LAB MANUAL

ELECTRONIC ENGINEERING
DRAWING AND WORKSHOP

Prepared by:

Engr. Haseena Qadir

Department of Electronic
Engineering
Balochistan University of
Engineering and Technology
Khuzdar
List of Experiments:

Ex. No. Lab Exercises

1 Study of Electronic Components

To test and understand the function of various electronic components

2

3 Study of basic electronic instruments and equipments

4 To study the self test calibration of multimeter

5 DC variable power supply

6 Cathode ray oscilloscope ( CRO )

7 To visualize an ac signal measure the amplitude and frequency , self test

calibration of CRO

8 Function generator

9 To identify the key function generator

10 Fabricating a electronic circuit on breadboard

11 Simulation of half wave rectifier using multisim

12 To determine the gain of bandwidth of common emitter amplifier using

multisim

13 How to do soldering

14 Practical on identification of drill bits and drilling on the manual drill

machine
 EXEPERIMENT NO. 01

STUDY OF ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

OBJECTIVES
To get familiar with basic electronic components such as Resistor, capacitors, Inductor,
diodes, transistors, integrated circuits (IC), light emitter diode (LED), switches, fuses,
batteries, power plugs, connectors, wires and cables.
RESISTORS
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical
resistance as a circuit element. The current through a resistor is in direct proportion to the
voltage across the resistor's terminals. This relationship is represented by Ohm's law. A
device used in electrical circuits to maintain a constant relation between current flow and
voltage. Resistors are used to step up or lower the voltage at different points in a circuit and
to transform a current signal into a voltage signal or vice versa, among other uses. The
electrical behaviour of a resistor obeys Ohm's law for a constant resistance; however, some
resistors are sensitive to heat, light, or other variables.
Resistors are one of the most used components in a circuit. Most are color coded, but
some have their value in Ohms and their tolerance printed on them. A multimeter that can
check resistance can also be helpful, providing the resistor is already removed from the board
(measuring it while still soldered in can give inaccurate results, due to connections with the
rest of the circuit). They are typically marked with an “R” on a circuit board.

POTENTIOMETERS
Potentiometers are variable resistors. They normally have their value marked with the
maximum value in Ohms. Smaller trimpots may use a 3-digit code where the first 2 digits are
significant, and the 3rd is the multiplier (basically the number of 0′s after the first 2 digits).
For example, code 104 = 10 followed by four 0′s = 100000 Ohms = 100K Ohms. They may
also have a letter code on them indicating the taper (which is how resistance changes in
relation to how far the potentiometer is turned). They are typically marked with an “VR” on a
circuit board.
CAPACITORS
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy electrostatically in an electric field. By contrast, batteries
store energy via chemical reactions. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all
contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator); for example,
one common construction consists of metal foils separated by a thin layer of insulating film.
Capacitors are widely used as parts of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices.

Capacitors are also very commonly used. A lot have their values printed on them,
some are marked with 3-digit codes, and a few are color coded. The same resources listed
above for resistors can also help you identify capacitor values. They are typically marked
with an “C” on a circuit board.

INDUCTORS

An inductor, also called a coil or reactor, is a passive two-terminal electrical

component which resists changes in electric current passing through it. It consists of a
conductor such as a wire, usually wound into a coil. When a current flows through it, energy
is stored in a magnetic field in the coil. When the current flowing through an inductor
changes, the time-varying magnetic field induces a voltage in the conductor, according to
Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction, which by Lenz's law opposes the change in
current that created it.
Inductors, also called coils, can be a bit harder to figure out their values. If they are color
coded, the resources listed for resistors can help, otherwise a good meter that can measure
inductance will be needed. They are typically marked with an “L” on a circuit board.

TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is a static electrical device that transfers energy by inductive coupling
between its winding circuits. A varying current in the primary winding creates a varying
magnetic flux in the transformer's core and thus a varying magnetic flux through the
secondary winding. This varying magnetic flux induces a varying electromotive force (emf)
or voltage in the secondary winding.
Transformers are normally pretty easy to identify by sight, and many have their specs printed
on them. They are typically marked with an “T” on a circuit board.

FUSES
In electronics and electrical engineering, a fuse is a type of low resistance resistor that
acts as a sacrificial device to provide overcurrent protection, of either the load or source
circuit. Its essential component is a metal wire or strip that melts when too much current
flows, which interrupts the circuit in which it is connected. Short circuit, overloading,
mismatched loads or device failure are the prime reasons for excessive current. A fuse
interrupts excessive current (blows) so that further damage by overheating or fire is
prevented. Fuses can be easy to identify, and typically have their voltage and amperage rating
marked on them.
SEMICONDUCTORS

DIODES
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric
conductance, it has low (ideally zero) resistance to current flow in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other.

Semiconductors, such as Diodes (typically marked with an “D” on a circuit board).

TRANSISTORS
A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals
and electrical power. It is composed of semiconductor material with at least three terminals
for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the
transistor's terminals changes the current through another pair of terminals. Because the
controlled (output) power can be higher than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can
amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are
found embedded in integrated circuits.
Transistors (typically marked with an “Q” on a circuit board).
BRIDGE RECTIFIERS

A diode bridge is an arrangement of four (or more) diodes in a bridge circuit

configuration that provides the same polarity of output for either polarity of input. When used
in its most common application, for conversion of an alternating current (AC) input into a
direct current (DC) output, it is known as a bridge rectifier. A bridge rectifier provides full-
wave rectification from a two-wire AC input, resulting in lower cost and weight as compared
to a rectifier with a 3-wire input from a transformer with a center-tapped secondary winding.

