Chapter – 01 Geography

Resources and Development

Any object or substance, living or non-living, that has utility is known as resources.
• All resources have some value. Value means worth. Some resources have
economic value and some do not, but both are important and satisfy human needs.
• Some resources can become economically valuable with time.
• Time and technology are the important factors that change substances into
resources.
• Each discovery or invention leads to many others.
• Types of Resources:
(i) Resources are categorised into natural, human made and human.
(ii) Natural resources are those resources that are drawn from nature and are used
Without much modification-air, water, soils, minerals are the natural resources.
(iii) Natural resources are classified into different groups depending upon their level
of development and use, origin, renewability and distribution.
(iv)On the basis of level of their development and use, resources can be classified
into
actual and potential resources.

(v) Potential resources are those resources whose entire quantity may not be known
and these are not being used at present and could be used in the future.

(vi) On the basis of origin, the natural resources can be biotic or abiotic.
(vii) Biotic resources include all the living things like plants and animals.
(viii) Abiotic resources are non-living things like soil, rock and minerals.
• Natural Resources:
(i) On the basis of renewablitiy, natural resources can be categorized into renewable
and
non-renewable resources.
(ii) Renewable resources are those which can get renewed or replenished quickly,
such as
solar and wind energy.
(iii) Non-renewable resources are those which have a limited stock. Once the stocks
are exhausted it may take thousands of years to be renewed or replenished, such as
coal, petroleum and natural gas.
(iv) Ubiquitous resources are found everywhere on the earth. Land, water, air are
ubiquitous resources.
(v) Localized resources are found only in certain places, like copper and iron ore.
(vi) The distribution of natural resources depends upon number of physical factors
like
 terrain,
 climate and
 alttitude.
(vii) The distribution of resources is unequal across the earth.
• Human Made Resources:
(i) The resources which are created from the natural resources by the human beings
to produce useful products are known as Human made resources. Like roads,
machinery, vehicles, etc.
(ii) Technology is also a human made resource

• Human Resources:

(i) Human resource refers to the number and abilities of the people. People can
make the best use of nature to create more resources when they have the
knowledge, skill and the technology. People are human resources.
(ii) Human resource development refers to improving the quality of people’s skill so
that they are able to create more resources.

• Conserving Resources:

(i) Conservation of resources refers to using natural resources carefully so that they
could be renewed and continue to be used in future.
(ii) Sustainable use of resources refers to carefully utilizing resources and balancing
the need to use resources and also conserve them for the future generation.
(iii) It is our duty to ensure that all uses of renewable resources are sustainable.
(iv)The diversity of life on the earth should be conserved.
(v) The damage to the natural environmental system should be minimized.
 Chapter – 02 Geography
Land, Soil, Water, Natural Vegetation and Wildlife Resources

Land, soil, water are the resources which belong to abiotic resources and are the
most important resources, Whereas natural vegetation and wildlife resources come
under biotic resources.
• Land:
(i) Land is among the most important natural resources. Land covers about 30% of
the total area of the earth’s surface.
(ii) 90% of the world’s population occupies only 30% of the land area. The remaining
70% of land is either sparsely populated or uninhabited.
(iii) Land is unevenly inhabited due to various factors of land and climate, water
fertility of soil, etc.
(iv) Normally, the sparsely populated or uninhabited areas are because of rugged
topography, steep slopes of the mountains, low -lying areas prone to water
logging, deserted areas and thickly forested areas are very difficult to live in.
(v) The densely populated areas of the world have plains, river valleys which have
suitable land for agriculture.

• Land use:

(i) Land use refers to the use of land use for different purpose such as agriculture,
forestry, mining, building houses, roads and setting up of industries.

(ii) Factors affecting land use are of two kinds- (i) Physical factors and
(ii) Human factors.
(iii) Physical factors include topography, soil, climate and availability of water. Human
factors include population and technology.
(iv) On the basis of ownership, land can be classified as private and community land.
(v) Private land is owned by an individual or family members and is used for personal
purposes like house is a private land.
(vi) Community land is owned by the community for common uses and can be used
by anyone in the society like collection of fodder, fruits, nuts or medical herbs. These
community lands are also called common property resources.
(vii) The demand for land by the people is growing but the availability of land is
limited.
(viii) The vast changes in the land use pattern shows the cultural changes in our
society.
(ix) Land degradation, landslides, soil erosion, desertification are the major threats to
the environment because of the expansion of agriculture and construction activities.

