the formula of the determinant is as follows

a1,1 a1,2 1 2
det A = = (a1,1 )(a 2,2 ) − (a1,2 )(a 2,1 ) or in our example = 1(4) − 3(2) = −2
a 2,1 a 2,2 3 4

The graphing calculator can also multiply matrices and find

determinants. To illustrate multiplication, enter into the calculator the
values of the matrices C and D used in the lesson above. To enter
values press 2nd-matrix-edit-1:[ ] to get to the data entry area. Enter the
dimensions of C and then enter the data values (see the screen shots
on the left below). Follow the same steps for matrix D.

To perform operations on matrices, press 2nd-quit to go back to the main

screen. Use the 2nd-matrix-names to multiply matrices C and D. To find
the determinant of A press 2nd-matrix-math-1:det(-enter then enter 2nd-
matrix-names to enter A then press enter. See the screen shots on the
right below.

220
 5.6 Problems on matrix algebra
_____________________________________ 4. The value of A + C is:
Use the following information to answer
questions 1-5.  2 2 -1
1 0  0 2  1 2 -1 A.  
A=  B=  C=   4 -1 1
 2 -1  1 1 2 0 1  1 4 -1 
B.  
1. The sum of A and B is  3 1 1
1 -2  1 3 -1
A. C.  
  2 2 0 
1 -2 
 -1 2  1 2 1 
B.   D.  
 -1 -2   2 1 2
1 2  E. Cannot be determined
C.  
3 0 5. The value of AC is
3 0  4 0 2
D.   A.  
3 0 3 2 0
E. Cannot be determined  4 0 1
B.  
2. The value of B − 2A is 3 2 0
0 2  1 2 1 
A.   C.
 -3 0   
 0 3 -3 
 -2 2  1 2 -1 
B.   D.
 -3 3   
 0 4 -3 
 -1 2  E. Cannot be determined
C.  
 -1 -2  _____________________________________
1 2 
D.   1 0  x   3 
3 0 6. If    =   , find the value of y .
 2 -1 y   -6 
E. Cannot be determined
A. -12
3. The value of BA is
 4 -2  B. -6
A.  
 3 -1  C. 0
0 2 D. 6
B.  
1 3  E. 12
 4 2
C.  
 3 -1 
0 2
D.  
3 3
E. Cannot be determined
221
7. If A is (2x3) and B is (3x2) and C is (3x3)  −1 
which of the following operations cannot be  
10. What is the product (1 0 -1)  1 ?
performed?  2
 
I. AB
A. -3
II. B  C
 −1 0 1
III. A  C  
B.  1 0 -1 
 2 0 -2 
IV. C 
 −1 1 2
A. I only  
B. II only
C.  0 0 0
 1 -1 -2 

C. III only
D. II and IV only
D. ( −1 0 -2)

E. III and IV only  −1 

 
E.  0
 −2 
a b  
8. = 12
4 2 11. Charlotte’s school sold 300 tickets to the
school play, for a total value of $1100. If adult
In the equation above, a can be expressed as tickets sold for $5 and student tickets sold for $3,
A. b−6 how many tickets of each type were sold? Which
matrix equation could be used to solve this
B. b+6 problem ( x is adult tickets and y is student
C. 6−b tickets)?

D. 6 + 2b 5 3   300 
A. ( x y)  = 
E. 6 − 2b 1 1  1100 

1 1   300 
B. ( x y)  = 
9. Which ordered pair below is the solution to 5 3  1100 
1 0  x  1  1 1  x  1100 
   =   ? C.    =  
1 2  y   2  5 3  y   300 
A. (1,-1) 1 1  x   300 
D.    =  
B. (1, 0) 5 3  y  1100 
C. (1, 2) 5 3  x   300 
D. (1, .5)
E.    =  
1 1  y  1100 
E. (1, -.5)

222
 5.6 Solutions to problems on matrix algebra

1. (C) 8. (D)
1+0 0+2  1 2  a b
A+B = =  = 12, 2a − 4b = 12, a = 2b + 6
 2+1 -1+1  3 0  4 2
2. (B) 9. (D)
 0 2   2 0   -2 2  1 0  x  1   x  1 
B − 2A =  − =     =   ,  = 
1 1   4 -2   -3 3  1 2  y   2   x + 2 y   2 
3. (A) x = 1 and 1 + 2 y = 2, y = 1/ 2
 0 1+2  2 0  0 + 2  −1  4 -2  10. (A)
BA =  = 
11 + 1 2 1 0+1 -1   3 -1 
 −1
 
4. (E) (1 0 -1)  1  = 1(−1) + 0(1) − 1(2) = -3
These matrices cannot be added because they  2
 
have different dimensions.

11. (D)
5. (D)
1 1  x   300 
Multiply    =   to get
11+0  2 1 2+0  0 1 -1+0 1 1 2 -1  5 3  y  1100 
AC =  = 
 2 1-1 2 2  2-1 0 2  -1-11   0 4 -3  x + y = 300
6. (E) 5 x + 3 y = 1100

1 0  x   3 
   =  
 2 -1 y   -6 
x=3
2 x − y = −6
2(3) − y = −6, y = 12
7. (B)
I and III are valid because the inner dimensions
match.
II cannot be performed because inner
dimensions do not match.
IV is valid because C is a square matrix.

223
5.7 Factoring cubic expressions
In unit 2.10 we covered the factoring techniques and factoring patterns that are necessary for the
ACT®. However, sometimes you are expected to know other factoring patterns, namely for third
degree (cubic) polynomials. In this short unit we add the pattern for perfect cubes to patterns that
were covered earlier.
For perfect squares the factoring patterns are

a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = (a + b)(a + b) = (a + b) 2
a 2 − 2ab + b 2 = (a − b)(a − b) = (a − b)2
a 2 − b 2 = (a + b)(a − b)

For perfect cubes the factoring patterns are

a 3 + b3 = (a + b)(a 2 − ab + b 2 )
a 3 − b3 = (a − b)(a 2 + ab + b 2 )

Some examples are

9 x 2 + 6 xy + y 2 = (3x) 2 + 2(3xy ) + y 2 = (3x + y )2

x 2 − 4 x + 4 = x 2 − 2(2 x) + 22 = ( x − 2) 2
9 x 2 − 4 y 2 = (3x) 2 − (2 y ) 2 = (3x + 2 y )(3x − 2 y )
x3 + 64 = x3 + 43 = ( x + 4)( x 2 − 4 x + 16)
27 x3 − 8 = (3x)3 − 23 = (3x − 2)(9 x 2 + 6 x + 4)
You should check these by FOILING out the right-hand side.

