Unit – II

SQL (Structured Query Language)

• Introduction to SQL
• SQL sublanguages – DDL, DML, DCL

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• Basic data types
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• SQL statements: Create, Select, Insert, Delete,
Update etc.
• Database constraints
• Built-in functions
 SQL (Structured Query Langugar)
• What is SQL?
– SQL is a language that provides an interface to RDBMS.
– SQL is an ANSI (American National Standards Institute) standard language.
– RDBMS like SQL Server , Oracle, MS Access use SQL as their standard database language.

• Features of SQL
• SQL used to access and manipulate databases. It can

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– Creates a new objects in database
– Insert records in a database
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– Update records in a database
– Delete records from a database.
– Retrieve records from a database.

• SQL Engine
– It is a server side process takes SQL queries from the application and execute.
 Rules For SQL
• SQL starts with a verb (i.e. A SQL action word)
– E.g. CREATE , INSERT , UPDATE , DELETE

• A comma ( , ) separates parameters. E.g. INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (1 , 'HARSH');

• A ' ; ' is used to end SQL statements. E.g. INSERT INTO EMP VALUES (1 , 'HARSH') ;

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• A space separate clauses. E.g. DROP TABLE EMP;
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• Reserve words cannot be used as identifier unless enclosed with double quotes.

• Character and Data literals must be enclosed within single quotes.

 DDL (Data Definition Language) commands
• It is set of SQL commands used to create, modify and delete database structures
but not data.

• DDL commands implicitly issues a commit command to the database.

• CREATE – To create objects in the database.

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• ALTER – Alters / Modifies the existing structure of the database.

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• DROP – Delete an entire object from the database.

• TRUNCATE – Remove all records from a table, but the structure of table is present.
 DML (Data Manipulation Language ) commands

• Commands of SQL that allows inserting, changing or retrieving data within

the database.

• INSERT – Insert data into a table.

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• UPDATE – Updates existing data within a table.

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• DELETE – Deletes records from a table.

• SELECT – Retrieve certain / all records from one or more tables.

 DCL (Data Control Language) command
• Commands of SQL that control access to data and to the database.

• COMMIT – Save work done.

• ROLLBACK – Restore database to original since the last COMMIT.

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• GRANT – Grant permissions to the oracle users.

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• REVOKE – Revert permissions from the oracle users.
SQL (Structural Query Language)

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 Data Types

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In Oracle 11g standard format is MM-DD-YY or MM-DD-YYYY
 Data Types

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 Data Types

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 Primary Key
• A Primary key is a key (Attribute/Field) that uniquely identifies a row in each table.
• It is denoted with its first two letters, namely, PK.
• Employee table is uniquely identified by Employee_No field than it is called a primary
key of a table.
• Project Table Project number is PK. Employee Master

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Employee Employee Designation
Project Master Number Name
(PK)
Project
Number
(PK)
P001
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Project
Name

HRMS
E0001

E0002
Ramesh
Shah
Krishna
Patel
Software
Engineer
Project
Leader
P002 Online
Bidding E0003 Jayesh Project
Vyas Leader
P003 Payroll
E0004 Mitesh Software
Sharma Engineer
E0005 Vishal Software
11
Shah Engineer
 Foreign Key
• A Foreign key is a key borrowed from another related table (that’s why its foreign) in
order to make the relationship between two tables.
• It is normally denoted with its first two letters, namely, FK.
• Foreign key must match actual values and data types with the related Primary Key.
Employee Master
E.g. Proj_Emp_Info table Project_Number &

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Employee Employee Designation
Employee Number are foreign keys. Number Name
(PK)
Proj_Emp_Info
Project Number
(FK)
Composite Key
(FK)
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Employee Number
Foreign Key

Project Master
Project Number Project Name
E0001

E0002
Ramesh Shah

Krishna Patel
Software
Engineer
Project
Leader
P001 E0001 (PK) E0003 Jayesh Vyas Project
P001 E0003 Leader
P002 E0002 P001 HRMS E0004 Mitesh Sharma Software
P002 Finance Engineer
P003 E0003
E0005 Vishal Shah Software
P003 Payroll
Foreign Key 12 Engineer
 Alternate Key
• A key associated with one or more columns whose values
uniquely identify every row in the table, but which is not the
primary key.
• E.g. Employee Master having Employee Name as Alternate key
but it is not primary key.
Employee Master