Bridge Rectifiers (typically marked with an “BR” on a circuit board)

INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip,
or a microchip) is a set of electronic circuits on one small plate ("chip") of semiconductor
material, normally silicon. This can be made much smaller than a discrete circuit made from
independent components. Integrated circuits are used in virtually all electronic equipment
today and have revolutionized the world of electronics. Computers, mobile phones, and other
digital home appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of modern societies, made
possible by the low cost of producing integrated circuits.

Integrated Circuits (typically marked with an “U” or “IC” on a circuit board)

LED AND LED DISPLAY
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as
indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. LEDs emitted
low-intensity red light, but modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and
infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.

SWITCHES
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an
electrical circuit, interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The
most familiar form of switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or
more sets of electrical contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts
can be in one of two states: either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity
can flow between them, or "open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is
nonconducting.
BATTERIES
In electricity, a battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells that
convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy.
Batteries are also pretty easy to identify, and are well marked with their specification.

RELAYS
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to
operate a switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used.
Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with
complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or where several
circuits must be controlled by one signal.

Relays are typically enclosed in plastic, and many have their specs printed on them. They are
typically marked with a “K” on a circuit board.
 EXPERIMENT NO:02
Objective:
To test and understand the function of various electronic
components.

EQUIPMENT REQUIRED
Electronic components (Resistor, capacitors, diode, Transistor)
Digital multimeter (DMM)

A1. Determining Resistor values

Resistor Colour Codes

1st digit Tolerance

2nd digit Multiplier (no. of zeros,

following 2nd digit)

Colour-code bands on
a resistor.

Colour Band 1 Band 2 Band 3 Band 4

Black 0 0 ×1 –
Brown 1 1 ×10 1%
Red 2 2 ×100 2%
Orange 3 3 ×1000 –
Yellow 4 4 ×10000 –
Green 5 5 ×100000 0.5%
Blue 6 6 ×1000000 0.25%
Violet 7 7 ×10000000 0.1%
Grey 8 8 – –
White 9 9 – –
Gold – – ×0.1 5%
Silver – – ×0.01 10%
Resistance measurement
Procedure
1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with ‘ ’
2. Set function to resistance measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
4. Connect the two probes’ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via
jumper wires) to make measurement
5. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
6. Take the more accurate reading.

Determine the value for the given data

Measured Value
No. Colour code Actual Value
(DMM)
1 Red, red, black

2 Red, black, orange

3 Blue, gray, green

4 10M

5 33K

A2. Determining capacitor values

Code Tolerance
C ±0.25pF
J ±5%
K ±10%
M ±20%
D ±0.5pF
Z 80% / -20%
Determine the value of the ceramic capacitors

No. Code Number Actual Value

1 104

2 223

3 68

4 0.47 F

5 33nF

A3. Diode Testing

Draw the schematic symbol of a 1N4001 diode and identify the leads (Anode and Cathode) in
the box below.

a. Set the Lab DMM to Diode Testing mode.

b. Measure the forward and reverse bias voltages of the given diodes and record them
i. Forward bias voltage:
Place the RED probe on the Anode. Touch the BLACK probe to the Cathode and
record the reading
ii. Reverse bias voltage:
Place the RED probe on the Cathode. Touch the BLACK probe to the Anode and
record the reading
 No. Diode Number Forward Bias Voltage Reverse Bias Voltage
1N4001

1N914

Result:
 EXPERIMENT NO.03
STUDY OF INSTRUMENTS AND EQUIPMENTS

OBJECTIVES:
To get familiar with basic electronic instrument and Equipment handling and usage
procedure for Digital Multimeter, DC power supply, Function Generator and CRO.

2A DIGITAL MULTI METER

INTRODUCTION

A Multimeter is an electronic device that is used to make various electrical measurements,

such as AC and DC voltage, AC and DC current, and resistance. It is called a Multimeter
because it combines the functions of a voltmeter, ammeter, and ohmmeter. Multimeter may also
have other functions, such as diode test, continuity test, transistor test, TTL logic test and
frequency test.

PARTS OF MULTIMETER
A Multimeter has three parts:

Display
Selection Knob
Ports

The display usually has four digits and the ability to display a negative sign. A few
multimeters have illuminated displays for better viewing in low light situations.

The selection knob allows the user to set the multimeter to read different things such as
milliamps (mA) of current, voltage (V) and resistance (Ω).

Two probes are plugged into two of the ports on the front of the unit. COM stands for
common and is almost always connected to Ground or ‘-’ of a circuit. The COM probe is
conventionally black but there is no difference between the red probe and black probe other than
color. 10A is the special port used when measuring large currents (greater than
200mA). mAVΩ is the port that the red probe is conventionally plugged in to. This port allows
the measurement of current (up to 200mA), voltage (V), and resistance (Ω). The probes have
a banana type connector on the end that plugs into the multimeter. Any probe with a banana plug
will work with this meter.
SAFETY MEASURES

Be sure the test leads and rotary switch are in the correct position for the
desired measurement.
Never use the meter if the meter or the test leads look
damaged. Never measure resistance in a circuit when power is
applied.
Never touch the probes to a voltage source when a test lead is plugged into the 10 A
or 300 mA input jack.
To avoid damage or injury, never use the meter on circuits that exceed 4800
watts. Never apply more than the rated voltage between any input jack and earth
ground.
Be careful when working with voltages above 60 V DC or 30 V AC rms. Such voltages
pose a shock hazard.
Keep your fingers behind the finger guards on the test probes when
making measurements.
To avoid false readings, which could lead to possible electric shock or personal
injury, replace the battery as soon as the battery indicator appears.