4x2 − 9
Lastly, a problem that uses a combination of patterns would be to ask you to simplify . To do
8 x 3 − 27
this you must be able to see that the numerator is a difference of perfect squares and the denominator
is the difference of perfect cubes. This can be simplified by factoring as follows:

4 x2 − 9 (2 x + 3)(2 x − 3) 2x + 3
= = 2
8x − 27 (2 x − 3)(4 x + 6 x + 9) 4 x + 6 x + 9
3 2

224
 5.7 Problems on factoring cubic expressions
1. 8 x3 − 125 can be factored as 2 x2 − x − 3
5. The expression simplifies to
8 x3 − 27
A. (2 x − 5)(4 x − 10 x + 25)
2

x
A.
B. (2 x − 5)(4 x + 10 x + 25)
2
4x − 9
−x
C. (2 x − 5)(4 x 2 + 5 x + 25) B.
4x − 9
D. (2 x − 5)(4 x 2 − 5 x + 25) x +1
C.
4x + 6x + 9
2

E. (2 x − 5)3 x +1
D.
2. Which of the expressions below are factors 4x − 6x + 9
2

of x 4 − y 4 ? E. Does not simplify (prime)

I. x+ y 6. What is the domain of the function

II x− y x −3
f ( x) = ?
x − 27
3

III. x2 + y2 A. x3
A. I only B. x  −3
B. II only C. x  27
C. III only D. x  3
D. I and II only E. x  27
E. I, II and III 7. At what value of x does the graph of
3. If the area of a rectangle is x3 − 8 which of x 6 − 64 cross the x-axis?
the following could represent the width of the A. -4
rectangle? B. -2
A. x+2 C. 0
B. x2 + 4 D. 4

C. x2 − 4 E. 8

D. x2 − 4 x + 4 8. If a bag contains 2 x − 1 cubic inches of

sand, how many bags are needed to fill a
E. x2 + 2 x + 4
cylinder with a volume of 8x3 − 1 cubic inches?
4. If each edge of a cube is x − 3 units long,
A. 4x 2
what is an expression for its volume?
B. 4 x2 −1
A. x3 − 27
B. x3 + 27 C. 2x + 1
C. 3x − 9 D. 4 x2 + 2 x + 1
D. x3 − 9 x 2 + 27 x − 27 E. 4 x2 + 2 x −1
E. x3 − 9 x 2 − 9 x − 27
225
 5.7 Solutions to problems on factoring cubic expressions
1. (B)

8 x3 − 125 = (2 x)3 − 53 = (2 x − 5)(4 x 2 + 10 x + 25)

2. (E)

x 4 − y 4 = ( x 2 + y 2 )( x 2 − y 2 ) = ( x 2 + y 2 )( x + y )( x − y )
3. (E)

x 3 − 8 = ( x − 2)( x 2 + 2 x + 4)
4. (D)

V = ( x − 3)3 = ( x − 3)( x − 3)( x − 3)

= ( x 2 − 6 x + 9)( x − 3) = x3 − 9 x 2 + 27 x − 27
5. (C)
2 x2 − x − 3 (2 x − 3)( x + 1) x +1
= = 2
8x − 27
3
(2 x − 3)(4 x + 6 x + 9) 4 x + 6 x + 9
2

6. (A)
The function is undefined wherever the value
of x makes the denominator zero. When x=3
the numerator and denominator are zero. The
fact that x − 3 can be cancelled is not relevant.
There is a hole at x = 3 .

x−3 x−3
=
x − 27 ( x − 3)( x 2 + 3 x + 9)
3

7. (B)
The easy way:

x6 − 64 = 0, x6 = 64, x = 6 64, x = 2
The hard way:

x 6 − 64 = 0, ( x 2 − 4)( x 4 + 4 x 2 + 16) = 0
( x + 2)( x − 2)( x 4 + 4 x 2 + 16) = 0
8. (D)

8 x3 − 1 (2 x − 1)(4 x 2 + 2 x + 1)
= = 4x2 + 2 x + 1
2x −1 2x −1

226
 6. Pre-calculus
This is the second chapter of advanced math topics for the ACT®. It is a collection of lessons and
homework problems on topics that are typically covered in pre-calculus (though sometimes they can
appear in Algebra 2 with less depth).

6.1 Conic sections

Conic sections are parabolas, circles, ellipses and hyperbolas. Vertical parabolas, circles and
hyperbolas are covered in earlier units, specifically 2.12, 3.4, and 5.5 (hyperbola basics only).
Sometimes an ACT® question will concern a horizontal parabola or an ellipse.

Horizontal parabolas
In the vertical parabola (the one you know and love), the x-term is squared and the y-term is not (for
example, y = x 2 + 2 ). In the horizontal parabola the y-term is squared and the x-term is not (for
example x = y 2 − 1 ).

The vertical parabola opens up or down. If the coefficient of the x 2 term is positive, the vertical
parabola opens up; if that coefficient is negative, the vertical parabola opens down. On the other
hand, the horizontal parabola opens left or right. If the coefficient of the y 2 term is positive the
horizontal parabola opens right; if that coefficient is negative, the horizonal parabola opens left.
The y-coordinate of the vertex of the horizontal parabola can be found through the formula −b / 2a ,
where a is the coefficient of the y 2 term and b is the coefficient of the y term. The x-coordinate of the
x-intercept can be found by setting y to zero. The y-coordinates of the y-intercepts can be found by
setting x to zero. Below are two examples of horizontal parabolas.

The parabola opens right because the The parabola opens left because the
leading coefficient is positive. Note the y- leading coefficient is negative. Note the y-
coordinate of the vertex is at coordinate of the vertex is at
−b / 2a = 4 / 4 = 1 and that the x-intercept is −b / 2a = 4 / (−4) = −1 and that the x-
at -1. intercept is at -1.

227
 If you are given the equation of a
horizontal parabola where y can
be isolated, then it can be graphed
easily. For example,
x = y 2 + 4 y + 4, x = ( y + 2) 2
 x = y + 2, − 2  x = y

This can be graphed by entering

two equations into the calculator,
as shown on the right.

Another option is to use the conics

app on the calculator, but this
requires re-writing the parabola.

Ellipse

The ellipse has become more popular on the ACT® recently, though it still appears infrequently. In the
problems that have appeared on the test so far, you are only required to know the basic rules for
graphing, not the detailed formulas.

Illustrated below are two ellipses. The standard form of the equation of the ellipse is

( x − h) (y −k) ( x − h) (y −k)
2 2 2 2

horizontal: + =1 vertical: + =1
a2 b2 b2 a2
The center of the ellipse is at (h, k ) . If the denominator of the x 2 term is larger than the denominator
of the y 2 term, then the ellipse is horizontal, meaning that the major axis is horizontal and the minor
axis is vertical. If the denominator of the x 2 term is smaller than the denominator of the y 2 term, then
the ellipse is vertical, meaning that the major axis is vertical and the minor axis is horizontal. The
length of the major axis is 2a and the length of the minor axis is 2b .

The ellipse also has two focal points, or foci. These lie on the major axis, between the center and the
vertices of the major axis. So far it has not been necessary to know the coordinates of the foci, but
they happen to be located on the major axis at a distance of a2 − b2 units away from the center. If
you are wondering what focal points are, they are defined as follows: for any point on the ellipse, the
sum of its distance to one focal point plus its distance to the other focal point is a constant. That
constant is the same for all points that lie on the ellipse.
Two examples of the ellipse are shown below.

228
This is horizontal because the larger This is vertical because the larger denominator is
denominator is under the x term. The major under the y term. The major axis has a length of
axis has a length of 2a = 4 and the minor axis 2a = 4 and the minor axis has a length of 2b = 1 .
has a length of 2b = 1 . The focal points (not The focal points (not shown) would be located at
(
shown) would be located at − 3, 0 and) ( 0, − 3 ) and ( 0, 3 ) .
( )
3, 0 .

If you are given the equation of an

ellipse, isolate the y and then
graph by entering two equations
into the calculator. For example:

x2 y 2 y2
+ = 1, = 1 − x2
1 4 4
y 2 = 4(1 − x 2 ), y = 2 1 − x 2

Another option is to use the conics

app on the calculator.