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Employee Employee Designation
Number Name
(PK)

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E0002
Ramesh
Shah
Krishna
Patel
Software
Engineer
Project
Leader
E0003 Jayesh Project
Vyas Leader Alternate
E0004 Mitesh Software Key
Sharma Engineer
E0005 Vishal Software
Shah Engineer
 Create Statement
• It is used to create a new Table (Entity or Relation) in database.
• Each table having multiple Columns (Attributes or Fields).
• Each Column of contains three things :
• Column-name,
• Data-type &
• Size

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• Rules for Creating Tables
• A name can have maximum upto 30 characters.
• Alphabet from A-Z, a-z and number from 0-9 are allowed.
•
•
•
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A name should begin with Alphabet.
The use of special characters like _ , $ & # signs are allowed.
SQL reserved words are not allowed.
• Syntax
• CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type(size)
………………………. ………………….
column_nameN data_type(size) );
 Create Statement
CREATE TABLE Student_Master
( Stud_Id NUMBER (2) PRIMARY KEY ,

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Stud_Name VARCHAR(20),
Stud_Birth_Date DATE,

)
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Stud_Mobile NUMBER(10)
 Constraints
• Primary Key
– At column level
• Column-name data-type(size) PRIMARY KEY
• E.g.
CREATE TABLE Student_Master
( Stud_Id NUMBER (2) PRIMARY KEY ,
Stud_Name VARCHAR(20),

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Stud_Birth_Date DATE,
Stud_Mobile NUMBER(10) )
/
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– At table level
OR

• PRIMARY KEY ( col-name1, col-name2, ……. col-nameN)

CREATE TABLE Student_Master
( Stud_Id NUMBER (2),
Stud_Name VARCHAR(20),
Stud_Birth_Date DATE,
Stud_Mobile NUMBER(10),
PRIMARY KEY (Stud_Id))
/
 To Display Table Structure
• DESCRIBE Table-name
OR

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• DESC Table-name

E.g.
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DESCRIBE Student_Master;
DESC Student_Master;
 SQL Query Is Not a Case-Sensitive
• Query may be allowed in either
– Upper case or
– Lowercase or

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– Combination of uppercase and lowercase
E.g.
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DESC Student_Master;
desc Student_Master;
DesC Student_Master;
DESC STUDENT_MasTer;
 Insert Statement
• Creates a new row in database tables and loads the values passed into the
columns specified.
• Syntax
• To insert values of all fields/attributes
– INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1,value2, ...valueN)

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– For Oracle 10g INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER

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INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER VALUES (1 , 'Amit' , '05-DEC-90', 9422290900)
– For Oracle 11g Express Edition
INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER VALUES (1 , 'Amit' , '12-05-1990', 9422290900)
OR
• To insert values of selected fields/attributes
– INSERT INTO table_name (column1,column2, ..columnN) VALUES (value1,value2, ..valueN);
– INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER (Stud_Id, Stud_Name) VALUES (2,'Kalpesh');
 To Insert Records In A Table
• To insert multiple records of all fields/attributes
– INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (&column1,&column2, ... &columnN);
• To insert multiple records of selected fields/attributes
– INSERT INTO table_name (column1, ... columnX)

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VALUES (&column1, ... &columnX);

For Oracle 10g

=============
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– INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER VALUES (&STUD_ID,'&STUD_NAME',
'&STUD_BIRTH_DATE', &STUD_MOBILE );
OR
– INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER (STUD_ID) VALUES (&STUD_ID);
 To Insert Records In A Table
• To insert multiple records of all fields/attributes
– INSERT INTO table_name (column1,column2, ... columnN)
VALUES (&column1,&column2, ... &columnN);
E.g. For Oracle 11g Express Edition in Browser.

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INSERT INTO STUDENT_MASTER
(STUD_ID,STUD_NAME,STUD_BIRTH_DATE,STUD_MOBILE)
WITH names AS ( PP
SELECT 4, 'Ratna', '10-20-98', '111111111' FROM dual UNION ALL
SELECT 6, 'Prakash', ‘5-25-97', ‘3333333311' FROM dual UNION ALL
SELECT 5, 'Kartik', '09-23-86', '222222222' FROM dual
)
SELECT * FROM Names
 Select Statement
• It is used to retrieve rows select from one or more tables.

