8.
Steam Turbines and Expanders
STEAM TURBINE PERFORMANCE CALCULATION
A steam turbine's performance is dependent upon the available energy from the steam, the
steam mass flow available, and efficiency. Efficiency is dependent upon the number of stages
used to expand the steam, the type of stages used, the operating speed, and steam conditions.
Available Energy or Heat Drop
The theoretical energy available for conversion to shaft work may be calculated from Steam
Tables, or may be read directly from a Mollier diagram for steam. Figure A1 illustrates the use
of a Mollier diagram. The available energy is the difference in enthalpy between the inlet
pressure and temperature and the exhaust pressure, at constant entropy, and isentropic or
adiabatic expansion.
Available energy should be at least 100 Btu's/lb (232.6 KJ/kg) for efficient, economical turbine
design.
Theoretical Steam Rate (TSR)
Theoretical steam rates for combinations of commonly used inlet and exhaust conditions are
available in various engineering handbooks including theoretical steam rate tables. Direct
calculation from a Mollier chart is often easier and quicker. Compcalc PC Computer Program
may also be used.
The term steam rate is preferred over its synonym water rate.
Actual Steam Rate (ASR)
Steam Consumption
Example
1
Steam Conditions
Off Design Point Performance - The process designer is usually the most interested in
efficiency at the normal and rated speed and load levels. Variations of 20% or more from
normal condition should be evaluated. See Figure A5 for aproxímate efficiency correction for
multi- stage turbines
Extraction/lnduction Turbine Performance - The machinery specialist should be consulted to
estimate extraction and induction turbine efficiencies and rangability. The flow rate through the
exhaust end of a multi-stage steam turbine must be held to a minimum of approximately 5% of
its normal flow or □5000 Ib/hr (2272 kg/hr) to prevent overheating of the rotor due to windage
losses. This cooling steam requirement limits the allowable extraction rate range and provides a
minimum load point for the condenser.
STEAM TURBINE EFFICIENCIES
Efficiency Terms - Internal efficiency (□i) is the ratio of actual steam enthalpy drop over
isentropic enthalpy drop. Turbine exhaust conditions and gross power are determined using
internal efficiency.
Overall or external efficiency (□o) is the internal efficiency multiplied by the ratio of net power to
gross power. Net power is gross power less mechanical losses which reduces available shaft
power without changing the exhaust conditions. Mechanical losses are typically 1% of the total
turbine power. Since the difference between overall and internal efficiency is so small, it may be
ignored for process design purposes.
SOURCES OF STEAM TURBINE EFFICIENCIES (OR STEAM RATES)
Three approaches for obtaining efficiencies are recommended depending on the accuracy
required:
1. Use Figure A2 or A3 for single-valve single-stage turbines or Figure A4A or A4B for multi-
valve multi-stage turbines. Efficiencies (steam rates) obtained are suitable for economic studies
and preliminary designs. Figure A3 is suitable for single-stage turbines up to approximately
1000 Bhp (750 kW) and steam conditions not exceeding 600 psig/750°F/150 psig (41.4
barg/399°C/10.3 barg). Figure A2 is suitable for low cost single-valve single-stage steam
turbines for powers to approximately 300 hp (225 kW). Figure A4A or A4B is suitable for all
power level multi-stage turbines.
2. Use computer program 3058 for steam turbine final design up to approximately 10,000 Bhp
(7500 kW).
3. Contact machinery specialist or two turbine vendors for powers above 10,000 Bhp (7500 kW),
steam conditions exceeding 900 psig/900°F/150 psig (62 barg/482°C/10.3 barg) and for all
extraction and/or induction applications. The efficiency used to develop design specifications
should be achievable by at least two vendors. The steam system design should be checked
against the guaranteed steam flows as soon as this information becomes available.
Turbines up to approximately 1000 hp (750 kW) will usually be single-stage, backpressure
units. Use Figure A3 for best efficiency selections for powers 100 - 1000 Bhp (75 - 750 kW).
Steam rates may be read directly for the commonly used steam conditions plotted.
For low cost single-stage turbines between 20 - 300 hp (15-225 kW) use Figure A2. For either
Figure A2 or A3 enter at the desired power, read up to the steam condition curve closest to
actual, then left to the steam rate. Figures A2 and A3 are
based on 2 pole speed. Consult a machinery specialist for units operating at significantly higher
or lower speeds (~ + 15%). Powers from 1000 - 3000 Bhp (750 kW - 2240 kW) can be
effectively handled by either single-stage or single-valve multi-stage turbines depending on
steam conditions. Steam costs should guide the selection between the lower cost single-stage
turbine and the higher cost but higher efficiency multi-stage units. Multi-stage turbine efficiency
can be determined from Figure A4A or A4B. The single-valve multi-stage turbine will be limited
to approximately 100,000 Ib/hr (45,400 kg/hr) inlet flow. Multi-valve turbines should be used
when part load efficiency is very important or for extraction/induction units.