229
 6.1 Practice problems on conic sections
1. Which of the equations below determines a 4. Which of the equations below determines a
graph that looks like this? graph that looks like this?

A. x = y2 + 4 y + 5
B. x = − y2 + 4 y + 5
C. x = y2 + 4 y − 5
( x + 2) 2
( y + 3) 2

D. x = −y + 4y − 5
2 A. + =1
1 4
E. x = y2 − 4 y + 5 ( x − 2) 2
( y − 3) 2

B. + =1
2. What are the coordinates of the vertex of 4 1/ 4
the parabola whose equation is
( x − 2) 2
( y − 3) 2

x = −3 y − 6 y + 3 ?
2 C. + =1
1/ 4 4
A. (0, 0)
( x + 2) 2
( y + 3) 2

B. (0, 5) D. + =1
4 1/ 4
C. (3, 0)
D. (0, 3) ( x + 2) 2
( y + 3) 2

E. + =1
E. (6, -1) 1/ 4 4
3. In the ellipse shown below, what could be 5 In the graph below, what is the distance
the coordinates of the focal points (foci)? between point A and point B?

A. (2, 2) and (2, -4) A. 1.98 units

B. (2, -2) and (2, 2) B. 2.00 units
C. (2, -3) and (2, 1) C. 2.98 units
D. (0, -1) and (4, -1)
D. 3.00 units
E. (1, -1) and (3, -1) E. 3.02 units
230
 6.1 Solutions to conic sections

1. (A) 5. (C)
The parabola opens right so the leading First use the midpoint formula to find the center
coefficient must be positive. The x-intercept is of the ellipse at
(5,0) so the constant term must be 5. That
 4 + 0 2 + −4 
leaves A and E. The vertex is approximately  ,  = ( 2, −1)
−b 4  2 2 
(1, -2). For equation E, = = 2 which is the
2a 2 That gives us h and k . The length of the
wrong sign. We want -2. major axis gives us 2a = 6, a 2 = 9 . The length
of the minor axis gives us 2b = 4, b 2 = 4 .
2. (E) Putting this together gives us the equation as
−b 6
The y-coordinate of the vertex is = = −1
2a −6 ( x − h)
2
( y −k)
2
( x − 2)
2
( y + 1)
2

and when y=-1 + = 1, + =1

b2 a2 4 9
x = −3(−1) − 6(−1) + 3 = −3 + 6 + 3 = 6 .
2

The last step is to plug in -3 for y:

( x − 2) ( −3 + 1)
2 2
( x − 2) 2  4 
3. (C) + = 1, = 1 − 
4 9 4  9
First use the midpoint formula to find the center
20 20 2 5
( x − 2)
2
of the ellipse at = , x−2=  , x = 2
9 9 3
 4 + 0 2 + −4 
 ,  = ( 2, −1)    
 2 2 
A =  2 −
2 5
, -3  , B =  2 +
2 5
, -3 
The focal points lie along the major axis, above  3   3 
and below (2, -1), and equidistant from (2, -1).
The distance from A to B is
You do not need to know this, but the exact
distance is 9−4 = 5 .  2 5  2 5 4 5
 2 +  −  2 − = = 2.98
 3   3  3

4. (E)
The ellipse is vertical so the larger denominator
should be under the y-term. The major axis is
4 units high so 2a = 4, a = 4 . The minor axis
2

is one unit wide so 2b = 1, b = 1/ 4 . The

2

center is at (-2, -3) so h = −2, and k = −3 .

231
6.2 Radians and the unit circle
This unit covers topics in trigonometry that typically are introduced in Algebra 2 but are not covered in
depth until pre-calculus.

Radians
A radian is just another way to measure the size of an angle. It can be more convenient to measure
an angle using radians rather than degrees. The best example of how this can be convenient comes
from sectors of circles, a topic covered in Unit 3.4 using degrees. It turns out that the arc length of a
sector is just the measure of the central angle (in radians) times the radius.

As you can see in the diagram above, the formulas for arc length and area are simpler when the
central angle (  ) is measured in radians. If the circle happens to be a unit circle where the radius of
the circle is equal to one, the formulas become even simpler. In particular, the arc length is equal to
the radian measure of the central angle when you have a unit circle.

Converting between degrees and radians

Converting the measure of an angle in degrees to radians or from radians to degrees is easy. If you
consider the unit circle where the radius is one, the circumference of the circle would be 2 . So, an
arc that represents one full rotation of the circle (360 degrees) would be 2 radians. Similarly, a half
rotation of the circle (180 degrees) would be  radians. To convert, just use ratios. Suppose you
want to convert 30 degrees to radians, use the ratios:
180 30 30 
= , r= =
 r 180 6
To convert  / 3 radians to degrees, start with the same ratio equation:
180 d 180
= , =  d , 60 = d
  /3 3

232
 To convert 30 degrees to radians, To convert  / 4 radians to degrees,
press the mode key to make sure press the mode key to make sure
that the calculator is set to radians that the calculator is set to degrees
(the first screen below). (the first screen below).

Next enter 30-2nd-angle-1 so that Next enter (-2nd-  -  4-)-2nd-

the calculator knows you have angle-3 so that the calculator knows
entered a value in degrees. Then you have entered a value in
press enter. radians. Then press enter.
You can confirm the result by
checking the decimal value of  / 6

Unit circle (working with angles in the first quadrant and beyond)
In order to understand the unit circle, we begin with a table showing the degree and radian measures
of the standard reference angles and the values of their trigonometric ratios. It can be extremely
useful to memorize these or be able to derive these values quickly, using SohCahToa and the
standard right triangles that were covered in Unit 3.7.

Degrees 0 30 45 60 90 180 270

Radians 0  /6  /4  /3  /2  3 / 2

Sine 0 1/ 2 2/2 3/2 1 0 −1

Cosine 1 3/2 2/2 1/ 2 0 −1 0
Tangent 0 3/3 1 3 none 0 none

233
The diagram below shows how an arbitrary angle, called  , is positioned in the first quadrant. Notice
that we can illustrate this as an angle of a right triangle, whose base is x , whose height is y , and
whose hypotenuse is r , the radius of a circle. The key benefit of using a unit circle, whose radius is
1, is that the coordinates of the point (x, y) are ( cos , sin  ) . Take a close look at the diagram and
the algebra to the right of the diagram to see how this works.

cos  = x / r , x = r cos 
sin  = y / r , y = r sin 
When r = 1, ( x, y ) = ( cos  , sin  )

The previous table of values of trigonometric functions for standard reference angles can be used to
fill in the values of the reference angles that lie in the first quadrant of the unit circle. (A complete unit
circle is shown at the end of this unit.) The other quadrants of the unit circle are filled in using
reference angles in the remaining three quadrants. See the diagram below to learn how to navigate
through the quadrants.

For example, what if you want the cosine of 120 degrees or 2 / 3 radians. When you start moving
counter-clockwise from zero you end up in the second quadrant. In this example,  = 2 / 3 but in
order to find the cos(2 / 3) you need to work with the reference angle, x. In the second quadrant
x =  −  =  − 2 / 3 =  / 3 radians or 60 degrees. From the special right triangles, you know that
cos( / 3) = 1/ 2 . But the x coordinate of the reference angle is negative which means the cosine is
negative, which yields cos(2 / 3) = − cos( / 3) = −1/ 2 . You can practice these on your own and
check them on your calculator (when you do this on the calculator make sure it is in radian mode).
If you want tan(7 / 6) you find the angle to be in the third quadrant where the reference angle is
x =  −  = (7 / 6) =  =  / 6 radians or 30 degrees. From the special right triangles, you know that
tan( / 6) = 3 / 3 . In the third quadrant the x coordinate and the y coordinate are negative, so the
tangent would be positive, which yields tan(7 / 6) = tan( / 6) = 3 / 3 .