INPUT JACKS

The black lead is always plugged into the common terminal. The red lead is plugged into
the 10 A jack when measuring currents greater than 300 mA, the 300 mA jack when measuring
currents less than 300 mA, and the remaining jack (V-ohms-diode) for all other measurements.
RANGE FIXING

The meter defaults to autorange when first turned on. You can choose a manual range in
V AC, V DC, A AC, and A DC by pressing the button in the middle of the rotary dial. To return
to autorange, press the button for one second.

PROCEDURE FOR MEASUREMENT

VOLTAGE MEASUREMENT

D.C. / A.C. Voltage Measurment

1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead
to the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired mV D.C./D.C.V/A.C.V range.
3. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured, the voltage value should appear on the
digital display along with the voltage polarity(if reversed only).
CURRENT MEASUREMENT

1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead
to the ‘COM’ jack socket(for measurements up to 200mA). For measurements between
200mA and 10A connect the red test lead to the ‘10mA’ socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired uA/mA/A range.
3. Open the circuit to be measured and connect the test leads in SERIES with the load in
which current is to be measured.
4. To avoid blowing an input fuse, use the 10A jack until you are sure that the current is less
than 300 mA. Turn off power to the circuit. Break the circuit. (For circuits of more than
10 amps, use a current clamp.) Put the meter in series with the circuit and turn power on.
RESISTANCE MEASUREMENT

1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead
to the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the desired ‘OHM Ω’.
3. If the resistance to be measured ia part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement.
4. Connect the test leads to the circuit to be measured.
5. The resistance value should now appear on the digital display.
6. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement.

CONTINUITY TEST
This mode is used to check if two points are electrically connected. It is often used to
verify connectors. If continuity exists (resistance less than 210 ohms), the beeper sounds
continuously.
1. Connect the positive(red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black) lead
to the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.
3. Connect the test leads to two points of the circuit to be tested. If the resistence is Ohms
the buzzer will sound.
 4. If the resistance to be measured is part of a circuit, turn off the power and discharge all
capacitors before measurement.

DIODE TEST

1. Connect the positive (red) test lead to the ‘V/mA’ jack socket and the negative(black)
lead to the ‘COM’ jack socket.
2. Set the selector switch to the position.
3. Connect the test leads to be measured.
4. Turn on the power to the circuit to be measured and the voltage value should appear on
the digital display.
 EXPERIMENT NO.04
Objective:
To study the self-test calibration of millimeter.
General Operation
Connection of Probes:
All multimeters come with two probes. They are to be connected to the terminals on the meter itself. The
Black probe is to be connected to the COM terminal. Red probe is to be connected to terminal marked
with :
‘V- ’ for voltage measurement,
‘mA’ or ‘20A’ for current measurement (there are two terminals, one for 2A range and the other for
20A range)
‘V-’ for resistance measurement.
Setting of function:
The multimeter uses different circuits internally to measure different things. Therefore, you must select
the correct function before using it.
Setting of Range:
You can change the sensitivity of the meter by selecting different range for measurement. Set the
range to the first range that is higher than the maximum value you expect to measure. This will
give a more accurate reading. If you do not know what to expect, use the highest range first.
After a reading is obtained, set the range to the appropriate one to get a better reading.
When the value measured exceeds the existing range, the display will flash. When this happens,
set the multimeter to a higher range until some values are displayed.
Precautions:
1. For current measurement, the maximum input current is 2A (if the RED mA and BLACK COM
terminals are used) or 20A (if the RED 20A and BLACK COM terminals are used). Excessive
current will blow the fuse on the 2A range, which must be replaced. The 20A range, however, is not
protected by the fuse.
2. For voltage measurement (use the RED V- and BLACK COM terminals), the maximum input
voltage on :
all DC ranges is 1200V DC or peak AC
 the 20V, 200V and 1000V AC ranges is 1000V rms continuous
the 2V and 200mV AC ranges is 1000V rms for not more than 15 seconds.
3. To avoid electrical shock and/or instrument damage, do not connect the COM input terminals to
any source of more than 500 volts DC or peak AC above earth ground.

Resistance measurement
Procedure
1. Connect the two probes’ crocodile clips to the resistor (or to the resistor circuit via jumper wires)
to make measurement
2. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with ‘ ’
3. Set function to resistance measurement
4. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
5. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
6. Take the more accurate reading.
Voltage measurement
Procedure
7. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with ‘V’
8. Set function to voltage measurement
9. Set to the appropriate range (refer to above)
10. Set the AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
11. Touch the two points where you want to make measurement
12. Note the reading, adjust range if necessary
13. Take the more accurate reading.

Note
Reading obtained is the voltage of where the red probe touch with reference to where the black probe
touches. This may not indicate the voltage level from ground. To find the voltage level of a point from
ground, black probe should be touching a ground point and the red probe on the point you want to
measure.