• Conservation of Land Resources:

(i) Growing population and their ever-growing demand has led to a large scale
destruction of forest cover and arable land and has created a fear of losing these
natural resources.
(ii) The present rate of degradation of land must be checked.
(iii) The common methods used to conserve land resources are afforestation, land
reclaimation, regulated use of chemical pesticides and fertilisers and checks on
overgrazing.

• Soil:
(i) Soil is the thin layer of grainy substance covering the surface of the earth.
(ii) Soil is made up of organic matter, minerals and weathered rocks found on earth.
(iii) Soil profile refers to the layered structure which spreads from the parent rocks to
the top soil surface.
(iv) The four layers of soil profile are:
 1st layer-Top soil with humus and vegetation
 2nd layer-Sub soil with sand, silt and clay,
 3rd layer-weathered rock material,
 4th layer-Parent rock.
• Factors of Soil Formation:
The major factors of soil formation are the nature of the parent rock and
climatic factors.
The other factors of soil formation are
 the topography,
 role of organic material
 time taken for composition of soil formation.
Parent rock determines the colour, texture, chemical properties, minerals,
content and permeability of the soil.
Relief determines the altitude and slope and accumulation of soil.
Flora, fauna and micro-organism affect the rate of humus formation in soil.
Climate determines temperature and rainfall which influence the rate of
weathering and humus in process of soil formation.
Time determines the thickness of soil profile. It takes hundreds of years to
make just on centimeter of soil.

• Degradation of Soil and Conservation Measures:

(i) The major threats - soil erosion and depletion.
(ii) Human beings and natural factors are responsible for degredation of soil.
(iii) Deforestation, overgrazing, overuse of chemical fertilisers or pesticides, rain
water ,landslides and floods are the factors which leads to soil degradation.
(iv) Soil conservation refers to the protection, efficient use of soil and preservation of
soil resources.
(v) Mulching is the method in which the bare ground between plants is covered with
a layer of organic matter like straw. It helps to retain soil moisture.
(vi) Contour barriers is the method in which stones, grass, soil are used to build
barriers along contours. Trenches are made in front of them to collect water.
(vii) In Terrace farming, broad flat steps or terraces are made on the steep slopes, so
that flat surfaces are available to grow crops. It reduces the surface runoff and soil
erosion.
(viii) In intercropping, different crops are grown in alternate rows and are sown at
different times to protect the soil from rain wash.
(ix) Contour ploughing is the process of ploughing parallel to the contours of a hill
slope to form a natural barrier to stop water from flowing down the slope.
(x) Shelter belts are the rows of trees planted to check the wind movements to
protect soil cover.
• Water:

(i) Water is a vital renewable natural resources. Three-fourths of the earth’s

surface is covered with water. Therefore, it is called ‘water planet’.
(ii) Ocean water is saline and not fit for human consumption whereas fresh water
accounts for only 2.7% of the total water available.
(iii) Only 1% of this freshwater is available and fit for human use and is found as
Ground water, rivers, lakes, etc.
(iv) Fresh water is the most precious substance on earth. It can neither be added nor
subtracted from the earth.
(v) Water is used for agriculture, industries, generating electricity through reservoirs
of dams, etc.
(vi) The major causes of water shortage are increasing population, rising demands
for food and cash crops, increasing urbanization and rising standards of living.

• Problem of Water Availability:

(i) There is water shortage in many regions of the world. It may be a consequence of
variation of seasonal or annual precipitation or the scarcity is caused by over-
exploitation and contamination of water sources.