If you want cos(7 / 4) you find the angle to be in the fourth quadrant where the reference angle is
x = 2 −  = 2 − 7 / 4 =  / 4 radians or 45 degrees. From the special right triangles, you know that
cos( / 4) = 2 / 2 . In the fourth quadrant the x coordinate is positive, so the cosine would be
positive, which yields cos(7 / 6) = cos( / 4) = 2 / 2 .

234
 Second Quadrant First Quadrant
reference angle = x =  −  reference angle = 

Third Quadrant Fourth Quadrant

reference angle = x =  −  reference angle = x = 2 − 

Now that you know how to continue around the unit circle to find the trigonometric ratios for angles in
the other three quadrants, you can arrange their ( cos , sin  ) points along the circumference of the
circle, as shown in the diagram below. This diagram of the unit circle shows the standard reference
angles in degrees and radians. The (x,y) coordinates of each angle are the cosine and sine of the
angle, respectively.

With practice you can become adept with the standard angles and their trigonometric values. If you
need to find the tangent, just use the identity
sin 
tan  =
cos 

235
236
 6.2 Practice problems on radians and the unit circle

1. An angle that measures 4 / 9 radians is 3. Given the coordinates of the endpoint

equivalent to shown, what is the radian measure of the
obtuse angle  ?
A. 60 degrees
B. 70 degrees A.  /3
C. 80 degrees B.  /6
D. 90 degrees
C. 4 / 3
E. 180 degrees
D. 7 / 6
2. An angle that measures 42 degrees is
equivalent to E. 5 / 4
A. 7/30 radians 4. What is the secant of angle  ?
B. 30/7 radians A. -1/2
C. 7 / 30 radians B. -2
D. 30 / 7 radians C. − 3/2
E. 3.7 radians
D. −2 / 3
_____________________________________
E. 3/3
Use the following information to answer
problems 3-5. 5. What is the sine of  −  ?

A. 1/ 2
B. 3

C. 3/2
D. 3/3
E. 2/2
_____________________________________
6. What is the length of an arc of a circle with
a radius of 5 cm, intercepted by a central angle
of 36 degrees?
A.  / 2 cm
B. 3 cm
C.  cm
D. 4 cm
E. 3 / 2 cm

237
7. If sin   0 and cos  0 then  must be in Which of the angles below have the same sine,
which quadrant? cosine and tangent as angle x ?

A. I I. 7 / 6
B. II II. 4 / 3
C. III III. 19 / 6
D. IV A. I only
E. I and III B. II only
8. What is the measure of  if its reference C. III only
angle is  / 4 and  lies in quadrant IV?
D. I and II only
A. 9 / 4 E. I and III only
B. 7 / 4
C. 5 / 4
11. If tan   0 and cos  0 then which of
D. 3 / 4 the following statements must be true?
E.  /4
I. tan  = tan ( −  )
9. Which two angles have the same sine?
A.  / 2 and 3 / 2 II. sin  = − sin ( 2 −  )

B.  / 4 and 3 / 4 III. tan ( −  / 2)  0

C.  / 3 and 4 / 3 A. I only
D. 2 / 3 and 5 /3 B. II only
E.  / 2 and 3 /2 C. I and III only
10. The diagram below shows an angle called D. II and III only
angle x .
E. I, II and III only

12. If a bicycle wheel makes one full clockwise

revolution in 20 seconds, what is the angle that
lies between its initial position and its position 5
seconds later?
A.  /6
B.  /4
C.  /3
D.  /2
E. 3 / 4

238
 6.2 Solutions to practice problems on radians and the unit circle
1. (C) 6. (C)
180 d 180  4 First convert 36 degrees to radians
= , d= = 80
 4 / 9 9 180 36 36 
= , r= =
2. (C)  r 180 5
180 42 42 7  
= , r= = s = r = 5   = 
 r 180 30 5
3. (C) 7. (D)
This problem does not use the unit circle, so sin   0 means the y-coordinate is negative
memorizing that will not help you. Use the cos  0 means the x-coordinate is positive.
Pythagorean Theorem to find the hypotenuse
and recognize the 30-60-90 triangle. That 8. (B)
gives the reference angle to be  / 3 . Only 7 / 4 is in the fourth quadrant.
9. (B)
sin( / 2) = 1 and sin(3 / 2) = −1
sin( / 4) = 2 / 2 and sin(3 / 4) = 2 / 2
sin( / 3) = 3 / 2 and sin(4 / 3) = − 3 / 2
sin(2 / 3) = 3 / 2 and sin(5 / 3) = − 3 / 2
So  =  +  / 3 = 4 / 3 . sin ( / 2) = 1 and sin(3 / 2) = −1
4. (B) 10. (E)
Using the triangle in the diagram above Use the unit circle to find that the angle is
sec  =
1
=
hyp 2
= = −2
7 / 6 . 7 / 6 is the same angle as
cos  adj −1 7 / 6 + 2 = 19 / 6
5. (C) 11. (E)
The angle  −  lies in the first quadrant as  must lie in the fourth quadrant. Make a up a
shown below. Its measure is  / 3 (see value for it, say 11 / 6 . Then test these using
problem 3 above). sin ( / 3) = 3 / 2 the unit circle or your calculator.
I. True
tan (11 / 6) = − 3 / 3, tan ( 5 / 6 ) = − 3 / 3
II. True sin (11 / 6 ) = −1 / 2, sin (  / 6 ) = 1 / 2
III. True
tan ( (11 / 6) − (3 / 6) ) = tan ( 4 / 3) = 3

12. (D)
5  
= , 10 = 20 , =
20 2 2
239
6.3 Graphing trigonometric functions
Trigonometric functions are useful when modelling natural phenomena, such as the rise and fall of
tidal waters or the rise and fall of stock prices. When students see graphs of these functions for the
first time they can seem to be coming from nowhere.

Where the trigonometric graphs come from

The graphs of trigonometric functions are built like any other graphs, but in this case, we use the
values from the unit circle to build the graph. For the sine graph, the (  , sin  ) data points are taken
from the unit circle, as shown in the table below.

 sin   sin   sin   sin 

0 0  /2 1  0 3 / 2 −1

 /6 1/ 2 2 / 3 3/2 7 / 6 −1/ 2 5 / 3 − 3/2

 /4 2/2 3 / 4 2/2 5 / 4 − 2/2 7 / 4 − 2/2

 /3 3/2 5 / 6 1/ 2 4 / 3 − 3/2 11 / 6 −1/ 2

When these data points are plotted and connected, they produce the graph shown below. Graphs of
the cosine and tangent are shown below as well.

240
 
Note that the tangent curve has vertical asymptotes at x =  n . From the unit circle you can see
2
sin( / 2) 1
that, for example, tan ( / 2 ) = = = undefined . Another way to think of the tangent curve
cos ( / 2 ) 0
is that it has vertical asymptotes everywhere cos( x) = 0 .