Current measurement
Procedure
1. Connect probes: black probe to COM terminal and red probe to terminal marked with ‘A’
2. Set function to current measurement
3. Set to the appropriate range
4. Set AC-DC selection - depends on what type of signal you want to measure
5. Off the power to the circuit
 6. Break the path which we want to make measurement
7. Connect the path with the two probes so that current now flow through the multimeter
8. On the power
9. Note the reading, change range if necessary
10. Take the more accurate reading.
Note
Use the 20A range if you are not sure of the current to be measured.

Connection Methods to Measure Voltage and Current

i
+
Power Power
Supply
A
+ Supply COM
V Multimeter
COM

Multimeter
Voltage Measurement Current Measurement
EXPERIMENT NO.05
Objective

2B DC VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY

To study the function and operation of regulated power supply.

Equipment required

Multimeter
Dual DC variable regulated Power supply (0-30) Volts

Theory
A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term
is most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical energy
to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical,
chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output
voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite
variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.
A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral
device that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC
power supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.
Commonly specified power supply attributes include:

The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.

How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.
POWER SUPPLIES TYPES

Battery
DC power supply
AC power supply
Linear regulated power supply
Switched mode power supply
Programmable power supply
Uninterruptible power supply
High voltage power supply
Voltage multipliers
DC POWER SUPPLY
SPECIFICATION
1. Adjustable 0~30V/0~2A
2. The design is limit the voltage overload
The power supply input 220V, 230V, 240V AC
3. Output voltage: 0-30V DC
4. Work temperature: -10oC-40oC

MAIN FUNCTION
1. Output constant current adjustable.
2. Output constant voltage adjustable.
3. LCD voltage and current display.
4. Constant voltage and current operation in individual.
5. Over current protection.

Adjustable power supply

 EXPERIMENT NO.06
CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)
Objective
• To introduce the basic structure of a cathode-ray Oscilloscope.
• To get familiar with the use of different control switches of the device.
Equipment Required
• Cathode-ray Oscilloscope
• Function Generator
• BNC connector
Theory

The device consists mainly of a vacuum tube which contains a cathode; anode, grid,
X&Y-plates, and a fluorescent screen (see Figure below). When the cathode is heated (by
applying a small potential difference across its terminals), it emits electrons. Having a potential
difference between the cathode and the anode (electrodes), accelerate the emitted electrons
towards the anode, forming an electron beam, which passes to fall on the screen.
When the fast electron beam strikes the fluorescent screen, a bright visible spot is
produced. The grid, which is situated between the electrodes, controls the amount of electrons
passing through it thereby controlling the intensity of the electron beam. The X&Y- plates are
responsible for deflecting the electron beam horizontally and vertically.
A sweep generator is connected to the X-plates, which moves the bright spot
Horizontally across the screen and repeats that at a certain frequency as the source of the signal.
The voltage to be studied is applied to the Y-plates. The combined sweep and Y voltages
produce a graph showing the variation of voltage with time.
Experimental Figures

Fig 1. Cathode Ray tube Oscilloscope Fig 2. Out Line Diagram of CRO
 EXPERMENT NO.07
Objective: To visualize an ac signal , measure the amplitude and the
frequency.
To do self-test calibration of CRO .
Procedure
1. Turn on the Oscilloscope
2. Adjust the intensity and the focus of the trace.
3. Use the X & Y knobs to center the trace horizontally and vertically.
4. Connect the cable from Ch1 of the CRO to Function generator.
5. A signal will appear on the screen.
6. Make sure that the inner red knobs of the Volt/Div and the Time/Div are locked
clockwise.
7. Set the frequency of the generator to 100 Hz.
8. Adjust the Volt/Div and the Time/Div knobs so that you get a suitable size signal
9. Count the number of vertical squares lying within the signal, then calculate the peak to peak
value as:

Vp-p = No. vertical Div *Volt/Divs

10. Count the number of horizontal squares lying within the one Duty Cycle, then
calculate time value as:

Time = No. Horizontal Div

*Time/Divs 11.Calculate the Frequency of signal by using the
formula:
Freq = 1 /Time

Result:
 EXPERIMENT NO.08
FUNCTION GENERATOR
Objective
To get familiarization and study the operation of a function generator instrument
To visualize the types of waveforms produced by a function generator
Equipment Required
Oscilloscope
Function generator.
BNC connector cable
Theory
A function generator is electronic test equipment used to generate different types of
waveforms over a wide range of frequencies. Function generators are capable of producing a
variety of repetitive waveforms, generally from the list below

Sine wave: A function generator will normally have the capability to produce a standard
sine wave output. This is the standard waveform that oscillates between two levels with a
standard sinusoidal shape.

Square wave: A square wave is normally relatively easy for a function generator to
produce. It consists of a signal moving directly between high and low levels.

Pulse: A pulse waveform is another type that can be produced by a function generator.
It is effectively the same as a square wave, but with the mark space ratio very different to
1:1.

Triangular wave: This form of signal produced by the function generator linearly
moves between a high and low point.
 Saw tooth wave: Again, this is a triangular waveform, but with the rise edge of the
waveform faster or slower than the fall, making a form of shape similar to a saw tooth.

These waveforms can be either repetitive or single-shot Function generators are used in the
development, test and repair of electronic equipment.
Types of Function Generator

PROCEDURE
1. Turn on the oscilloscope
2. Connect the function generator to one vertical channel of the oscilloscope using BNC
Connector
3. Select the type of wave form by pressing Function control button.
4. Set the waveform at desired frequency by adjusting Frequency variable control button.
5. Now adjust the amplitude control of the function generator to establish a 4 V peak-to-peak
(p-p) sinusoidal waveform on the
screen.