• Syntax

SELECT [ DISTINCT ]

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PP
{ *|column_name1, column_name2, .. column_nameN }

FROM table_name

[ Where conditions]

[ ORDER BY { column_name1.., column_nameN [ASC / DESC]

}];
 Select Statement
• All rows and all columns
• SELECT * FROM table-name;
E.g.
• SELECT * FROM Student_Master;

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• Filtering Data PP
• Select columns and all rows
• SELECT { Selected COLUMN-LIST } FROM table-name;
E.g.
• SELECT Stud_Id, Stud_Name FROM Student_Master;
• SELECT Stud_Name FROM Student_Master;
• SELECT Stud_Id FROM Student_Master;
 Select Statement
• Selected rows and all columns
• SELECT * FROM table-name [WHERE conditions]
E.g.
• SELECT * FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Id > 2;
• SELECT * FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Name = 'Amit';

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PP
• Selected columns and selected rows
• SELECT {Selected COLUMN-LIST } FROM table-name [WHERE conditions]
E.g.
• SELECT Stud_Name FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Id > 2;
• SELECT Stud_iD FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Id > 2;
 Select Statement
• Eliminating Duplicate Rows
• SELECT DISTINCT * FROM table-name;
• SELECT DISTINCT { Selected Column-list } FROM table-name;
E.g.

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• SELECT DISTINCT * FROM Student_Master;
• SELECT DISTINCT Stud_Name FROM Student_Master;
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 Select Statement :: Ordering
• Sorting Data
• SELECT * FROM table-name ORDER BY
{ column_name1.., column_nameN [ASC / DESC] }
E.g.

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• SELECT * FROM Student_Master ORDER BY Stud_Name
• SELECT * FROM Student_Master ORDER BY Stud_Id
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• SELECT * FROM Student_Master ORDER BY Stud_Name DESC
• SELECT * FROM Student_Master ORDER BY Stud_Name ASC
• SELECT * FROM Student_Master ORDER BY Stud_Birth_Date DESC
 Select Statement :: Grouping
• Sorting Data
• SELECT * FROM table-name GROUP BY
{ column_name1.., column_nameN [ASC / DESC] }
E.g.

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• CREATE TABLE Emp_Master (Emp_id Number(3), Emp_name Varchar(40),
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Desg Varchar(40));

• SELECT Desg, Count(Emp_Id) FROM Emp_Master GROUP BY Desg

 Exercise
• Product_Master ( Product_Id, Product_Name, Price, Quantity)
• Show the structure of Product_Master table.
• Insert at least five records in Product_Master table.
• Retrieve all records from Product_Master table.

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• Show all products name and price.
•
•
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Display product names whose price is equal to 200.
Display product name & price whose price greater than 100 and less
than 500.
• Display all product names and It’s price sorted by price.
• Display all product names and price whose price greater than 500.
• Syntax Update Statement
UPDATE table_name
SET
{ column1=value1,column2=value2,...
columnN=valueN }

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[ WHERE Conditions ]
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• Update single column of single row
UPDATE table_name SET column1=value1 WHERE
condition
E.g. Change the name of student id = 2.
– UPDATE Student_Master SET Stud_Name='MAHESH'
WHERE Stud_Id = 2
• Syntax Update Statement
UPDATE table_name
SET
{ column1=value1,column2=value2,...
columnN=valueN }

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[ WHERE Conditions ]
• Update more than one column of single row.
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UPDATE table_name SET column1=value1, ……..
columnN=valueN WHERE condition
E.g. Change the mobile & name of student with id = 2.
UPDATE Student_Master
SET Stud_Mobile = 8811223355 , Stud_name ='Maulik'
WHERE Stud_Id = 2
• Syntax Update Statement
UPDATE table_name
SET
{ column1=value1,column2=value2,...
columnN=valueN}
[ WHERE Conditions ]

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• Update single column of selected rows.
UPDATE table_name SET column1=value1 WHERE condition
E.g. PP
ALTER TABLE Student_Master ADD Graduation VARCHAR2(10);

– UPDATE Student_Master
SET Graduation = 'Science'
WHERE Stud_id > 3
• Syntax Update Statement
UPDATE table_name
SET
{ column1=value1,column2=value2,...
columnN=valueN }

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[ WHERE Conditions ]
PP
• Update single column of all rows.
UPDATE table_name SET column1=value1
E.g.
UPDATE Student_Master
SET Graduation = 'Science'
 Delete Statement
• Syntax
DELETE FROM table_name [WHERE Condition];

• Remove selected rows from table

DELETE FROM table_name WHERE Condition;

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E.g.