Changes to shape and location

Although these graphs are different from other graphs you have seen in the past, they are just
functions. Each graph passes the vertical line test, and each has a domain and range. The domain
for sine and cosine is all real numbers and the domain for the tangent is all real numbers except those

that are equal to  n . The range for the sine and cosine functions is [-1, 1] and the range for the
2
tangent function is all real numbers.

Like any other function, the trigonometric functions can be translated (moved) left and right, or up and
down. Their shape can be altered by scale changes, and they can be reflected. See Unit 5.5 to
refresh your knowledge of these.

There is some vocabulary that is unique to trigonometric functions. The amplitude of the function is
defined as one-half the range (the amplitude of the tangent function is undefined). The midline of the
function is the horizontal line that divides the range into two equal parts. The period of the function is
how long it takes for the pattern of the function to repeat. Lastly a change to its horizontal location is
called a phase shift.

Graphing the trigonometric functions

When graphing a trigonometric function, the first step is to rewrite the function so that it is in standard
form. The standard forms of the trigonometric functions are shown below.

If you set a and b to one, and h and k to zero, you have the parent trigonometric functions whose
graphs are shown above. When the value of a changes, the amplitude changes in the sine and
cosine curves. When the value of b changes, the period changes. Horizontal shifts (phase shifts)

241
slide the graph left or right. Vertical shifts cause the graph to slide up or down, which also causes the
midline to slide.

Amplitude Period Phase Shift Vertical Shift

undefined

These same operations have the same impact on the reciprocal functions: cosecant, secant and
cotangent (see Unit 3.7 for a brief discussion of the reciprocal functions).

To graph a trigonometric in standard form by hand, try using what I call the “five tick method.”
Changes to b and changes to h cause the x-values to change. Changes to a and changes to k
cause the y-values to change. Consider the function y = 3sin 2( x −  / 2) − 1 . This graph has a new
amplitude of 3, it has a new period of 2 / 2 =  units, it has been shifted right  / 2 units, and it has
been shifted down 1 unit.

To sketch one period of the graph we start with the five data points that can be used to graph one
period of the parent function. For the sine and cosine curves, we use the x-values of
0,  / 2,  , 3 / 2, and 2 . For the tangent function we use the x-values of
− / 2, −  / 4, 0,  / 4, and  / 2 in the parent function. For the transformed x-values and
transformed y-values, the formulas are
x
x* = + h and y* = ay + k
b
For the graph of y = 3sin 2( x −  / 2) − 1 we use the formulas above to get the five transformed
( x , y ) data points calculated below.
* *

x 
x y x* = + y* = 3 y − 1
2 2
0 0 2 / 4 -1
 /2 1 3 / 4 2
 0 4 / 4 -1
3 / 2 -1 5 / 4 -4
2 0 6 / 4 -1

These five transformed points are used to graph one period of the transformed sine curve, as shown
below.

242
To graph a trigonometric function, start To get a graph that looks more like the
by making sure that the calculator one on the page above, add a midline by
mode is set to radians (the first screen setting Y2=-1 in the equation editor and
below). adjusting the window settings by pressing
window and making adjustments to the
window settings.

Next, enter the equation.

Next, press zoom-7:ZTrig to get a

good initial graph.

243
 6.3 Practice problems on graphing trigonometric equations
1. The curve below shows the price of stock 5. Which of the following is the graph of
for the XYZ corporation over time. What is the y = 2sin(3x − 3 / 2) + 1 ?
difference between the highest versus the
A. B.
lowest price of the stock over the time shown?

C. D.

A. 1
B. 2
C. 4
D. 5 6. What is the equation of the curve below?
E. 6
2. What is the sum of the amplitude and period
of y = −3cos(2 x −  ) + 1 ?
A. -2
B. -1
C.  +3
D.  −3
E. 5
3. What is the range of y = 6sin(3x + 3 ) + 2 ?
A. 2
B. 4
C. 6
D. 10 A. y = 5 tan(2 x +  / 4)
E. 12 B. y = 5 tan(2 x −  / 2)
4. Compared to its parent function y = f ( x) , C. y =  tan( x)
what happened to the child function D. y =  tan( x −  / 4)
f ( x + 2) + 2 ? E. y =  tan(2 x −  / 4)
A. shifted up 2 and left 2 7. What is the period of y = sec(3x −  ) ?
B. shifted down 2 and left 2
C. shifted up 2 and right 2 A.  C. 2 / 3 E. 3
D. shifted down 2 and right 2
E. had a scale change of 2 B.  /3 D.  / 6

244
 6.3 Solutions to practice problems on graphing trigonometric equations

1. (C) 6. (B)
The highest price was $6 and the lowest price Looking at the vertical asmptotes we can see
was $2, so the difference was $4.  
that the period is  − = , which means
2. (C) 2 2
that b = 2 . The vertical asymptotes have
Rewrite the equation into standard form:

y = −3cos(2 x −  ) + 1 = −3cos 2( x −  / 2) + 1 shifted right, from 0 to , which means that k
4
The amplitude is −3 = 3 . The period is 
is . Putting this together gives
2 2 4
= =  . The sum is  + 3
b 2    
y = a tan 2  x −  = a tan  2 x −  .
3. (E)  4  2

y = 6sin(3x + 3 ) + 2
7. (C)
The amplitude is 6 and the midline has shifted
up 2 units. The maximum is 2 + 6 = 8 and the y = sec(3x −  ) = sec3( x −  / 3) so b = 3 .
minimum is 2 − 6 = −4 . The range is
Secant has the same period as cosine
8 − (−4) = 12 .
1 2 2
because sec x = . Period = = .
4. (A) cos x b 3
You should not need to do anything but apply
the rules for transformations. But if you forgot
them you could make up a f(x) function and put
f(x) and f ( x + 2) + 2 into the graphing
calculator.

5. (C)
(B) and (D) are shifted down, not up, so they
can be elmininated. The period is supposed to
2
be . The period of (A) is exactly 
3
3
whereas the period of (C) is less than .
4

245
6.4 Law of sines and law of cosines
In Unit 3.7 you learned the definition of trigonometric functions in the context of the right triangle.
Also, you know that a 2 + b 2 = c 2 but only when a and b are legs of a right triangle and when c is the
hypotenuse of a right triangle. This unit extends those ideas to any triangle, so this material is much
more useful (in the real world, most triangles are probably not right triangles).

Consider the general triangle shown below. Notice that it is not a right triangle, or any special triangle.

The vertices (angles) of the triangle are denoted by capital letters and the legs of the triangle are
denoted by lower case letters.

There are two “laws” that are needed about triangles in general, and also may be applied to right
triangles. The first is the law of sines

In words, the law of sines says that the ratio of the sine of an angle to the length of its opposite side is
the same for all of the angles in any triangle. The law of sines is most often applied in AAS, ASA and
SSA situations. You are given some information about a triangle and are expected to derive the rest
using the law of sines. For example, with AAS suppose you are given that A=25o, B=40o and a=10.
To find b

You may remember from Geometry that although AAS and ASA uniquely identify a triangle, SSA does
not. When working with a SSA situation two answers may be possible. This is called the ambiguous
case. Suppose you are given A=50o, a=20 and b=10. Using the law of sines you find that

sin 50 sin B
= , sin B = 0.383
20 10

However, you know from your work on the unit circle that two angles can have a sine of 0.383.
Specifically, 22.5 degrees (obtained by using sin −1 (0.383) = 22.5o and also 180 − 22.5 = 157.5o . In
this case we can eliminate the 157 degree angle because that would cause the sum of the angles in
the triangle to be larger than 180 degrees. But sometimes both angles that can work.
246
The other is the law of cosines:

Each of the equations above is equivalent, depending on the way angles/sides are labeled in the
problem. The last equation should remind you of the Pythagorean Theorem. If angle C is a right
angle, cosC is zero, and the law of cosines becomes the same as the Pythagorean Theorem.