Function Generator
connected
 EXPERIMENT NO.09
Objective :
To identify the key function generator specification.
Function Generator Controls
Knobs Control Name Functions
Number
1 Power Push button switch to power ON the instrument.
2 LCD Display 20 x 4 Character bright back lit Liquid Crystal Display.
3 Frequency Used for selection of frequency range step by step.
Used for selection of Particular waveform. A total number of 6
different waveforms :
 Sine
4 Function  Square
 Triangle
 Ramp
 Pulse
 TTL are available.
5 Modulation Used for selection of Frequency Modulation.
6 Attenuation Used for Selection of 20dB or 40dB attenuation
7 Menu Used for selection of Function Generator/Frequency counter
mode.
8 Duty Cycle When pulse output function is selected, this controls the pulse
duty cycle from 15% to 85%.
9 Frequency In conjunction with frequency range, selected by frequency key
Variable on front Panel.
10 Amplitude In conjunction with attenuators (6), this varies the level of output.
Variable
This control provides DC offset. Approximately ±5VDC is
11 DC Offset superimposed on the output. Keep the control off if DC offset is
not required.
12 Output (BNC Output of 10 MHz function generator i.e. 20Vpp (Open Circuit)
connector)
External Input BNC connector for measuring the frequency of external
13 Counter (BNC signal when External Counter mode is selected by
Connector) Menu key on the LCD display.

14 Modulation Maximum modulation Input i.e. 2Vpp.

Input
 LAB EXERCISE
2A DIGITAL MULTI METER
observation
Description Value
Measurement of line voltage (ac)
Measurement of resistance
Measurement of continuity

2B DC VARIABLE POWER SUPPLY

Set 5V in both channel

2C CATHODE-RAY OSCILLOSCOPE (CRO)

Self test of CRO

Description Value
Measurement of voltage
Measurement of Time
Calculated frequency

2D FUNCTION GENERATOR

Set sine wave Hz and display in CRO

Set Triangle/ Square wave and display in CRO

observation
Description Sine wave Square Wave
Measurement of voltage
Measurement of Time
Calculated frequency

Result
 EXPERIMENT NO.10
OBJECTIVE:

Introduction to Breadboard

Breadboard

A breadboard is used to make up temporary circuits for

testing or to try out an idea. No soldering is required so
it is easy to change connections and replace
components. Parts will not be damaged so they will be
available to re-use afterwards. Thus, a breadboard is
used to check whether the circuit works as intended.

The photograph shows a typical small breadboard

which is suitable for beginners building simple circuits Small Breadboard
with one or two ICs (chips).

Connections on Breadboard
Breadboards have many tiny sockets (called 'holes') arranged on a 0.1" grid. The leads of
most components can be pushed straight into the holes. ICs are inserted across the central
gap with their notch or dot to the left.
Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the
standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a
hole and it may damage the board if strands break off.
The diagram shows how the breadboard holes are connected:

The top and bottom rows are

linked horizontally all the way
across as shown by
the red and black lines on the
diagram. The power supply is
connected to these rows, + at the
top and 0V (zero volts) at the
bottom.

Use upper row of the bottom pair

for 0V, then you can use the
lower row for the negative supply
with circuits requiring a dual
supply (e.g. +9V, 0V, -9V).
The other holes are linked vertically in blocks of 5 with no link across the centre as
shown by the blue lines on the diagram. Notices how there are separate blocks of
connections to each pin of ICs.

On larger breadboards there may be a break halfway along the top and bottom power
supply rows. It is a good idea to link across the gap before you start to build a circuit,
otherwise you may forget and part of your circuit will have no power!

Building a Circuit on Breadboard

Converting a circuit diagram to a breadboard layout is not straightforward because the
arrangement of components on breadboard will look quite different from the circuit
diagram.
When putting parts on breadboard you must concentrate on their connections, not their
positions on the circuit diagram. The IC (chip) is a good starting point so place it in the
centre of the breadboard and work round it pin by pin, putting in all the connections and
components for each pin in turn.
The best way to explain this is by example, so the process of building this 555 timer
circuit on breadboard is listed step-by-step below.
The circuit is a monostable which means it will turn on the LED for about 5 seconds
when the 'trigger' button is pressed. The time period is
determined by R1 and C1 and you may wish to try
changing their values. R1 should be in the
range 1kΩ to 1MΩ.
Time Period, T = 1.1 × R1 × C1 Monostable
Circuit Diagram

IC pin numbers
IC pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC starting near the notch or dot. The
diagram shows the numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the same for
all sizes.

Building the example circuit

Begin by carefully insert the 555 IC in the centre of the breadboard with its notch or dot
to the left.
Then deal with each pin of the 555:
1. Connect a wire (black) to 0V.
2. Connect the 10k resistor to +9V. Connect a push switch to 0V (you will need to
solder leads onto the switch)
3. Connect the 470 resistor to an used block of 5 holes, then... Connect an LED (any

Monostable Circuit on Breadboard

colour) from that block to 0V (short lead to

0V).
4. Connect a wire (red) to +9V.
5. Connect the 0.01µF capacitor to 0V.
You will probably find that its leads are too
short to connect directly, so put in a wire
link to an unused block of holes and connect to that.
6. Connect the 100µF capacitor to 0V (+ lead to pin 6). Connect a wire (blue) to pin
7.
7. Connect 47k resistor to +9V.
Check: there should be a wire already connected to pin 6.
8. Connect a wire (red) to +9V. Finally,
• Check all the connections carefully.
• Check that parts are the correct way round (LED and 100µF capacitor).
• Check that no leads are touching (unless they connect to the same block).
• Connect the breadboard to a 9V supply and press the push switch to test the circuit.

