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a car, playing cricket and making tea. truly shaped the current state of this Q&A
Although seemingly coming from left research field.”
field, much of his previous research
had in fact focused on where other
As we have sketched out here,
Mike did many things superbly. It’s
Audrey Dussutour
animals look, how they sample what no surprise that he was awarded his
they see, and how they then act, based Fellow(ship) of the Royal Society of Audrey Dussutour, a French-
on what they see. In typical style and London (FRS) in 1982, before his 40th born ethologist, is a CNRS Senior
with much butchery of bike helmets birthday, a feat few biologists have Researcher in the Animal Cognition
and concave mirrors, Mike invented ever achieved. He also won other Department of the Center for
the instrument to do this work, based prizes, including becoming a member Integrative Biology in Toulouse (Paul
in part on his knowledge of deep-sea of the Academia Europaea in 1998 Sabatier University). She studies
invertebrate eyes. Early forays into this and garnering the Rank Prize for collective behavior and cognition,
area were, in his own words, “greatly Optoelectronics in the same year. working with ant colonies and slime
helped by a collaboration with Jenny Along with the great family of molds. Her topics of interest include
Rusted, a proper psychologist with the science colleagues and friends, Mike decision-making, foraging behavior,
background I lacked” (also at Sussex leaves behind a wonderful and loving and integrative nutrition. Her work has
at the time). It is interesting that many family. His first marriage to Judith (née been published in technical articles
young vision scientists are surprised Drinkwater) produced their son Adam as well as a popular book (Le Blob,
to find that Mike Land did research and later two grandchildren. Rosemary 2017; winner of the ‘science for all’
besides just that on human eye (née Clarke), whom he married in 1980, book award in 2018) and has also been
movements; such was his impact on the lived with Mike in a splendid Arts and featured in the documentary The Blob:
field. Ben Tatler describes the typically Crafts house overlooking Lewes, a A Genius without a Brain (winner of the
delightful experience of working with place where many of those mentioned silver award at the AAAS Kavli Science
Mike here: here have spent happy hours with this Journalism Awards 2020).
“Mike had a huge impact on my life warm and welcoming couple. That
from the day that I met him. I travelled union produced two daughters, Penny What are you working on right
to Sussex to talk to him about insect and Kate, and ultimately two more now? I’m studying learning in slime
eyes — my planned PhD topic after grandchildren. molds: giant single-cell organisms
spending time in Simon Laughlin’s We have reserved the last word here that look like piles of scrambled eggs.
lab as an undergraduate. But the for Jochen Zeil, another fortunate PhD Slime molds are unicellular organisms
day turned out very differently than student and academic child whose and thus by definition do not have
planned — Mike introduced me to his career Mike helped launch: a nervous system. Yet, we recently
home-made mobile eye tracker and “Mike had a wonderfully inspiring demonstrated that they can learn to
work on everyday tasks and, despite way of looking at the natural world as ignore a repetitive stimulus, a process
my complete ignorance of human an intellectual challenge, as a source of called habituation (Proc. R. Soc. B
eye movements, I was hooked by his awe and of entertainment. As a deep (2016) 283, 20160446). Now we are
enthusiasm and excitement for this admirer of Darwin, he had a sense of trying to identify the mechanisms that
research. Reading the papers he had the beauty and elegance of natural support learning in such organisms.
given me on my way home, I was design and he cherished the challenge We also want to decipher the extent of
struck by the clarity and engagement of describing and understanding it. But learning abilities in slime molds.
of his writing and knew then that I what I loved most about him — and
wanted to work with him — and to am most grateful for having learnt from What do you think is the next big
work on humans rather than flies. him — is his way of seeing the funny, question to be answered in your
Research was always fun with Mike — the hugely entertaining side of animals. field? Are cognitive abilities such
I remember, in particular, how much He saw that science, especially that of as learning pervasive and can they
we both enjoyed spending several invertebrates, is as an intellectual and be found in all living organisms?
days hanging around in the pits with aesthetic enrichment of life and — well This idea, when it was first brought
the Formula 3 Stewart Racing team, how to best capture it (?) — a source of up, generated an outcry. Yet, some
albeit preceded by one awkward day happiness.” researchers kept asking this same
spent with an angry driver, frustrated Mike was a great explorer who question again and again in spite
racing team and the Formula 3 health understood more about science than of strong criticism. Among them
and safety officials, after we ruined a most but was himself in multiple ways were my dear colleagues Pamela
very expensive helmet by screwing a source of happiness, and someone Lyon and Michael Levin. I met both
an eye tracker on to it (version 2 used whom we all miss greatly. of them three years ago in what
Velcro)! Mike was a great mentor and turned out to be one of the most
1
friend and we continued to collaborate Queensland Brain Institute, University of interesting workshops that I have
after the six years I spent in his lab. Queensland, St Lucia, Brisbane, QLD 4072, ever attended: ‘Basal cognition:
Australia. 2Department of Biological Sciences,
Mike’s work on human eye movements conceptual tools and the view from
University of Maryland, Baltimore County,
was pioneering (a word that is often Baltimore, MD 21250, USA. the single cell’. Around the table were
— and rightly — used to describe E-mail: [email protected] (J.M.); philosophers, molecular biologists,
many aspects of Mike’s work) and has [email protected] (T.C.) neurophysiologists, embryologists,

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computer scientists, and so on, all the pleasure to cross paths with. At
focused on this single question. the time, he was about to retire and
That day, I felt that our research I begged him to take me on as his
was helping to lay the foundations last intern. I will always remember
for finding an answer. Since then, our long talks about autopoiesis.