(ii) Countries located in climatic zones are most susceptible to droughts and
face great problems of water scarcity.
• Conservation of Water Resources:
(i) The major problem of today’s world is shortage of clean and adequate
water sources.
(ii) Steps should be taken to conserve water.
(iii) Water is a renewable resource, but its overuse and pollution make it unfit for use.
(iv) Sewage, agricultural chemicals and industrial waste pollute the water with
nitrates, metals and pesticides.
(v) Forest and other vegetation cover slow the surface runoff and replenish
underground water.
(vi) Water harvesting method can also be used to save surface runoff.
(vii) Canals used for irrigation sould be properly checked for water losses through
seepage and evaporation.
(viii) Rain water harvesting is the process of collecting rain water from roof tops and
directing it to an appropriate location where it is stored for future use.
• Natural Vegetation and Wildlife:
(i) Natural vegetation and wildlife exist only in the biosphere.
(ii) The narrow zone of contact between the lithosphere hydrosphere and
atmosphere is called biosphere.
(iii)In the biosphere living beings are inter-related and interdependent on eachother
for survival. This life supporting system is known as the ecosystem.
(iv) Plants provide us with timber, shelter to animals, produce oxygen, protect soil for
growing crops, act as shelter belts, give us fruits and vegetables help in storage
of underground water, etc.
(v) Wildlife includes animals, birds, insects and aquatic life forms. They provide us
milk, meat, hides and wool, help in pollination of flowers, acts as decomposers in
ecosystem, etc.

• Distribution of Natural Vegetation:

(i) The growth of vegetation depends on temperature and moisture.
(ii) Forests, grasslands, scrubs and tundra are the major types of vegetation of the
world.
(iii) Forests are associated with areas having abundant water supply. These areas
have heavy rainfall and huge trees.
(iv)Grasslands are areas having short stunted (short/not fully grown) trees and
grasses grown in the regions of moderate rainfall. As the amount of moisture
decreases the size of trees and their density reduces.
(v) Thorny shrubs and scrubs grow in dry areas of low rainfall. The plants of this
region have deep roots and leaves with thorny and waxy surface that helps reduce
loss of moisture through transpiration.
(vi) Tundra vegetation of cold Polar Regions comprise of mosses and lichens.
(vii) Evergreen and deciduous are the types of forests depending upon when they
shed their leaves.
(viii) Trees of evergreen forests do not shed their leaves simultaneously in any
season of the year.
(ix) Deciduous forests shed their leaves in a particular season to conserve loss of
moisture through transpiration.
• Conservation of Natural Vegetation and Wildlife:
(i) Forests are our wealth.
(ii) Plants give shelter to the animals and together they maintain the ecosystem.
(iii) Changes of climate and human interferences can cause the loss of natural
habitats for the plants and animals.
(iv) Poaching (illegally hunting) is one of the major concerns which results in a sharp
decline in the number of particular species.
(v) The animals are poached for collection and illegal trade of hides, skins, nails,
teeth, horns and feathers.
(vi) To protect our natural vegetation and wildlife, national parks, wildlife sanctuaries
and biosphere reserves are made.
(vii) Due to indiscriminate(unrestricted) killings, several birds and animals have either
become extinct or are on the verge of extinction.
(viii) Awareness programmes like social forestry and Vanmahotsava should be
encouraged at the regional and community level.
(ix) It is the ethical duty of every citizen to conserve plants and animals.