The law of cosines is applied in SAS and SSS situations. For example, with SAS suppose you are
given that b=10, c=15 and A=30o. To find a

247
 6.4 Practice problems on law of sines and law of cosines

1. In the triangle below, find the value of x : 4. Starting at the origin (0,0) Cole rides his
bicycle along Main Street at the rate of 5 miles
60 per hour. If the church is 10 miles due east of
x 10 his starting position, how far away is Cole from
church after he has cycled for 30 minutes?
50

A. 8.2 units
B. 8.8 units
C. 10.8 units
D. 11.3 units
E. 12.3 units
2. In the triangle below, find the value of x :

10 15 A. 7 miles
B. 8 miles
x 20 C. 9 miles
D. 68 miles
A. 0.2 degrees
E. 87 miles
B. 0.5 degrees
5. In the triangle below, what could be the
C. 22.7 degrees
measure of angle x?
D. 30.9 degrees
E. 129.1 degrees
3. In the triangle below, find the value of x :

20 50

x
60
I. 50 degrees
A. 0.6 degrees II. 90 degrees
B. 18.2 degrees III. 130 degrees
C. 51.3 degrees
A. I only
D. 88.6 degrees
B. II only
E. 110.5 degrees
C. III only
D. I and II only
E. I and III only
248
 6.4 Solutions to practice problems on law of sines and law of cosines

1. (E) 5. (E)
The third angle must be 70 degrees:
sin 40 sin x 13sin 40
180 − (50 + 60) = 70 = , sin x = = 0.76
11 13 11
sin 50 sin 70 10sin 70
= , x= = 12.267
10 x sin 50 x = sin −1 (0.76) = 49.5 or x = 180 − 49.5 = 130.5

2. (D)
sin 20 sin x 15sin 20
= , sin x = = 0.513,
10 15 10
sin −1 (0.513) = 30.9
The angle could also equal 180 − 30.9 = 149.1
but this is not an answer choice.

3. (C)

502 = 202 + 602 − 2 ( 20 )( 60 ) cos x

cos x = 0.625, cos −1 (0.625) = 51.3

4. (B)

The first step is to realize that after 30 minutes

have elapsed, Cole will have traveled 2.5
miles. Next it is just law of cosines:

x 2 = (2.5)2 + (10)2 − 2(2.5)(10) cos 40 = 67.95

x = 67.95 = 8.24

249
6.5 Vectors, polar coordinates and complex numbers
Vectors are used in navigation and in physics, among other things. They occasionally appear on the
ACT®.

A vector is a directed line segment with a given length and angle of direction. A vector can start at
any point (the initial point) and end at any point (the terminal point) in the coordinate plane. If a vector
starts at the origin, it is said to be in standard position.

One of the most difficult things for students to understand is that vectors have no location. They are
defined by their length (magnitude) and direction only. The figure below shows the same vector in
multiple locations. It has a length of 10 units and its angle of direction is 30 degrees. To move a
vector to standard position, just calculate how many units to the left/right and how many units up/down
the vector would have to move to place its initial point at the origin. Then add those quantities to the
terminal point to find the coordinates of the terminal point when in standard position. This sounds
much harder than it is.

In the graph above we will translate the vectors to place them in standard position, with the initial point
at (0,0). Let’s start with vector a . To move the initial point to the origin we have to move it up 4 3

( )
units. That would make its initial point to be 0, -4 3 + 4 3 = (0, 0) . Its terminal point would move to

(5, ) ( )
3 + 4 3 = 5,5 3 . Now we will translate vector b . To move the initial point to the origin we

have to move it right 8 units and up 3 3 units. That would make its initial point to be

( −8 + 8, ) ( ) (
− 3 3 + 3 3 = ( 0, 0 ) . Its terminal point would move to −3 + 8, 2 3 + 3 3 = 5,5 3 ) In

fact vectors a and b are the same vector. When placed in standard position they have the same
terminal point. In fact, if you paid attention to the unit circle, you would have noticed that they had the
same angle of direction of 60 degrees and a length of 10 units.

Because any vector can be placed in standard position, the notation and operations that we use
assume that the vectors are already in standard position. The notation for a vector is to give it a name
using bold font. For example, v would denote a vector that an initial point at the origin and a terminal
point at v1 , v2 in the standard coordinate plane.

250
Operations on vectors

Consider two vectors v = v1 , v 2 and w = w1 , w 2 . Three types of operations can be performed on

them. The operations are:

Multiplication by a scalar kv = kv1 , kv2

Vector addition v + w = v1 + w1 , v2 + w2
Vector subtraction v − w = v1 − w1 , v2 − w2
For example, if v = 1, 2 and w = 1, −2 then 5v = 5,10 , v + w = 2,0 , v − w = 0, 4 .

Unit vectors

A unit vector is a vector that has a length of 1. The unit vectors i and j are defined as i = 1,0 and
j = 0,1 . Any other vector can be defined in terms of i and j . For example, the vector v = 2, −3
or v=<2,-3> can be written as v = 2i − 3j . Operations on vectors can be done with vectors expressed
in terms of I and j. For example, if w = 6, 2 = 6i + 2 j then

2 v = 2 ( 2i − 3 j) = 4i − 6 j
v + w = ( 2i − 3j) + ( 6i + 2 j) = 8i − j
v − w = ( 2i − 3j) − ( 6i + 2 j) = −4i − 5 j
Polar coordinates

Polar coordinates are very easy when you understand vectors because they are a direct consequence
of vectors. In Geometry you learned that any point in the coordinate plane can be located using its
coordinates (x, y). But that same point could be located by its distance to the origin and the angle of
direction that a vector in standard position would have when the point in question (x,y) is its terminal
point. For example, the point (3,-4) has a distance to the origin of 5 units and its angle of direction is
 = tan −1 (−4 / 3) = −53o or 307 o .

The notation for a point in polar coordinates is ( r , ) , where r is the distance from the terminal point
to the origin and  is the measure of the angle of direction.

251
As you can see from the diagram above, moving between rectangular (x,y) coordinates and polar
( r, ) coordinates is easy. Given ( r, ) use x = r cos and y = r sin  . Given (x,y) use
 y
r = x2 + y 2 and  = tan −1   .
x

Complex numbers

Recall that a complex number is written as a  bi where a is the real portion of the number and bi is
the imaginary portion of the number, where i 2 = −1 (see unit 2.11). A complex number can be
graphed in a standard coordinate plane by letting the horizontal axis represent the real portion (a) and
the vertical axis represent the imaginary portion (b). When the axes are defined in this way, it is called
the real-imaginary plane.

It should be obvious that there are relationships among these three different but very similar ways to
locate points in two-dimensional space, using rectangular coordinates, or polar coordinates, or
drawing a vector in standard position. Although these relationships are the subject of further study in
pre-calculus, this lesson only covers the information needed for the ACT®.