If your circuit does not work disconnect (or switch off) the power supply and very
carefully re-check every connection against the circuit diagram.
 EXPERIMENT NO.11
Object :
Design half wave rectifier using multisim and obseve its
output on oscilloscope.

Apparatus:PC installed multisim

 EXPERIMENT NO.12
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
Objective:
To determine the gain and bandwidth of a CE Amplifier from its frequency response curve.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: Multisim

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
VCC
12V
XSC1

Ext Trig
+
R3
_
3.3kΩ A B
++ __
C2
R1
33kΩ
10µF
U1
R5 C1

1kΩ 10µF
BC107BP
R6
V1 1kΩ
R2
4.7kΩ
25mVpk
1kHz R4 C3
0° 470Ω 100µF
 PROCEDURE:

1. Open the multisim icon in the system.

2. Place all the necessary components required for the design of the CE amplifier circuit i.e.
Resistors, Capacitors, Transistors, Voltage sources, Power sources, Ground etc on the design
window.
3. Connect all the components by proper wiring and also assure that nodes are formed at the
interconnection points.
4. Connect the two channels of the Oscilloscope to input and output of the circuit and by
using the simulation switch and check the input and output waveforms.
5. Assign net numbers to input and output wires by double clicking on the particular wire and
clicking on the show option.
6. To observe the frequency response, go to simulate-----► analysis ►ac analysis and select
the start and stop frequencies, select vertical scale as decibels, specify the output variables and
click on simulate.
7. A window opens showing the frequency response on the top and phase response at the
bottom.
8. From the frequency response, calculate the bandwidth of the Amplifier.
9. To obtain the netlist, go to transfer---------►export netlist and save the netlist in a text file. On
opening the text file from the saved location, a netlist is obtained containing the
specifications of all the used components used in the design of the circuit.
 EXPECTED GRAPH:

INPUT Vs OUTPUT WAVEFORM

FREQUENCY RESPONSE AND PHASE RESPONSE GRAPHS

RESULT:
The maximum gain is dB and bandwidth is Hz of the CE Amplifier.
 EXPERIMENT NO.13

Objective
To learn how to solder

What is solder?

Solder is an alloy (mixture) of tin and lead, typically

60% tin and 40% lead. It melts at a temperature of about
200°C. Coating a surface with solder is called 'tinning'
because of the tin content of solder. Lead is poisonous and
one should always wash his/her hands after using solder.

Solder for electronics use contains tiny cores of flux,

like the wires inside a mains flex. The flux is corrosive, like
an acid, and it cleans the metal surfaces as the solder melts.
This is why solder must be melted actually on the joint, not Reels of solder
on the iron tip. Without flux most joints would fail because
metals quickly oxidize and the solder itself will not
flow properly onto a dirty, oxidized, metal surface.
The best size of solder for electronics is 22swg (swg =
standard wire gauge).
How to Solder
Few safety precautions:

 Never touch the element or tip of the soldering iron.

They are very hot (about 400°C) and will give a nasty burn.
 Take great care to avoid touching the mains flex with the tip of the iron
The iron should have a heatproof flex for extra protection. An ordinary
plastic flex will melt immediately if touched by a hot iron and there is a
serious risk of burns and electric shock.
 Always return the soldering iron to its stand when not in use
Never put it down on the workbench, even for a moment!
 Work in a well-ventilated area
The smoke formed when solder is melting mostly from the flux and quite
irritating. Avoid breathing it by keeping head to the side of, not above, the
work.
 Wash hands after using solder
Solder contains lead which is a poisonous metal.
 Preparing the soldering iron
 Place the soldering iron in its stand and plug in
The iron will take a few minutes to reach its operating temperature of
about 400°C.
 Dampen the sponge in the stand.
The best way to do this is to lift it out the stand and hold it under a cold
tap for a moment, then squeeze to remove excess water. It should be
damp, not dripping wet.
 Wait a few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up.
Check if it is ready by trying to melt a little solder on the tip.
 Wipe the tip of the iron on the damp sponge.
This will clean the tip.
 Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron.
This is called 'tinning' and it will help the heat to flow from the iron's tip to
the joint. It only needs to be done when the iron is plug in and
occasionally while soldering if the tip is cleaned on the sponge.
Start Soldering:

 Hold the soldering iron like a pen,

near the base of the handle.
Remember to never touch the hot
element or tip.
 Touch the soldering iron onto the
joint to be made.
Make sure it touches both the
component lead and the track.
Hold the tip there for a few
seconds and,
 Feed a little solder onto the joint.
It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to form a volcano shape as
shown in the diagram. Apply the solder to the joint, not the iron.
 Remove the solder, then the iron, while keeping the joint still.
Allow the joint a few seconds to cool before the circuit board will be
moved.
 Inspect the joint closely.
It should look shiny and have a 'volcano' shape. If not, reheat it and feed in
a little more solder. This time ensure that both the lead and track are
heated fully before applying solder.
Using a heat sink
Some components, such as transistors, can be damaged by heat when soldering so it is wise to use
a heat sink clipped to the lead between the joint and the component body. One can buy a special
tool, but a standard crocodile clip works just as well and is cheaper.
 Soldering Advice for Components
1. Stick all the components onto a sheet of paper
using sticky tape.
2. Identify each component and write its name or
value beside it.
3. Add the code (R1, R2, C1 etc.) if necessary.
Many projects from books and magazines label the
components with codes (R1, R2, C1, D1 etc.)
4. Note down the values of Resistors and Capacitors
by decoding schemes.

