LEARNING MODULE

Logic Design and Switching

Theory

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Number System and Boolean Algebra and Switching Functions

Different number systems……………………………..4

Conversion Operations between different number system……...

Basic theorems and properties used in Boolean algebra…………

Designs different logic circuits using different logic gates………..

Designs multilevel realization functions………………………………

II. Minimization and Design of Combinational Circuits

Basic information in the design of combinational circuits

Solve and analyse Karnaugh Map

Designs Combinational multi-level circuits

Operation of Multiplexers and other arithmetic circuits

Can perform practical with combinational logic circuits

III. Sequential machines fundamentals

Identify architectural differences in combinational and sequential

circuits
Design sequential circuits for machine operation
Design Clocked flip flops
Makes use of timing and triggering circuits with sequential logics

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IV. Sequential circuit design and analysis

Draw state diagrams

Analyse synchronous sequential circuits
Designs sequential finite state machines
Designs different types of counters and registers

V. Sequential circuits and algorithmic state machines

Identify capabilities and limitations of finite state machine

Mealy and Moore minimization models
Partition techniques and merger chart methods
Concept of minimal cover table

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 Lesson 1

Different number systems

Base-N Number System

 Base N
 N Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …, N-1
Example: 1045N
 Positional Number System

N n 1  N 4 N 3 N 2 N 1 N 0
d n1  d 4 d3 d 2 d1 d 0

 Digit do is the least significant digit (LSD).

 Digit dn-1 is the most significant digit (MSD).

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Decimal Number System

 Base 10
 Ten Digits: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9
Example: 104510
 Positional Number System

10n1 104103102101100
d n1  d 4 d3 d 2 d1 d0
 Digit d0 is the least significant digit (LSD).
 Digit dn-1 is the most significant digit (MSD).

Binary Number System

 Base 2
 Two Digits: 0, 1
Example: 10101102
 Positional Number System

 Binary Digits are called Bits

 Bit bo is the least significant bit (LSB).
 Bit bn-1 is the most significant bit (MSB).

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Definitions

 nybble = 4 bits
 byte = 8 bits
 (short) word = 2 bytes = 16 bits
 (double) word = 4 bytes = 32 bits
 (long) word = 8 bytes = 64 bits
 1K (kilo or “kibi”) = 1,024
 1M (mega or “mebi”) = (1K)*(1K) = 1,048,576
 1G (giga or “gibi”) = (1K)*(1M) = 1,073,741,824

Hexadecimal Number System

 Base 16
 Sixteen Digits: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F
Example: EF5616
 Positional Number System

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Binary Addition

 Single Bit Addition Table

0+0=0
0+1=1
1+0=1
1 + 1 = 10 Note “carry”

Hex Addition
 4-bit Addition

4+4=8
4+8=C
8+7=F
F + E = 1D Note “carry”

Hex Digit Addition Table

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1’s Complements

 1’s complement (or Ones’ Complement)

To calculate the 1’s complement of a binary number just “flip” each

bit of the original binary number.

E.g. 0  1 , 1  0

01010100100  10101011011

Why choose 2’s complement?

2’s Complements

 2’s complement

To calculate the 2’s complement just calculate the 1’s complement,

then add 1.

01010100100  10101011011 + 1=

10101011100

Handy Trick: Leave all of the least significant 0’s and first 1
unchanged, and then “flip” the bits for all other digits.

E.g. 01010100100 -> 10101011100

Complements

 Note the 2’s complement of the 2’s complement is just the original
number N

EX: let N = 01010100100

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 (2’s comp of N) = M = 10101011100

(2’s comp of M) = 01010100100 = N

Two’s Complement Representation for Signed Numbers

 Let’s introduce a notation for negative digits:

For any digit d, define d = −d.

 Notice that in binary, d+1=d , d̄+1=d

where d  {0,1}, we have: 0+1=−0+1=1=0̄
 Two’s complement notation: 1+1=−1+1=0=1̄
To encode a negative number, we implicitly negate the leftmost
(most significant) bit:

E.g., 1000 = (−1)000

= −1·23 + 0·22 + 0·21 + 0·20 = −8

Negating in Two’s Complement

 Theorem: To negate
a two’s complement
number, just complement it and add 1.