252
 6.5 Practice problems on vectors, polar coordinates
and complex numbers

1. When the vector with an initial point of

(-1,-3) and a terminal point of (-6,6) is placed in 5. Which of the coordinate points below
standard position, what will be the coordinates represents the terminal point for u − kv ?
of its terminal point?
A. (0,0)
B. (-5,3)
C. (-5,9)
D. (-7,3)
E. (-7,9)
2. What is the distance between −5 + 2i and
−3 − 4i ?
A. 10
B. 2 10
C. 2 2
D. 2 17
E. 10
3. The point with polar coordinates of (6,33o) is
also approximately the terminal point of which
vector below?
A. 6i + 33j A. A
B. 6i + 5j B. B
C. 6i + .6 j C. C
D. 4i + 4.5 j D. D
E. 5i + 3j
E. E
_____________________________________
6. Which vector below satisfies the equation
Use the following information to answer
ku + v + w = 0,0 ?
questions 4-6.

u = −1,3 , v = 2, −4 , k = 3 A. w = −1, −5

B. w = 1, −5
4. What is the difference of ku and v ?
C. w = −5,5
A. −1,5
B. −1,13 D. w = 5, −5
C. −5,5 E. w = −1,5
D. −5,13 _____________________________________
E. −3,9

253
 6.5 Solutions to practice problems on vectors, polar coordinates
and complex numbers

1. (C)
To move the vector so that its initial point is
(0,0) it needs to go right 1 and up 3.
(−6 + 1, 6 + 3) = (−5,9)

2. (B)
In the coordinate plane, the number −5 + 2i
maps to coordinate (-5, 2) and the number
−3 − 4i maps to coordinate (-3,-4). To find the
distance we use the distance formula

d = (−5 − (−3))2 + (2 − (−4))2 = 4 + 36 = 2 10

3. (E)
x = 6cos(33) = 5.03
y = 6sin(33) = 3.27

4. (D)
ku = −3,9 , ku − v = −3,9 − 2, −4 = −5,13

5. (A)

−kv = −3(2), −3(−4) = −6,12

u − kv = −1,3 + −6,12 = −7,15

6. (B)

ku = −3,9
ku + v = −3,9 + 2, −4 = −1,5
−1,5 + w1 , w2 = 0, 0
w1 = 1, w2 = −5

254
 Part Three:
How to prepare for the math ACT ®
If you have reached this section of the book, either

• You have very little time (four weeks or less) before your next attempt at a live ACT®, or
• You have completed or partially completed your review of math topics that appear earlier in
this book and are now ready to start practice tests.

The table below is a guideline for allocating your time, depending on your target score and the lead
time until the next test date. This was covered in depth in Chapter 1.

Your target score

Time until the 30 or less 31-33 34-36

test date

4 weeks or less Part 3 Part 3 Part 3

More than 4 Part 1 Part 1 Part 1

weeks Part 3 Part 2 partial* Part 2 all*
Part 3 Part 3
*Part 2 partial means that you should try to review the advanced topics in part
two of this book that occur most frequently. See Chapter 1 for topic frequencies.
Part 2 all means that you should try to review all of the advanced topics in part
two of this book.

1. Get some official practice tests

The first thing you should do is get some official practice tests. The best source for these is the
official test prep guide published by the ACT. There are four official tests in the guide: The Official
ACT Prep Guide, 2018-2019 Edition (ISBN 978-1119508069). If you do not have the official guide,
you should order it right away. Do not wait for the book to arrive. You can download and print the
current official practice test found on the ACT website. The link for the official 2018-2019 practice test
is https://www.act.org/content/dam/act/unsecured/documents/Preparing-for-the-ACT.pdf . ACT
publish a booklet on their web site every year, and you can find older booklets on the web.

2. Develop (and then modify) a base strategy for taking the test
There are 60 problems and you have 60 minutes to take the test (unless you have been granted
extended time). While you are taking the practice tests, you should fill out the timing table shown on
the next page. The first row is the clock time when you started the test, say 10:30. In the subsequent
rows enter the clock time when you reached the highest problem in the row. For example, in the row

255
 Math ACT® pacing chart

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Test 4 Test 5 Test 6 Test 7 Test 8 Test 9

Start time

1-20

21-30

31-40

41-50

51-60

Last
problem*

Test
Score

*If you could not finish the test, the last problem read would be less than 60.

256
1-20, enter the clock time that you reached problem 20. In the last row, enter the number of the last
problem that you read and attempted to solve.

If your target score is over 30, try to read the first 20 problems in less than 15 minutes and read the
next 10 problems in less than 10 minutes, giving you more than 15 minutes to read the last 10
problems. If your target score is more moderate (25-30), try to solve the first 20 problems in less than
20 minutes, leaving a little extra time for problems toward the end. If your target is below 25, you
should move carefully without watching the clock too closely.

After each practice test consider making adjustments in the way you manage the pace of the test. For
most students, time management is the most difficult aspect of the test. Never rush to read and
solve problems at the end of the test! This is what you do in school because the problems that
appear at the end of the test have more points. On the ACT® every right answer is worth one point,
regardless of the difficulty of the problem or how long it takes to solve it. With practice, over time,
your pace should improve naturally. Don’t force it!

Many students cannot read and solve all 60 problems in 60 minutes. If this happens to you, there are
two options for how to spend the last few minutes of the test. One option is to continue looking at
problems sequentially until time runs out. When time is just about to run out, randomly bubble any
remaining problems. The other option is to stop looking at problems sequentially, and “cherry pick”
from the remaining problems. By cherry pick, we mean scan the problems to find ones that you can
solve in the time remaining. Randomly bubble anything that you did not cherry pick. Cherry picking is
not for everybody and is much harder than it sounds. Most students are better off reading
sequentially.

3. Follow this hierarchy of steps for every problem

First, decide if you are going to read and try to solve the problem. If not, then randomly bubble an
answer choice and move to the next problem.

If you are going to read and try to solve the problem, read the problem carefully and try to
solve it using the traditional math that you learned in school (and in the earlier parts of this
book).

If you cannot solve the problem using traditional math, try using one of the techniques
covered later in this section of the book.

If you cannot apply one of the techniques, then try to eliminate some answer
choices.

Bubble a guess based on the remaining answer choices and circle the
problem number in case there is time to go back to it. Move on to the
next problem.

REMEMBER TO ALWAYS BUBBLE AN ANSWER CHOICE!

257
4. Follow these steps after every practice test
Find the answer key for the test and count the number of problems that were answered correctly (this
is called your raw score). Then find the scoring curve and use it to convert your raw score to your
scaled score. Enter your scaled score in the timing table shown earlier.

For every problem that you attempted to solve and solved incorrectly, determine the reason why. The
official study guides contain explanations for every problem. Common reasons for an incorrect
answer include arithmetic mistakes (e.g., added instead of subtracted), algebra mistakes (e.g., did not
factor correctly), failure to read or correctly interpret information given in the problem, and calculator
error.

Try to estimate how many of the problems that you solved incorrectly could easily have been correct (I
call these “silly mistakes”). Add these problems as if they had been correct to your raw score in order
to determine a realistic target score for your next practice test. Note how extra correct answers can
impact your scaled score.

Try to solve every problem that you randomly guessed. The official study guides contain answer
explanations for every problem. If you cannot solve the problem because you do not remember the
math (e.g., forgot the formula for the area of a triangle), try to find the relevant unit in this book and
refresh the math that was needed to solve that problem. Maintain a running list of formulas or other
math facts that you forgot and review this list before every practice test.