Some components require special care when soldering.

Many must be placed the correct way round and a few are easily damaged by the heat
from soldering. Appropriate warnings are given in the table below, together with
other advice which may be useful when soldering.

For most projects it is best to put the components onto the board in the order given
below:

Components Pictures Reminders and Warnings

Connect the correct way round by
IC Holders making sure the notch is at the correct
1
(DIL sockets) end.
Do NOT put the ICs (chips) in yet.
No special precautions are needed with
2 Resistors
resistors.
These may be connected either way
round.
Small value capacitors
3 Take care with polystyrene capacitors
(usually less than 1µF)
because they are easily damaged by
heat.
Connect the correct way round. They
Electrolytic capacitors
4 will be marked with a + or - near one
(1µF and greater)
lead.
Connect the correct way round. Take
care with germanium diodes (e.g.
5 Diodes
OA91) because they are easily
damaged by heat.
Connect the correct way round.
The diagram may be labelled a or + for
anode and k or - for cathode; The
6 LEDs
cathode is the short lead and there may
be a slight flat on the body of round
LEDs.
 Connect the correct way round.
Transistors have 3 'legs' (leads) so extra
7 Transistors care is needed to ensure the connections
are correct.
Easily damaged by heat.

Use single core wire; this is one solid

wire which is plastic-coated.
Wire Links between If there is no danger of touching other
8
points on the circuit board. single core wire parts tinned copper wires can also be
used, this has no plastic coating and
looks just like solder but it is stiffer.
Battery clips, buzzers and
9 other parts with their own Connect the correct way round.
wires
Wires to parts off the use stranded wire which is flexible and
circuit board, including plastic-coated.
10 switches, relays, Do not use single core wire because
variable resistors and stranded wire this will break when it is repeatedly
loudspeakers. flexed.
Connect the correct way round.
Many ICs are static sensitive.
Leave ICs in their antistatic packaging
until they are needed, and then earth
hands by touching a metal water pipe
11 ICs (chips) or window frame before touching the
ICs.
Carefully insert ICs in their holders:
make sure all the pins are lined up with
the socket then push down firmly with
thumb
 EXPERIMENT NO.14
Practical on the identification of Drill Bits and Drilling on the manual drill Machine

OBJECTIVES
Upon the completion of the experiment, you will be able to:
1. Know about the sizes of the different drill bits for drilling holes in PCB.
2. Perform the drilling of holes of any suitable size on a PCB.
BACKGROUND:
The drill bits come in different sizes as the boards vary in the size too. The drill bit can be
less than a fraction of mm to any No. of millimeters. The minimum size of the drill bit is
related to the technology. It the technology is so précised than the drill bit size go on
reducing to the limitations permitted by the resources at hand and the machiner4y
involved. As the drill bit size is reduced and the automation is introduced so is the size
increased. If someone wants perform the drilling on t he CNC (COMPUTER
PNEUMATIC CONTROL) machine, it is more précised, especially in the working of IC
pads. As the sizes involved are mils only.
So it also depends upon how you plan to go ahead. First of all, the person whole wants
tool drill must do sketches on the copper board if he is performing the drilling manually.
If he is do p rcise4d at the handling of the machine than he can work without the
sketching and can sue any other method foe getting the exact point where he has to drill a
hole.
Normally the manual machine has a motor attached to it that revolves around and there is
a slot vacant for inserting the drill bit.

CNC DRILLING:
The techniques for drilling copper clad for double-sided and multilayer PCBs with
automated equipment are identical, with the exception that multiple drilling steps will be
needed if your multilayer design includes buried or blind vias. Refer to the documentation
that came with your drilling machine for more information (standard boilerplate cop-out).
Items to remember include:

 Set the STACK HEIGHT parameter to clear all dowel pins during traverse

 Set the SPINDLE FEED (inches per minute) and SPINDLE SPEED (RPM for
each drill size to values consistent with drilling standard 0.062” (1.6mm) FR-4
cooper clad.

 Set the SPINDLE PLUNGE DEPTH so that the tip of the largest diameter drill bit
fully enters the backing material. Otherwise, these large diameter holes will not
totally penetrate to bottom laminate and exit foil.
 DO NOT contour route the board immediately after drilling the stack. This should
only done after all other processing is complete.
MANUAL DRILLING:

 With the laminate stack formatted as detailed above, manual drilling is a

straightforward, if somewhat mind-numbing process. Items to consider include.

 When using a conventional drill press, hole placement accuracy can be improved
and drill breakage minimized through the sue of a “sensitive drilling” or “finger”
chuck. Small format, precision high speed drill precision, ideal for PCB
fabrication, is also available from a number of sources.

 Regardless of the type of drill press being used, a pressure foot should be
employed if available.

 If available, position a work lamp on a flexible mount as close to the work surface
as possible.

 Although more brittle than conventional high speed steel (HSS) drills, tungsten
carbide bits designed specifically for PCB drilling will yield far superior hole wall
quality. Minimize burr formation, and outlast HSS bits almost 10 to 1. T he
downside is t that, with smaller break and must be handled carefully.