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DELETE FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Id = 5
DELETE FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Id > 5
DELETE FROM Student_Master WHERE Stud_Name = 'AMIT'

• Remove all rows from table

DELETE FROM table_name.
E.g. DELETE FROM Student_Master
 Alter Table Syntax
• ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;
E.g. ALTER TABLE Student_Master ADD Email VARCHAR2(100);

• ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

E.g. ALTER TABLE Student_Master DROP COLUMN Email ;

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• ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;
E.g. ALTER TABLE Student_Master MODIFY Email VARCHAR2(150);

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• Restriction on the Alter table
The following tasks cannot be performed.
• Change the name of the table
• Change the name of the column
• Decrease the size of a column if any value with more than specified size.

• Integrity constraints through Alter table

– ALTER TABLE table_name ADD PRIMARY KEY ( Col_name1, …..Col_name N )
– ALTER TABLE table_name DROP PRIMARY KEY
• Objects created by user
– SELECT * FROM TAB;

• RENAMING Table : Change the name of a table

– RENAME table-name TO new-table-name

• TRUNCATING Table : Remove only records, not a Structure of table.

– TRUNCATE TABLE table-name

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• DESTROYING Table : Remove the structure of the table also.
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– DROP TABLE table-name

• SYNONYMS Table : Alternative name of a table

– CREATE SYNONYM synonym-name FOR table-name

• DROPPING SYNONYM Table : Remove alternative name of a table

– DROP SYNONYM synonym-name
 GROUP BY Clause
• Syntax
SELECT <columnName1> <columnName2> ……<columnNameN>
AGGREGATE FUNCTION (<Expression>)
FROM Table Name
WHERE <Condition >

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GROUP BY <columnName1> <columnName2> ……<columnNameN>
 The Columns1 …. Columns N are not used within an aggregate
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function and must be included in the GROUP BY clause
 Aggregate functions are AVG(), COUNT(), MAX(), MIN() etc.
 Select Statement :: Grouping
• Sorting Data
• SELECT * FROM table-name GROUP BY
{ column_name1.., column_nameN [ASC / DESC] }

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E.g.
Add City attribute in Student_Master table.
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ALTER TABLE Student_Master ADD City VARCHAR2(50);

• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master GROUP BY City

 HAVING CLAUSE
• It impose a condition on the GROUP BY clause,
which further filters the groups created by the
GROUP BY clause.
• It filters on fields that used with aggregate function.

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PP
• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master
GROUP BY City

• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master

GROUP BY City HAVING count(stud_id) > 2;
 WHERE clause & HAVING clause
• WHERE clause impose a condition on all rows in
table.
• GROUP BY clause is written after WHERE clause. It
makes a group on rows selected by WHERE clause.

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• HAVING clause impose a condition on group. It
filters on fields that used with aggregate function.
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• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master
GROUP BY City HAVING count(stud_id) > 2;

• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master

WHERE city like 'A%'
GROUP BY City HAVING count(stud_id) > 2;
 Creating a table from a table
• CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1
………………………. ………………….

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column_nameN )
AS
SELECT
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(column_name1
………………………. ………………….
column_nameN )
FROM table-name;
 Inserting data into a table from another table
• INSERT
INTO table_name
SELECT
(column_name1

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………………………. ………………….
PP
column_nameN )
FROM table-name
[ WHERE conditions]
;
 Exercise
Client_Master ( Client_No, Client_Name, Client_City, Gender,
BirthDate, Pincode )