Chapter – 03 Geography
Minerals and Power Resources

• Minerals are naturally occurring substances that have a definite chemical

composition.
• Minerals are formed in different types of geological environments, under varying
conditions.
• Minerals can be identified on the basis of their physical properties such as colour,
density, hardness and chemical property such as solubility.
• Types of Minerals:
(i) On the basis of composition, minerals are classified into metallic and non-metallic
types.
(ii) Metallic, minerals contain metals in raw form.
(iii) Metals are hard substances that conduct heat and electricity and have lusture or
shine.
For example, iron ore and bauxite.
(iv) Metallic minerals are of two types:
 (a) Ferrous and
(b) Non-ferrous.
(v) Ferrous minerals contain iron ore, manganese and chromites.
(vi) Non-ferrous minerals do not contain iron but may contain some other metals like
gold, silver, copper or lead.
(vii) Non-metallic minerals do not contain metals. For example, limestone, mica,
gypsum, coal and petroleum.
(viii) Mining, drilling and quarrying are the three extraction methods of minerals.
(ix) Mining is the process of taking out minerals from rocks buried under the earth’s
surface.
(x) The process of mining includes two methods:
(a) Open cast mining,
(b) Shaft mining
(xi) Deep wells are bored to take minerals out and this process is called drilling.
(xii) In the process of quarrying, minerals that lie near the surface are simply dug out.
• Distribution of Minerals:
(i) Minerals are found in igneous rock, metamorphic rocks and sedimentary rocks.
(ii) Iron ore, nickel, copper minerals are found in igneous and metamorphic rocks.
(iii) Limestone is found in sedimentary rocks.
• Uses of Minerals:
(i) Some minerals which are usually hard are used as gems for making jewellery.
(ii) Copper is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.
(iii) Silicon is used in almost everything from coins to pipes.
(iv) Silicon is used in the computer industry which is obtained from quartz.
(v) Aluminium is used in automobile, airplanes, bottling industry, building and in
kitchen cookware.
• Conservation of Minerals:
(i) Minerals are the non-renewable resources.
(ii) It is necessary to reduce wastage in process of mining.
(iii) Recycling of metals is the way to conserve mineral resources.
• Power Resources:

(i) Power resources are of two types: (a) Conventional Resources, (b) Non-
conventional Resources
(ii) We need power resources for industry, agriculture, transport, communication and
defence.

• Conventional Sources of Minerals:

(i) The energy resources which have been in common use for a long time are known
as conventional sources.
(ii) Firewood and fossil fuels are two main conventional energy sources.
• Non-Conventional Sources of Minerals:
(i) Non-conventional sources of energy are renewable.
(ii) Solar energy, wind energy, tidal energy, etc. are non-conventional sources of
energy.

Chapter – 04
Agriculture

• Economic activities are of three types: (i) Primary Activities, (ii) Secondary
Activities, (iii) Tertiary Activities.

• Primary activities are those activities which are connected with extraction and
production of natural resources, for example, agriculture, fishing, etc.

• Secondary activities are concerned with the processing of natural resources to

manufacturing products like baking of bread, weaving of cloth, etc.

• Tertiary activities provide services like transport, trade banking, insurance,

advertising, etc.
• Agriculture is a primary activity which include growing crops, fruits, vegetables,
flowers and rearing of livestock.
• 50% of persons in the world are engaged in agricultural activity.
• 2/3 of India’s population is still dependent on agriculture.
• Favourable topography of soil and climate are vital for agricultural activity. The land
on which the crops are grown is known as arable (cultivable) land.

• Farm System:

(i) Agriculture or farming is a system in which seeds, fertilizers, machinery and labour
are important inputs.
(ii) Ploughing, sowing, irrigation, weeding, and harvesting are some of the
operations.
(iii) The outputs from the system include crops, dairy, wool and poultry products.
• Type of Farming:
(i) Farming depends upon the geographical conditions, demand of product, labour
and level of technology.
(ii) Subsistence farming and commercial farming are the two types of farming.

• Subsistence Farming:
Subsistence farming is practices to meet the needs of the farmer’s family.
• Intensive Subsistence Agriculture: In this farming, the farmer cultivates a small plot
of land using simple tools and more labour. Rice is the main crop. Other crops
include wheat, maize, pulses and oil seeds.
• Primitive Subsistence Agriculture: Primitive subsistence agriculture includes shifting
cultivation and nomadic herding.
• Shifting Cultivation: In shifting cultivation, after cultivation the soil is abandoned and
the cultivator moves to a new plot. Shifting cultivation is also known as ‘slash and
burn’ agriculture.
• Nomadic Herding: In nomadic herding, herdsmen move from place to place with
their animals for fodder and water along defined routes. Sheep, yak and goats are
the herding animals.
• Commercial Farming:

In commercial farming crops are grown and animals are reared for sale in market
• Commercial Grain Farming: In commercial grain farming crops like wheat and
maize are grown for commercial purpose. This farming practiced in temperate
grasslands of North America, Europe and Asia.
• Mixed Farming: In mixed farming, the land is used for growing food and fodder
crops and rearing livestock.
• Plantation: Plantations are a type of commercial farming where single crop of tea,
coffee, sugarcane, cashew, rubber, banana or cotton are grown.
• Major Crops: A variety of crops or many crops are grown to meet the requirement
of the growing population. Major crops of India are: Rice, Wheat, Millets, Maize,
cotton, jute, coffee, tea.
• Agriculture Development: Agriculture Development refers to efforts made to
increase farm production in order to meet the growing demand of increasing
population.
• A Farm in India: A typical Indian, Munna Lal has a farmland of about 1.5 hectares.
He purchases high yielding varieties of seeds from the market every alternate year.
• A Farm in the USA: The average size of a farm in the USA is about 250 hectares.
The farmers grow corn, soyabean, wheat, cotton and sugarbeet.

Chapter – 05 Geography
Industries

Secondary activities are those activities which change raw materials into products of
more vaue of people.
• Industry refers to an economic activity that is concerned with production of goods,
extraction of minerals or the provision of services.
• Raw Material: Industries under this are of agro-based, mineral-based marine-based
and forest-based.
• Size of Industries:
(i) Size refers to the amount of capital invested, number of people employed and the
volume of production.
(ii) Industries based on size are classified into small scale and large scale industries.
• Small Scale Industries:
(i) Small scale industries manufacture products by hand and include cottage and
household industry. These industries use lesser amount of capital and technology.
(ii) For example, Basket-weaving, pottery and other handicraft industries.
• Large Scale Industries:
(i) Large scale industries produce large volumes of products. The investment of
capital is higher and technology is superior.
(ii) For example, production of automobiles and heavy machinery.
• Ownership: On the basis of ownership, industries can be classified into the
following sectors:
(a) Private sector,
(b) Public sector or state owned,
(c) Joint sector,
(d) Cooperative sector.
• Private Sector Industries:
(i) Private sector industries are owned and operated by individuals or a group of
individuals. For example, Bharat Heavy Electrical Ltd., Indian Oil Cooperation.
(ii) Public sector industries are owned and operated by the government. For
example,
Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Steel Authority of India Limited.

• Joint Sector Industries: Joint sector industries are owned and operated by the state
and individuals or a group of individuals. For example: Maruti Udyog Limited.
• Cooperative Sector Industries: These industries are owned and operated by the
producers or suppliers of raw materials, workers or both. For example: Anand Milk
Union Limited and Sudha Dairy.
• Factors Affecting Location of Industries:
(i) The availability of raw material, land, water, labour, power, capital, transport and
market are the factors affecting the location of industries.
(ii) Industrialization leads to development and growth of towns and cities.
• Industrial System:
(i) An industrial system consists of inputs, processes and outputs.
(ii) Raw materials, labour and costs of land, transport, power and other infrastructure
are the inputs.
(iii) The processes include a wide range of activities that convert the raw materials
into finished products.
(iv) The results or the outputs are the end products and income earned from it.

• Industrial Regions:
(i) Industrial regions emerge when a number of industries locate close to each other
and share the benefits of their closeness.
(ii) Major industrial regions tend to be located in the temperate areas, near sea ports
and especially near coal-fields.
(iii) Major industrial regions of the world are eastern North America, western and
Central Europe, eastern Europe and eastern Asia.
(iv) In India the industrial regions are Mumbai-Pune cluster, Banglore-Tamil Nadu
region, Hugli region, Ahmedabad-Baroda region, etc.

• Distribution of Major Industries:

(i) The iron and steel industry, the textile industry and the information technology
industry are world’s major industries.
(ii) Iron and steel industries are located in Germany, USA, China, Japan and Russia.
(iii) Textile industries are locate in India, Hong Kong, South Korea, Japan and
Taiwan.
(iv) The Silicon valley of Central California and Bengaluru region of India are the
major hubs of information and technology industry.