a special issue has been published The second person was my master’s
in Philosophical Transactions of the and PhD supervisor Jean-Louis
Royal Society B on basal cognition Deneubourg (Brussels University,
(Philos. Trans. R. Soc. B (2021) 376, Belgium). He’s one of the smartest
20190750), as well as two papers on people I have worked with and at the
ciliate behavioral plasticity (Curr. Biol. same time the humblest. Jean-Louis
(2019) 29, 4323–4329 and eLife (2021) is one of the pioneers of the field of
10, e61907). This idea does not seem collective behavior and he introduced
so provocative anymore! me to social insect behavior. The
To go further in exploring the third person is Vincent Fourcassié,
mechanisms that could enable my PhD co-supervisor (University of
learning in single-cell organisms, Toulouse, France), who taught me
we now need more indisputable everything from running statistical
evidence that learning occurs in analyses to writing a proper paper.
such organisms. Methodological Vincent gave me the autonomy I
advances offer a wealth of new needed while always being at my
tools for the study of learning in side. Jean-Louis, Vincent, and I my mentors were some of the ‘good
single-cell organisms. For instance, worked for more than four years on guys’! Right now, the thing that I hate
novel imaging techniques and the fundamental question of why ants the most, apart from the sexist jokes,
recent advances in genomics are never get stuck in a traffic jam (Nature is that, each time you accomplish
now allowing us to monitor single- (2004) 428, 70–73). My last mentor is something in your career (a promotion,
cell transcriptional activity in real Steve Simpson (University of Sydney, a grant, an award, and so on), there is
time, and this will enable us to Australia). I worked with Steve as always a man to tell you that the only
observe the transcriptional activity in a postdoc and it was the best time cause of your success is because you
single-cell organisms while they are of my entire career as a researcher are a woman! No matter how hard you
learning. This approach, combined to date. Steve started his career by work, there will always be a man that
with computational simulation and tickling the legs of locusts and he makes you feel like an impostor… a
computer-based artificial intelligence, became one of the greatest nutritional ‘quota woman’. Fortunately, I feel that
might enable us to crack the molecular specialists in the world. He’s now the things are changing now!
basis of learning in single-cell head of the Charles Perkins Centre,
organisms. Yet, new technologies do a multidisciplinary research center Why do you invest so much time in
not replace the need for an extensive committed to improving global health. science communication? I think that
understanding of the ecology of Together with his colleague David the earlier you get into science, the
single-cell organisms. We need to Raubenheimer, Steve developed an earlier you become aware of the world
acquire knowledge of what might integrative modeling framework for around you. If kids understand the
constitute an appropriate stimulus nutrition (the Geometric Framework), basics of science, it will be easier for
repertoire for these organisms. and while it was originally tested them to grasp the challenges that they
Indeed, due to differences in scale, using insects it has since been will later have to face (climate change,
niche, and sensory apparatus, successfully applied to improving biodiversity decline, pandemics, and
single-cell organisms experience a our understanding of human obesity. so on). They will be able to better
totally different environment than It was while working with Steve that judge political decisions and fight
most animals. Hence, we must invent I started to study slime molds. The for the environment. I believe that
creative and inspired protocols that original idea was to test Steve’s education and knowledge are the
might have some relevance for such framework on a single-cell organism, most fundamental pillars on which
systems and conduct thorough which quickly appeared to be a a society needs to be built to thrive;
investigations. nutritional genius! unfortunately, as they offer no direct
profits, they are often the first victims
Who made you the researcher that Is it difficult for women to be when governments need to make
you are today? I have four scientific successful in science? As you may budget cuts… Hence, I like to visit
mentors without whom I would not have noticed from my previous answer, classes and encourage kids to learn
be a researcher today. I met the first I was mostly trained by men and about the world in which they live. I
person, Raymond Campan, when never felt that I was treated differently especially enjoy showing them all the
I was doing my bachelor’s, and he because I was a woman. However, unknown creatures that live around
introduced me to the field of ethology. after being recruited by the CNRS in them without them noticing. Kids are
He was one of the most amazing 2008, I quickly realized that I had been ‘knowledge vacuum cleaners’ — they
and inspiring professors I ever had lucky earlier in my career because can’t get enough of science! And I

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have to be honest, seeing their eyes and inventing ways of solving new Quick guide
opening wide when I show them the problems. Being paid to think, debate,
slime molds crawling around makes
my day!