CREATE TABLE Client_Master

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(Client_No NUMBER(3) PRIMARY KEY,
Client_Name VARCHAR2(40),
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Client_City VARCHAR2(40),
Gender CHAR(1),
BirthDate DATE ,
Pincode NUMBER(6))
 Exercise
• Retrieve all records of Client_Master table
• Display names of all the clients.
• List all the clients who are located in Mumbai.
• Find the names of a client who have birthdate = '20-Oct-1980'
• Find the names of a client who have Gender ='Male' and City =
'Anand'
•

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Display all records in alphabetical order of Client_Name;
• Add a column called 'Mobile_No' of data type 'number' and size
= 10 to the Client_Master;
•
•
•
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Change the size of City_Name column in Client_Master to 50.
Change the city of client_no = 10 to 'Bombay';
Change the mobile number of client_name='Harsh' to
8989989898.
• Delete all the clients whose city belongs to 'Banglore'.
• Backup the Client_Master table in B_Client_Master.
• Change the name of Client_Master table to Client_Mst.
• Destroy the B_Client_Master table with its data.
 Computations on Data
• Arithmetic Operators
– +, -, *, /, ( )

• Logical Operators
– OR, AND, NOT

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• Range Searching
– BETWEEN
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• Pattern Matching
– LIKE

• Predicates
– IN, NOT IN

• DUAL Table
 Emp Table
• CREATE TABLE Emp_Master
( Eno NUMBER(3),

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Ename VARCHAR(50),
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Dept VARCHAR(20),
Post VARCHAR(50),
Basic NUMBER(6), PRIMARY KEY (Eno))
Operators:
SQL supports various arithmetic, logical , character, and relational r operators. Arithmetic
Operators:
Arithmetic operators in SQL will return numeric values.

Operators Function Example

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+ Add UPDATE Emp_Master
SET basic = basic + 500;
-

*
PP Subtract

Multiply
UPDATE Emp_Master
SET basic = basic - 500;

UPDATE Emp_Master
SET basic = basic + basic * 5/100;

/ Divide UPDATE Emp_Master

SET basic = basic + basic * 5/100;
Logical Operators:
Logical operators in SQL will return either true or false value.

Operators Function Example

AND Check two SELECT * FROM Emp_Master

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conditions WHERE basic >= 10000 AND basic <= 20000;
are true

OR PP
Check any of SELECT * FROM Emp_Master WHERE basic
the two
conditions
are true
>= 10000 OR dept = 'Sales';

NOT Reversed the SELECT * FROM Emp_Master WHERE

result of NOT(basic >= 10000 OR dept = 'Sales');
logical
expression
Character Operators:
Character operators are used to manipulate character strings.

Operators Function Example

|| Concatenates SELECT 'Name is ' || ename FROM

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character Emp_Master;
strings Output:

PP Name is Kumar
Name is Umar
Name is Vino
Name is Raj
Comparison Operators:
Comparison operators in SQL will compare two quantity

Operators Meaning/Function
= Equal to

!=, <> Not equal to

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> Greater than
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>= Greater than or equal to

< Less than

<= Less than or equal to

 Operators Meaning/Function
IN Equal to any member of a given set

NOT IN Not equal to any member of a given set

BETWEEN In between two values

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NOT BETWEEN Not in between two values

EXISTS

ANY
PP True if sub query returns at least one row

Compares a value to each list of value

(must be prefaced with =,!=,<,<=,>,>=)
ALL Compares a value to every list of value
(must be prefaced with =,!=,<,<=,>,>=)
Example:
1) To find the employees who are either clerk or manager.
[I] SELECT * FROM Emp_Master
WHERE post IN ('CLERK','MANAGER');

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[ii] SELECT * FROM Emp_Master

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WHERE post = 'CLERK' OR post = 'MANAGER'

2) To find the employees who are neither clerks nor anager

SELECT * FROM Emp_Master
WHERE post NOT IN ('CLERK','MANAGER');
Example:
3) To find the employees whose salary lies in between
10000 and 20000
[1] SELECT * FROM Emp_Master
WHERE basic BETWEEN 10000 AND 20000;

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[2] SELECT * FROM Emp_Master
PP
WHERE basic >= 10000 AND basic <= 20000;

4) To find the employees whose salary not lies in between

10000 and 20000
SELECT * FROM Emp_Master
WHERE basic NOT BETWEEN 10000 AND 20000;
LIKE Operator: (Matching a character pattern)
When one does not know the exact value for the search conditions
and wishes to use a replaceable parameter a LIKE operator can be
used.
The replaceable parameters used are shown bellow.
Symbol Represents
• % Any sequence or more characters