Adjust your pace

Take a look at the timing table and calculate how many minutes were spent on each section of the
test. Compare these with your error rate as you moved through the test. It is common to see that
faster speed produced a higher error rate. Speed versus accuracy is a trade off that you should
experiment with on the next practice test. For those with high test targets, note how much time you
had available for the last 10 questions and try to adjust that on the next practice test.

If your error rate in early sections of the practice test was high, try slowing down next time. Note that
slowing down to reduce your error rate can increase your score because you have a 20% probability
that a random guess will be correct. For example, if you read 40 problems and answer them correctly
then, on average, 4 of the 20 random guess problems will be correct, giving you a raw score of 44. A
raw score of 44 will usually scale to something around 27. That is a very good score, considering that
you only solved 67% of the problems on the test.

258
5. Techniques for solving when traditional math is not enough
As discussed in the hierarchy of steps to follow for every problem on the test, sometimes it will not be
possible to solve a problem using the traditional math that you learned in school (and in the earlier
parts of this book). When traditional math is not enough, consider using one of the following problem-
solving techniques.

Technique #1 -- Backsolve (guess and check)

Sometimes the math needed to solve a problem may be just outside your range of ability or
confidence to solve directly. If the problem is multiple choice, the answer is right there. It is among
the five answer choices and “all you have to do” is find it.

As stated before, the best approach is the direct solution. Read the problem carefully, use traditional
math to calculate the solution, and match your answer with an answer choice. If you are not able to
calculate the solution, then backsolving is an option. To backsolve a problem, simply plug each of the
answer choices into the original problem and see which one works. You will often find that the answer
choices are ordered from smallest to largest (or largest to smallest). If that is the case, try the middle
answer choice first. If it is not correct, go up or down from there.

Some problems are structured so that they cannot be backsolved, so this technique cannot be applied
to every problem in the test. Also, backsolving takes time.

Sample problem Backsolve (guess and check)

What value of x satisfies the equation Plug in answer choices.
2 x −3 = 8? (A) 2 −7 − 3 = 2 10 = 20
(B) 2 −1 − 3 = 2  4 = 8
A. -7
(C) 2 0 − 3 = 2  3 = 6
B. -1
(D) 2 1 − 3 = 2  2 = 4
C. 0
(E) 2 2 − 3 = 2 1 = 2
D. 1
The answer is (B).
E. 2

259
Technique #2 -- Substitution
This is a popular technique to use instead of using algebra. Even when you know the algebra,
substitution can be preferable. Let the A-students use algebra if they prefer it.

Sample problem Use substitution

A store clerk was asked to markup the price of Assume the original price was $100. It was
a pair of shoes by 20%. Instead the clerk erroneously marked down to $80 when it
marked the price down by 20%. By what should have been marked up to $120.
percentage does the price now have to be Therefore, the wrong $80 price must be
increased in order to be correct? increased by $40 to obtain the correct price of
$120. This is a 50% increase over the wrong
A. 20% price. The answer is (D).
B. 30%
C. 33% If you prefer algebra, assume the original price
D. 40% was x dollars. It was erroneously marked
down to .8x dollars when it should have been
E. 50% marked up to 1.2x dollars. Therefore, it must
be increased by 1.2x -.8x=.4x dollars. The
increase of .4x dollars is 50% over the wrong
price of .8x dollars. The answer is (E).

Technique #3 -- Geometry guessing

Although diagrams on the ACT® are not drawn to scale, sometimes you can use your eyes to
eliminate some answer choices and then take a guess. If it is obvious that the diagram is not realistic,
try drawing your own diagram realistically and take a guess based on that.

Sample problem Take a guess

In the diagram below, what is the measure (in The direct solution is to notice that the angle
degrees) of the angles marked X? supplemental to the 64 degree angle is 116
degrees. The angles of a triangle must sum to
180, so we have the equation x+x+116=180,
x
which gives x=32. The answer is (C).

Suppose you did not see how to solve the

x 64 problem. The angle marked 64 degrees looks
A. 12 reasonable and therefore the angles in the
triangle should also be reasonable. It is fairly
B. 22 clear that the angle X is larger than 12
C. 32 degrees, and a pretty good bet that angle X is
less than 42 and 52 degrees. Having
D. 42 eliminated answer choices (A), (D) and (E),
E. 52 you should take a guess from the remaining
answer choices (B) and (C).

260
Technique #4 -- Use the graphing calculator
What is surprising is how many students forget that the graphing calculator can do so much more than
simple multiplication and division. There are calculator tips throughout this book, and you should take
a look at them if you hardly use your graphing calculator doing school work. For all practical
purposes, some problems on the test require a graphing calculator. The graphing calculator can be a
very valuable tool if used with a little creativity, as shown below.

Sample problem Use your graphing calculator

The A-student might notice that the only
difference between the two equations is the
sign of the lead coefficient. So, the new
equation must open up and its y-intercept
must remain the same. The only graph with
those characteristics is (B).
Above is the graph of the function
y = ax 2 + bx + c , where a<0, b>0 and c>0. However, many students have difficulty with
parabolas. So, for them it is far better to use
Which of the graphs below could be the graph of substitution and the graphing calculator.
the function y = − ax 2 + bx + c ?
Try values of a, b, and c in your graphing
calculator until you have a graph that looks like
the one on top. Let’s say for example that you
end up with y = − x 2 + 3x + 5 Enter this and
check that it looks like the graph on top. Next
put y = x 2 + 3 x + 5 into your calculator and
notice that it looks most like graph (B).

261
Technique #5 -- Roman numeral problems
Some of the problems on the test use the Roman numeral format. For this type of problem, treat each
Roman numeral as a true-false question. Mark each Roman numeral as true or false, then match the
pattern of your answers to the answer choice.

Sample problem Solve by marking true/false

Two sides of a triangle are each 5 units long. I. True. If two sides of a triangle are
Which of the following statements MUST BE congruent then the triangle is isosceles and at
true? least two angles are congruent.
I. At least two of the angles of the triangle
II. True. The triangle inequality states that
are congruent.
any side of a triangle must be less than the
II. The third side of the triangle must be less
sum of the other two sides.
than 10 units long.
III. The triangle is equilateral.
III. False. The triangle could be equilateral,
but it might not be.
A. I only
B. II only The answer is (C).
C. I and II only
D. I and III only
E. II and III only

Technique #6 -- Draw a picture

Some word problems can be solved easily if you read the problem carefully and draw a picture that
matches the words in the problem. Sometimes students forget to draw a picture or try to solve the
problem in their heads because they think that drawing will use up too much time. Although it may
feel like it uses a lot of time, it really does not, and it will reduce the likelihood of making a very silly
mistake that you will regret.

Sample problem Draw a picture

Sally drives south at the rate of 30 mph and at After two hours Sally will have driven 60 miles
the same time Willy drives west at the rate of and Willy will have driven 120 miles, so the
60 mph. If Sally and Willy started at the same picture looks like this:
place at the same time, how far apart will they
be after two hours? Willy 120 miles Start

A. 104 miles
B. 134 miles 60 miles
x miles
C. 180 miles
D. 10,800 miles Sally
E. 18,000 miles It is now easy to see that we are interested in
the hypotenuse of the right triangle.
602 + 1202 = x 2
18, 000 = x 2
134 = x
The answer is (B).

262