Enter the nominagraph (Figure A4A or A4B) at inlet steam conditions closest to the actual,
read down to the exhaust pressure,
over to speed, down to power end over to efficiency. The efficiency read should be reduced by
approximately five percent for single-valve multi-stage units, and used directly for multi-valve
multi-stage units. Multi-stage Turbine Off-Design performance can be estimated using Figure
A5.
Steam rates for powers in excess of 15,000 Bhp (11,200 kW) for extraction/induction units
should be confirmed with a machinery specialist.
DESIGN TOLERANCE ON STEAM RATE
Allowances should be made in design of the steam supply system for the following factors:
1. The API tolerance allows the compressor power to exceed the vendor's guarantee value
by as much as 4%. Any high side error in the compressor vendor's power estimate will result in
the same increase in turbine steam requirement.
2. Fouling steam turbine due to solids carryover will increase steam consumption until
washing can be conducted, and even this may not restore as-new efficiency if non-soluble silia
is present in the steam. An efficiency loss of up to 4% for fouling should be allowed for in the
steam supply design capability.
3. The compressor power requirements in fouling services are likely to be 1 to 3% higher
than clean service, due to flushing liquid load and/or efficiency loss due to fouling.
Judgment must be used to decide the total allowances that should be provided in the steam
system to cover these contingencies.
STEAM QUALITY TOLERANCE
Exhaust end blading erosion is caused by liquid formation within the turbine as the steam
expands across the saturation line in a condensing turbine. Allowable liquid levels in multi-stage
turbines may be summarized as follows:
1. Up to 4 or 5% moisture has virtually no effect on the life of modern mechanical drive turbine
blading.
2. About 7 to 8% moisture is acceptable for long runs and economic blade life without special
turbine construction.
3. At 12 to 14% moisture, moisture removal is required, special blading coating for long term
operability.
Steam turbine reliability is influenced by the degree of superheat provided at the turbine inlet,
and the solids content in the steam. High superheat eliminates or minimizes condensation
within the turbine, minimizing erosion and increasing reliability. Boiler feedwater treated to
demanding quality standards produces low solids carryover and minimum turbine deposits, and
thus benefits turbine reliability and efficiency.
TURBINE EXHAUST TEMPERATURE
The exhaust steam temperature of non-condensing turbine at normal load can be estimated by
using the efficiency values discussed above. Exhaust temperature at off-design conditions can
be estimated by using computer program 3058, or by obtaining off-design efficiency estimates
from machinery specialists or turbine vendors. Following turbine model selection, the turbine
exhaust temperature predicted by the vendor should be used for verifying the temperature level
in the exhaust main against the design value, and for verifying the suitability of the exhaust
piping design temperature. An estimate of turbine exhaust temperature during low-speed, no-
load warm-up should be obtained from the turbine vendor to determine if the exhaust piping
requires any specific design features for safe exposure to this startup condition.
RELATIONSHIP OF STEAM VALUE TO TURBINE EFFICIENCY
The value of high efficiency turbine operations varies considerably between services and is not
always obvious to the engineers who procure and select turbine models. An indication of
turbine efficiency importance should be included in the Design Specification.
In some process systems, steam turbines are powered by high value steam which has been
generated to the turbine inlet conditions for the sole purpose of turbine motivation. This justifies
selection of a higher priced (higher efficiencies) turbine model. In other steam systems, the
incremental cost of raising steam pressure and temperature to effective turbine inlet levels is
small because of other process steam requirements, or because the steam would simply be
throttled from one pressure level to another if the turbine were not applied. In these latter
situations, high turbine efficiency has no premium value and need notinfluence the model
selection process.
Where high turbine efficiency is important to achieving the design steam balance of the plant,
the maximum allowable steamflow should be specified. Turbine purchase specifications
prepared in detailed engineering should indicate whether turbine model proposals should be
based on minimum cost or on minimum steam consumption, or whether both bases are needed
for economic evaluation.
Evaluation of premium turbine cost for high efficiency should be based on the same criteria or
other incremental investment opportunities.
REFERENCE
- Steam Turbines and Gas Expanders – Design Practices. Exxon Research & Engineering.