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• _ Any single character
Example:
PP
1) To list employees whose names begin with 'P'
SELECT * FROM Emp_Master
WHERE ename LIKE 'P%' ;
Example:
2) To list employees whose name start with 'P‘, third
character must be 'R‘, fourth character must be 'A' and
length must be 5.
E.g. Values : ('PARAS',PARAM','PAVAN', 'PARAMVEER')
Selected Values : ('PARAS',PARAM')

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SELECT * FROM Emp_Master
WHERE ename LIKE 'P_RA_';
PP
3) To list employees whose name start with 'P' , third
character must be 'R‘, fourth character must be 'A' and
length may be any number.
E.g. Values : ('PARAS',PARAM','PAVAN','PARAMVEER')
Selected Values : ('PARAS',PARAM','PARAMVEER')
SELECT * FROM Emp_Master
WHERE ename LIKE 'P_RA%';
 Tables For Examples of
Exists, Not Exists, All & Any Operators
Client_Master ( Client_No, Client_Name,
Client_City, Gender, BirthDate, Pincode )

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Bill_Details (bill_no, client_no, bill_amt)
PP
 EXIST Operator
• The Oracle EXISTS operator is a Boolean operator that returns either
true or false.
• The EXISTS operator is often used with a subquery to test for the
existence of rows:

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• SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE EXISTS ( subquery );
• E.g. To find all customers who have the order.
PP
SELECT client_no, client_name FROM client_master c
WHERE EXISTS (
SELECT 1 FROM bill_details
WHERE client_no = c.client_no )
ORDER BY client_name;
 NOT EXIST Operator
• The Oracle NOT EXISTS operator is a Boolean operator that returns
either true or false.
• The NOT EXISTS operator is often used with a subquery to test for not
existence of rows:

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• SELECT * FROM table_name WHERE EXISTS ( subquery );
• E.g. To find all customers who have not given an order.
PP
SELECT client_no, client_name FROM client_master c
WHERE NOT EXISTS (
SELECT 1 FROM bill_details
WHERE client_no = c.client_no )
ORDER BY client_name;
 ANY Operator
• The ANY operator returns true if any of the subquery values meet the
condition.
• SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ANY

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(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
• E.g. Lists the customer names if it finds ANY records in the
PP
OrderDetails table that bill amount <= 3000
• SELECT client_no, client_name FROM client_master
WHERE CLIENT_NO = ANY ( SELECT CLIENT_NO FROM bill_details
WHERE bill_amt <= 3000)
ORDER BY client_no, client_name;
 ALL Operator
• The ALL operator returns true if all of the subquery values meet the
condition.
• SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator ANY

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(SELECT column_name FROM table_name WHERE condition);
• E.g. Lists the customer names whose bill amount not less than 3000.
PP
• SELECT client_no, client_name FROM client_master
WHERE CLIENT_NO != ALL ( SELECT CLIENT_NO FROM bill_details
WHERE bill_amt<=3000)
ORDER BY client_no, client_name;
 Constraints
• Foreign Key
• It defines the relationship between the tables.
• It is a column / columns whose values are derived from the
primary key or unique key of some other table.
• The table in which the foreign key is defined is called a

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Foreign Table or Detail Table.
• The table that defined s the primary key or unique key and is

• Features:
•
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referenced by the foreign key is called Primary Table or
Master Table.

Child may have duplicates and nulls but unless it is specified.

• Parent record can be delete provided no child record exist.
• Master table can not be updated if child record exist.
• Record can not be inserted in detail table if corresponding record
does not exist in master table.
 Constraints
• Foreign Key
– At column level
• Column-name data-type(size) REFERENCES table-name [
column-name ] [ ON DELETE CASCADE / ON DELETE SET NULL]

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CREATE TABLE bill_details
PP
(bill_no NUMBER (5) PRIMARY KEY ,
client_no NUMBER(3) REFERENCES
client_master(client_no),
bill_amt number(6))
/
 Constraints
• Foreign Key
– At table level
• FOREIGN KEY ( column-name1, column-name2, …….. column-
nameN) REFERENCES table-name (column-name1, column-name2,