• Iron and Steel Industry:

(i) Iron and steel industry comprises of various inputs, processes and outputs and it
is a mineral-based industry.
(ii) Inputs in this industry include raw materials such as iron ore, coal and limestone,
labour, capital and other infrastructure. In processing iron ore is converted into
steel by undergoing different stages like smelting, refining. Output results obtained is
the steel.
(iii) Steel is called the backbone of modern industry as almost everything is made of
iron and steel.
(iv) In India, iron and steel industry has developed taking advantages of raw
materials, cheap labour, transport and market.
(v) Major steel producing centres in India are- Bhilai, Durgapur, Bumpur,
Jamshedpur, Rourkela, Bokaro and is spread over four states-West Bengal,
Jharkhand, Odisha and Chattisgarh.

• Information and Technology Industry (IT)

(i) Information technology industry deals in the storage, processing and distribution
of information.
(ii) The main factors guiding the location of these industries are resource availability,
cost and infrastructure.
(iii) The major hubs of the IT industry are the Silicon Valley, California and Bengaluru
in India.
(iv) Bengaluru is known as ‘Silicon Plateau’.
(v) IT hubs in metropolitan centres of India are Mumbai, New Delhi, Hyderabad and
Chennai.

Chapter – 06 Geography
Human Resources

• People are a nation’s greatest resources. It is people with their skills and abilities
that turn them into ‘resource’. Hence, human resource is the ultimate resource.
• Healthy, educated and motivated people develop resources as per their
requirements.
• Like other resources, human resources are not equally distributed over the world.

• Distribution of Population:

(i) The pattern of population distribution refers to the way in which people are spread
across the earth surface.
(ii) The distribution of population in the world is extremely uneven.
(iii) Some areas are sparsely populated and some areas are densely populated due
to relief features ,climate conditions, etc.
(iv) Many more people live north of the Equator than south of the equator and
almost three-quarters of the world’s people live in the continents of Asia and Africa.

• Density of Population:

(i) The number of the people living in a unit area of the earth’s surface is called
population density.
(ii) The average density of population in the whole world is 51 person per square km.
(iii) South Central Asia has the highest density of population followed by East and
South East Asia.

• Factor Affecting Distribution of Population:

(i) People refers to live on plains because these areas are suitable for farming,
manufacturing and service activities.
(ii) Climate: People prefer to live in moderate climate. They avoid extreme climates
that are very hot or very cold.
(iii) Soil: Fertile soil provides suitable land for agriculture. These areas are densely
populated.

(iv) Water: People prefer to live in areas where fresh water is easily available.
(v) Minerals: Areas with mineral deposits are more populated.

• Social, Cultural and Economic Factors:

(i) Areas of better housing, education, health facilities are more densely populated.
(ii) Places with religious or cultural significance attract people.
(iii) Industrial areas provide employment opportunities. Large number of people are
attracted to these areas
.
• Population Change:
(i) The change in the number of people during a specific time is called population
change.
(ii) Population change is due to changes in the number of births and deaths and
migration

(iii) Natural growth rate refers to the difference between the birth rate and the death
rate of a country.

• Pattern of Population Change:

(i) Rates of population growth varies across the world.

(ii) The world’s total population, however, not all countries are experiencing this
growth.

• Population Composition:

(i) Population composition is the structure of the population with various aspects
such as sex, age, literacy, health condition, occupation and income level.
(ii) The population composition of a country is described as population pyramid,
which also called an age-sex pyramid.
(iii) The total population is divided into various groups: 5-9 years, 10-14 years.etc.
(iv) The percentage of the total population is subdivided into males and females, in
each of those groups.
(v) The shape of population pyramid, shows the people living in that particular
country.
(vi) The number of children (below 15 years) are shown at the bottom and reflect the
level of births. The size of the top shows the number of aged people (above 65
years) and reflects the number of deaths.
(vii) The population pyramid shows young dependents (aged below 15 years) and
elderly dependents (aged over 65 years). The working people are in the middle
group constitute the economically active segment.
(viii) In Japan, low birth rates make the pyramid narrow at the base. Decreased
death rates allow numbers of people to reach old age.