−( X YZ 2 )=X YZ 2 +1

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  Proof (for the case of 3-bit numbers XYZ):
−( X YZ 2 )=X YZ 2= X YZ 2 =( X̄ +1)YZ 2
¿ X̄ YZ2 +1002 = X̄ YZ+11 2+1
¿ X̄ (Y +1)( Z +1)2 +1
¿ X YZ2 +1

Signed Binary Numbers

 Two methods:
First method: sign-magnitude
Use one bit to represent the sign
• 0 = positive, 1 = negative
Remaining bits are used to represent the magnitude
Range - (2n-1 – 1) to 2n-1 - 1
where n=number of digits
Example: Let n=4: Range is –7 to 7 or
1111 to 0111
Second method: Two’s-complement
Use the 2’s complement of N to represent
-N
Note: MSB is 0 if positive and 1 if negative
Range - 2n-1 to 2n-1 -1
where n=number of digits
Example: Let n=4: Range is –8 to 7
Or 1000 to 0111

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Signed Numbers – 4-bit example

Decimal 2’s comp Sign-Mag

7 0111 0111
6 0110 0110
5 0101 0101
4 0100 0100
3 0011 0011
2 0010 0010
1 0001 0001
0 0000 0000

Signed Numbers-4 bit example

Decimal 2’s comp Sign-Mag

-8 1000 N/A
-7 1001 1111
-6 1010 1110
-5 1011 1101
-4 1100 1100
-3 1101 1011
-2 1110 1010
-1 1111 1001
-0 0000 (= +0) 1000

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Signed Numbers-8 bit example
Notes:

 “Humans” normally use sign-magnitude representation for signed

numbers
E.g.: Positive numbers: +N or N
Negative numbers: -N
 Computers generally use two’s-complement representation for
signed numbers
First bit still indicates positive or negative.

 If the number is negative, take 2’s complement to determine its

magnitude
Or, just add up the values of bits at their positions,
remembering that the first bit is implicitly negative.

Examples
Let N=4: two’s-complement
What is the decimal equivalent of
01012
Since MSB is 0, number is positive
01012 = 4+1 = +510
What is the decimal equivalent of
11012 =
Since MSB is one, number is negative
Must calculate its 2’s complement
11012 = − (0010+1) = − 00112 or −310

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Arithmetic Subtraction

 Borrow Method
This is the technique you learned in grade school
For binary numbers, we have
0–0=0
1–0=1
1–1=0
1
0–1=1 with a “borrow”

Binary Subtraction
A – (+B) = A + (-B)
A – (-B) = A + (-(-B))= A + (+B)
In other words, we can “subtract” B from A by “adding” –B to A.
However, -B is just the 2’s complement of B, so to perform
subtraction, we
1. Calculate the 2’s complement of B
2. Add A + (-B)
Example
Let n=4, A=01002 (410), and
B=00102 (210)
Let’s find A+B, A-B and B-A
A+B 0 1 0 0  (4)10
+ 0 0 1 0  (2)10
=0110 6

A-B 0 1 0 0  (4)10
- 0 0 1 0  (2)10

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 A + (-B) 0 1 0 0  (4)10

+ 1 1 1 0  (-2)10

=1 0 0 1 0 2

“Throw this bit” away since n=4

B-A 0 0 1 0  (2)10
- 0 1 0 0  (4)10

B + (-A) 0 0 1 0  (2)10
+ 1 1 0 0  (-4)10
1110 -2
1 1 1 02 = - 0 0 1 02 = -210

“16’s Complement” method

The 16’s complement of a 16 bit Hexadecimal number is just:
=1000016 – N16
Q: What is the decimal equivalent of B2CE16 ?

Since sign bit is one, number is negative. Must calculate the 16’s
complement to find magnitude.
1000016 – B2CE16 = ?
We have
10000
- B2CE

FFF10
- B2CE
=4D32

So,
1000016 – B2CE16 = 4D3216
= 4×4,096 + 13×256 + 3×16 + 2

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 = 19,76210
Thus, B2CE16 (in signed-magnitude)
represents -19,76210.

Sign Extension

 Assume a signed binary system

 Let A = 0101 (4 bits) and B = 010 (3 bits)
 What is A+B?

To add these two values we need A and B to be of the same bit

width.
Do we truncate A to 3 bits or add an additional bit to B?

 A = 0101 and B=010

 Can’t truncate A! Why?

A: 0101 -> 101

But 0101 <> 101 in a signed system
0101 = +5
101 = -3

Why does sign extension work?

Note that:
(−1) = 1 = 11 = 111 = 1111 = 111…1
 Thus, any number of leading 1’s is equivalent, so long as the
leftmost one of them is implicitly negative.
Proof:
111…1 = −(111…1) =
= −(100…0 − 11…1) = −(1)
So, the combined value of any sequence of leading ones is always just
−1 times the position value of the rightmost 1 in the sequence.
111…100…0 = (−1)·2n

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Decimal to Binary Conversion
Method I:
Use repeated subtraction.
Subtract largest power of 2, then next largest, etc.
Powers of 2: 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128, 256, 512, 1024, 2n
Exponent: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 , n
20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 210 2n

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