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…….. column-nameN) [ ON DELETE CASCADE / ON DELETE SET NULL]

PP
CREATE TABLE bill_details
(bill_no NUMBER (5) PRIMARY KEY ,
client_no NUMBER(3),
bill_amt number(6),
FOREIGN KEY (client_no) REFERENCES
client_master(client_no))
/
 Constraints
• When constraints are defined, Oracle assigns a unique
name to each constraint.
• The conversion is used by Oracle is SYS_Cn : n is
numeric value that makes the constraint name unique.
• System table : User_Constraints

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• It is used to store the constraints (like primary key , foreign
key, check constraints, default constraints ) of the tables
• DESC User_Constraints
•
•
•
PP
OWNER
CONSTRAINT_NAME
TABLE_NAME
• CONSTRAINT_TYPE
• R_OWNER
• R_CONSTRAINT_NAME

E.g. SELECT Owner, Constraint_Name, Table_Name, Constraint_Type

FROM user_constraints WHERE table_name = 'CLIENT_MASTER'
 Constraints
• Unique Key
• It allows store unique values in column as primary key.
• But it allows multiple entries of NULL into the column.
• Features

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• It will not allow duplicate values.
• Unique index is created automatically.
•
•
•
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A table can have more than one Unique Key.
Unique key can combine upto 16 columns.
Unique key can not be LONG or LONG RAW Data type.
– Column-level
• Column-name data-type(size) [UINIQUE KEY / UNIQUE]
– Table – level
• [ UNIQUE KEY / UNIQUE ] ( Column1,….. Column N)
 Constraints
• Unique Key
– Column-level
• Column-name data-type(size) [UINIQUE KEY / UNIQUE]
• E.g.
• CREATE TABLE Client_Master ( Client_No NUMBER(3) ,

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Client_Name VARCHAR(50), Client_City VARCHAR(50) ,
Gender CHAR(1), BirthDate DATE, Pincode NUMBER(6),
PP
Mobile_No NUMBER(10) UNIQUE )
– Table – level
• [ UNIQUE KEY / UNIQUE ] ( Column1,….. Column N)
• E.g.
• CREATE TABLE Client_Master ( Client_No NUMBER(3) ,
Client_Name VARCHAR(50), Client_City VARCHAR(50) ,
Gender CHAR(1), BirthDate DATE, Pincode NUMBER(6),
Mobile_No NUMBER(10), UNIQUE (Mobile_No , BirthDate) )
 Constraints
• NOT NULL Constraint
– It is a column level constraint.
• It ensure that a table column cannot be left empty.
• it used for mandatory columns.

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– Column-level
• Column-name data-type(size) [ NOT NULL ]
E.g. PP
• CREATE TABLE STUDENT_MASTER
(s_id NUMBER(2),
s_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
PRIMARY KEY (s_id) );
 Constraints
• DEFAULT Constraint
– It is a column level constraint.
– It specify the default value of a table column.
– Column-level

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• Column-name data-type(size) DEFAULT ( Value )

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E.g. Majority of students city = 'ANAND'.
CREATE TABLE STUDENT_MASTER
(s_id NUMBER(3),
s_name VARCHAR(50) NOT NULL,
s_city VARCHAR(50) DEFAULT 'ANAND' ,
PRIMARY KEY (s_id) );
 Constraints
• CHECK Constraint
– Business rules are applied to data prior the data is being
inserted into table columns.
– This ensures that the data (records) in the table have
integrity.

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– E.g.
– Client Name should be inserted with Upper Case letters.
–
–
–
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Employee Id should be start with 'E'.
Student ID between 1000 to 1100
No employee in company get salary less than Rs. 5000
– It can be applied at a column level & table level by using
CHECK clause.
– It is a logical expression that evaluates either TRUE or FALSE.
– It takes longer time to execute as compared to NOT NULL,
Primary Key, Foreign Key & Unique Key.
 Constraints
• CHECK Constraint
– Column-level
• Column-name data-type(size) CHECK ( logical-expression)