and investigate is a luxury that few
can enjoy. Every day, I go to the lab to
Pygmy hogs
check my slime molds and admire how
What are the main difficulties in they solved the problems with which Manon de Visser1,2,3,*, Langqing Liu3,
your line of work? There are two they were faced. What’s not to like? and Mirte Bosse3
major issues. The first one is that
it is getting more and more difficult If you had not made it as a scientist, What are pygmy hogs? The pygmy hog
to get funds for basic research… I what would you have become? A (Porcula salvania) is the world’s smallest
don’t blame people for thinking that writer! I have written two books for and rarest pig species. Compared to
cancer research is more important a general audience, one about slime an adult wild boar (Sus scrofa), which
than knowing how a slime mold finds molds that was published in 2017 weighs around 80 kilograms, an adult
its way through a maze or how ants (Everything You Always Wanted to pygmy hog is relatively small and weighs
feed their young… But again, it’s a Know about Slime Molds but Were only eight kilograms (Figure 1). Pygmy
question of appreciating how essential Afraid to Ask) and one about ants hogs can breed from around the age
it is to understand the world around that will be published this year. I love of two and live for approximately eight
us. Right now, our governments prefer writing: being cosy in my office with a years in total. They have relatively long,
to prioritize applied research and tea, reading about science, and trying slender snouts, sharp teeth and a small
encourage us to develop interactions to put into words the things that I just tail. Adults have thick, brown hairs,
with industries. I fear that numerous learned and attempting to add a funny which are visibly darker along the back.
lines of research will be abandoned side to it. Their natural range is limited to a small
in the near future, and this would be and isolated area within Manas National
a terrible loss. Research that seems What is the craziest thing that you Park in Assam, India. It is estimated
pointless today might well become have been doing lately? Preparing a that around 250 mature individuals live
invaluable in the future… slime mold for space travel! My slime in the wild, which means this species is
The second issue, which is a molds will be leaving this summer with threatened and is currently living on the
direct consequence of the first, is Thomas Pesquet (French astronaut) brink of extinction.
that, due to budget cuts in France, for the International Space Station
we have almost no support in labs. (ISS). Once onboard, Thomas Pesquet How are pygmy hogs related to
For instance, we only have one will launch an experiment that we other pig species? Nineteenth century
animal/lab technician for a dozen designed and made fully automated taxonomists considered the pygmy
PIs studying animal behavior, from with the CNES/CNRS. At the same hog as the only member of the genus
slime molds to ants to fish. We have time, 2,000 schools in France will Porcula, before it was wrongfully
one administrative assistant and one receive a slime mold from my lab and classified as being one of the Sus
accountant for the whole department will run the same exact experiment on species. The genus Sus is well known
(>30 PIs). The time I spend doing Earth. to humans worldwide because of
research disappears like smoke in the A main objective of this project is the domesticated pig (Sus scrofa
wind… but on the bright side I’m now to engage kids in interesting scientific domesticus) that originated from the
getting really good at accounting! experiments. By comparing their wild boar. However, genomic techniques
results with the ones obtained by provided enough evidence to conclude
If you could invent a machine to Thomas Pesquet, they will be able that the former classification of the
make your work easier, what would to observe if slime molds behave pygmy hog was actually correct. Thus,
it be? A machine that translates my differently in microgravity. Will they the pygmy hog was re-classified to its
papers automatically into English! float in their containers like the own, unique genus Porcula, as a sister
Joking aside, I find it very difficult to astronauts in their spacecraft? Will lineage to Sus. Both lineages share a
write and express ideas in a language they adopt different shapes? We do common ancestor that lived during the
that is not my mother tongue. I get not know yet! The opportunity to send early Pliocene, around six million years
quickly frustrated, and it takes me a scientific experiment into orbit is ago. In the past, there may have been
ages to write a single paragraph… I both huge and scary. My slime molds more such suids, but those were likely
have heard that DeepL is doing a good are leaving Earth in a dormant state, wiped out by Sus scrofa due to the ‘wild
job now, so my dream might come as the shaking during the first few boar expansion’. The pygmy hog is
true one day! minutes of launch could actually kill the only extant species of Porcula that
them, so I really hope that the slime outlived this colonization. Other genera
What is the best thing about molds will wake up once in the ISS! within the phylogenetic tree of Suidae
your job? Despite the problems are Hylochoerus, Potamochoerus,
encountered, I would not trade my Phacochoerus and Babyrousa.
Centre de Recherches sur la Cognition
work for anything in the world. Being a
Animale, UMR 5169 CNRS, Batiment 4R4,
researcher means learning new things Porte 4048, Université Toulouse III, 118 route How do pygmy hogs live? Pygmy
on a daily basis, traveling to meet de Narbonne, 31062 Toulouse, France. hogs are true ecological specialists.
people that share the same passions, E-mail: [email protected] They occupy a highly restricted range of

R366 Current Biology 31, R359–R373, April 26, 2021 © 2021 Elsevier Inc.