5 Essential and Nonessential Micronutrients and Sport 83

Table 5.3 Summary of water-soluble vitamins

Adult (nonpregnant)
Nutrient Function recommended intake Food sources Comments for the athlete
Thiamin (B1) Carbohydrate • UL: N/A Yeast, pork, Studies indicate that there
and amino acid • Deficiency: weakness, fortified grains, is no need for additional
metabolism decreased endurance, cereals, legumes thiamin supplementation
weight loss above the DRI
recommendations with
exercise
Riboflavin (B2) Oxidative • UL: N/A Milk, almonds, Athletes who consume
metabolism, • Deficiency: altered liver, eggs, bread, adequate levels through
electron skin and mucous fortified cereals the diet do not require
transport system membrane and supplementation above
nervous system the DRI
function
Niacin (B3) Oxidative • UL: 35 mg/day Meats, fish, All persons should obtain
metabolism, • Deficiency: irritability, legumes, the DRI for niacin intake
electron diarrhea peanuts, some to ensure adequate intake
transport system cereals and performance
Pantothenic acid Essential to the • UL: N/A Liver, egg yolk, Limited research exists
metabolism of • Deficiency: muscle sunflower seeds, on pantothenic acid
fatty acids, cramps, fatigue, mushrooms, supplementation and
amino acids, and apathy, malaise, peanuts, brewer’s exercise performance
carbohydrates nausea, vomiting yeast, yogurt,
broccoli
Vitamin B6 Gluconeogenesis • UL: 100 mg/day Meats, whole Exercise has been shown
• Deficiency: dermatitis, grain products, to increase the loss of
convulsions vegetables, nuts vitamin B6
Biotin Cofactor in • UL: N/A Liver, egg yolk, Not enough information
synthesis of • Deficiency: dermatitis, soybeans, yeast, to make a
fatty acids, alopecia, cereals, legumes, recommendation
gluconeogenesis, conjunctivitis nuts regarding
and the supplementation and
metabolism of exercise
leucine
Folate Hemoglobin and • UL:1,000 μg/day Yeast, liver, fresh Exercise does not appear
nucleic acid • Deficiency: anemia, green vegetables, to increase needs
formation fatigue strawberries
Vitamin B12 Hemoglobin • UL: N/A Organ meats, Supplemental vitamin B12
formation • Deficiency: anemia, shellfish, dairy does not appear to benefit
neurologic symptoms products performance unless a
nutritional deficit is
present
Vitamin C Antioxidant • UL: 2,000 mg/day Citrus fruits, Results of
• Deficiency: fatigue, green vegetables, supplementation on
loss of appetite peppers, performance are
tomatoes, berries, equivocal; possible
potatoes benefits of
supplementation include
enhanced immune
function, antioxidant
effects, and decreasing
body temperature
5 Essential and Nonessential Micronutrients and Sport 87

on muscular strength or endurance. Although fortified with vitamin D to avoid deficiency in

there is potential for vitamin A supplementation latitudes where exposure to sunlight is limited
to decrease oxidative stresses from exercise, during the winter months.
research is limited, predominantly because vita- Excess amounts of vitamin D (hypervitamin-
mins C and E have greater antioxidant capabili- osis D) can lead to high blood pressure, bone
ties. Further, evidence of vitamin A deficiency in loss, and kidney damage. These effects are
athletic individuals is lacking, likely because thought to be caused, for the most part, by hyper-
body storage is appreciable [37]. Due to the fat calcemia that may occur with hypervitaminosis
solubility properties, supplementation of D [38]. This is because the function of vitamin D
β-carotene is not recommended. is to maintain serum calcium and phosphorus lev-
els within the body by enhancing their absorption
5.2.2.2 Vitamin D (Calciferol) from the gastrointestinal tract and promoting
Although many forms of calciferol (vitamin D) their release from the bones. Active vitamin D
exist, the two main forms are ergocalciferol provides such a role by working in combination
(vitamin D2) and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3). with the parathyroid hormone (PTH) to mobilize
Vitamin D2 is produced from ergosterol in the calcium and, indirectly, phosphorus from the
diet, while vitamin D3 is synthesized by ultravio- bone to maintain serum concentrations as needed.
let radiation from a precursor of cholesterol in Studies suggest that serum 25-hydroxyvitamin
the skin. Both forms are biologically inert and (25(OH)D) concentrations <50 nmol/L is com-
must be converted to the biologically active mon among athletes [39–41], with serum profiles
form, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25 (OH)2D). often worse depending upon winter season, unfa-
The major source of vitamin D for humans is vorable latitude of training, and indoor training
sunlight. This source is especially important routine [42]. Decreased vitamin D is associated
because few dietary sources contain vitamin D with increased inflammation in athletes [43].
naturally (see Table 5.4). In the United States, In subjects with elevated baseline inflammation,
many dairy foods (i.e., milk and cheese) are the addition of vitamin D supplementation to

Table 5.4 Summary of fat-soluble vitamins

Adult (nonpregnant)
Nutrient Function recommended intake Food sources Comments for the athlete
Vitamin A Vision, immune • UL: 3,000 μg preformed Broccoli, squash, Supplementation of
response, epithelial vitamin A/day sweet potatoes, β-carotene is not
cell growth and • Deficiency: dry skin, dry pumpkin, recommended
repair hair, broken fingernails, cantaloupe, liver,
susceptibility to infections milk, eggs
Vitamin D Bone remodeling • UL: 100 μg/day Natural sources: May influence bone
and maintaining • Deficiency: osteomalacia, fatty fish, egg yolks mineralization and help
serum calcium and osteoporosis, heart Fortified sources: prevent fractures
phosphorus disease, hypertension milk, cereals
concentrations
Vitamin E Antioxidant • UL: 1,000 mg Vegetable oils, Antioxidant properties
α-tocopherol/day unprocessed cereal may be beneficial in
• Deficiency: retinopathy, grains, green leafy decreasing oxidative
neuropathy, and myopathy vegetables, nuts stress during exercise
bouts
Vitamin K Essential for normal • UL: N/A Green leafy Supplementation may be
blood clotting • Deficiency: increase in vegetables, cereal, needed for formation of
blood clotting time and organ meats, dairy bone
decrease in bone mineral products, eggs
density