 Always use drill bits that have been fitted with depth setting rings. This will allow
you to set the plunge depth stop on your drill press to a single value that will work
for all bit

 Diameters.

 Prepare a chart that links the various diameter bits with the symbols used in the
drill master.

THROUGH-HOLES:

1- Load the largest diameter bit to be sued into the drill chuck, making sure that the
depth ring is pressed firmly against the ends of the chuck jaws when they are fully
tightened.

2- Using a piece of scrap backing material as a gauge, adjust the spindle travel stop
on your drill press to a depth that insures that the entire tip of the drill bit penetrates at
least half of the material’s thickness. You can also use tow pieces of entry foil as a
feeler gauge” to set the depth. Under no circumstances allow a PCB drill bit to drill
into the table of your drill press. PCB bits are specifically designed to drill copper
clad and will shatter if plunged into cast iron, steel, or aluminum.
3- Starting with largest diameter drill bit, drill all of the through holes, stopping
periodically to insure that the drill bit have not snapped off and that the spindle travel
 stop has not slipped.

4- As you drill each hole size (from the largest to the smallest) check off that
diameter on the drilling chart. This is a good bookkeeping technique that will help
you keep track of your progress and insure that no hole size is missed.

5- After all of the holes have been drilled, remove the backing material from the
stack and re-tape the remaining sheet with the dowel pins in places.

6- Hold the stack up to the light for visual inspection. Ascertain that all of the holes
have been drilled through and that \none are blocked by drill debris. If some debris is
seen, remove by carefully pushing a smaller diameter drill bit through the hole.

7- If all of the holes ;in your circuit design go all the way ;through the board, you are
now ready to activate hole walls to prepare for through-hole plating.

BLIND OR BURIED VIAS:

Designs that sue blind or buried vias (vias that do not penetrate through the PCB) need
supplementary drilling operations before proceeding. Unfortunately, they are also quite a
bit more difficult to activate and through plate since each must be processed singly.

1. Fully disassemble the drilled stack.

2. Reassemble a sub stack consisting of the backing sheet, one of the copper clad
substrates that need additional drilling, and the entry foil that carries the
drillmaster.

3. Re-pin with the dowels and tape as before.

4. Playing close attention to the drill master symbols representing the holes needed
by the included substrate, drill the sub stack.

5. Disassemble the sub stack and repeat steps 2 through 4 for each layer that needs
further drilling.

6. Inspect each layer after it is drilled and remove any debris that might be blocking
the holes.

7. If all of the holes are drilled to your satisfaction, the individual layers are now
ready for activation.
 TESTS AND MEASUREMENTS:
MINIMUM DRILL HOLE SIZE, PCB THICKNESS:

S. PCB PCB THICKNESS DRILL HOLE DRILL HOLE

No. THICKNESS MM INCHES SIZE MM SIZE INCHES

PRELIMINARY INSTRUCTIONS:

1. Always wear safety classes when operating a drill press, especially if you are
drilling with carbide PCB drill bits.

2. If available, always use a vacuum cleaner to remove debris and collect airborne
dust during the drilling operation.

3. The dust generated during PCB drilling can pose a very; serious health hazard and
should not be inhaled or ingested under any circumstances.

EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

Through-holes:

1. Load the largest diameter bit be used into the drill chuck, making sure that the
depth ring is pressed firmly against the ends of the chuck jaws when they are fully
tightened.
2. Using a piece of scrap backing material as a gauge, adjust the spindle travel stop
on your drill press to a depth that insures that the entire tip of the drill bit
penetrates at least half of the material’s thickness. You can also sue two pieces of
entry foil as a “ feeler gauge” to set the depth. Under no circumstances allow a
PCB drill bit to drill into the table of your drill press. PCB bits are specifically
designed to drill copper clad and will shatter if plunged into cast iron, steel, or
aluminum.
3. Starting with the largest diameter drill bit, drill all of the through holes, stopping
periodically to insure that the drill bit have not snapped off and that the spindle
travel stop has not slipped.
4. As you drill each hole size (from the largest to the smallest) check off that
diameter on the drilling chart. This is a good bookkeeping technique that will help
you keep track of your progress and insure that no hole size is missed.
5. After all of the holes have been drilled, remove the backing material from the
stack and re tape the remaining sheets with the dowel pins in place.
6. Hold the stack up to the light for visual inspection. Ascertain that all of the holes
 have been drilled through and that none are blocked by drill debris. If some debris
is seen, remove by carefully pushing a smaller.
7. If all of the holes in your circuit design go all the way through the board, you are
now ready to activate the hole wall to prepare for through-hole plating.

BLIND OR BURIED VIAS:

8. Designs that sue blind or buried vias (vias that do not penetrate through the PCB)
need supplementary drilling operations before proceeding. Unfortunately, they are
also quite a bit more difficult to activate and through plate since each must be
processed singly.
9. Fully disassemble the drilled stack.
10. Reassemble a sub stack consisting of the backing sheet, one of the copper clad
substrates that need additional drilling, and the entry foil that carries the
drillmaster.
11. Re-pin with the wholes and tape as before
12. Playing close attention to the drillmaster symbols representing the holes needed by
the included substrate, drill the sub stack.
13. Disassemble the sub stack and repeat steps 2 through 4 from each layer that needs
further drilling.
14. Inspect each layer after it is drilled and remove any debris that might be blocking
the holes.
15. If all of the holes are drilled to your satisfaction, the individual layers are now
ready for activation.