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E.g.
CREATE TABLE STUDENT_MASTER
PP
(s_id NUMBER(3) CHECK (s_id BETWEEN 1000 and 1100),
s_name VARCHAR(50) CHECK ( s_name = UPPER(s_name)),
s_gender CHAR(1) CHECK (s_gender IN ('M','F')),
s_age NUMBER(2) CHECK ( s_age >= 18 ) ,
s_city VARCHAR(50) DEFAULT 'ANAND' ,
PRIMARY KEY (s_id) )
 Constraints
• CHECK Constraint
– Table-level
• CHECK ( logical-expression1), … CHECK ( logical-expressionN)

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CREATE TABLE STUDENT
(s_id NUMBER(3),
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s_name VARCHAR(50) CHECK ( s_name = UPPER(s_name)),
s_gender CHAR(1),
s_age NUMBER(2) CHECK ( s_age >= 18 ) ,
s_city VARCHAR(50) DEFAULT 'ANAND' ,
CONSTRAINT c_sid CHECK (s_id BETWEEN 1000 and 1100),
CONSTRAINT c_sgender CHECK (s_gender IN ('M','F')),
PRIMARY KEY (s_id) )
 Multiple Check Constraints
• CHECK Constraint
• E.g.
CREATE TABLE STUDENT
(s_id NUMBER(3),

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s_name VARCHAR(50) CHECK ( s_name = UPPER(s_name)),
s_gender CHAR(1),

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s_age NUMBER(2) ,
s_city VARCHAR(50) DEFAULT 'ANAND' ,
CONSTRAINT c_sga CHECK
(s_id BETWEEN 1000 and 1100 AND
s_gender IN ('M','F') AND
s_age >= 18 ),
PRIMARY KEY (s_id) )
 Functions
• Aggregate / Group Function
It return results based on set of rows.

Aggregate function accepts two options:([ DISTINCT | ALL ] < EXPR > )
DISTINCT – It consider only distinct values of the argument

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ALL – It consider all values including the duplicates also.
Note: if neither option is specified , the default is ALL
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Group functions are statistical functions such as
– SUM : It returns total of the supplied field values.
– AVG : It returns an average of the field values.
– MIN : It returns the maximum value within the defined data set.
– MAX :It returns the maximum value within the defined data set.
– COUNT : It returns the number of rows within the defined data set
Aggregate Functions (Group Functions)
1. AVG
- Returns the average value of specified field n.
Syntax: AVG( [ DISDINCT | ALL ] n)

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Example:
SELECT AVG (basic) FROM emp;
PP
SELECT AVG (DISTINCT basic) FROM emp;
SELECT AVG (ALL basic) FROM emp;
 Functions
• Scalar / Numeric Function
ABS(n) : Returns the absolute value of a number (n)
– SELECT ABS (-32) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT ABS ( -3 + 6 ) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT ABS ( -3 * 2 + 6 ) FROM DUAL;

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– SELECT ABS ( -3 + 2 * 6 + 3 ) FROM DUAL;

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POWER ( n, m ) : Returns the value of one expression raised to
the power of another expression nm
– SELECT POWER ( 2 , 3) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT POWER ( 16 , 1/2 ) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT POWER ( 3 , 3 ) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT POWER ( 27 , 1/3 ) FROM DUAL;
 Functions
• Scalar / Numeric Function
ROUND [n [,m] :
Returns a number rounded to a certain number of decimal
places. If decimal places is 0, then the result will have no
decimal point.

P
– SELECT ROUND ( 139.237,0) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT ROUND ( 139.537,1) FROM DUAL;
PP
– SELECT ROUND ( 139.537,2) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT ROUND ( 139.537,-1) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT ROUND ( 139.537,-2) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT ROUND ( 139.237) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT ROUND ( 139.537) FROM DUAL;
• Scalar / Numeric Function Functions
TRUNC ( number, [decimal places] ) :
Returns number truncated to decimal places. If decimal
places is 0, then the result will have no decimal point.
– SELECT TRUNC ( 139.237,0) FROM DUAL;

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– SELECT TRUNC ( 139.587,1) FROM DUAL;
PP
– SELECT ROUND( 139.587,1) FROM DUAL;

– SELECT TRUNC ( 139.537,-1) FROM DUAL;

– SELECT ROUND( 139.537,-1) FROM DUAL;

– SELECT TRUNC ( 169.537,-2) FROM DUAL;

– SELECT ROUND ( 169.537,-2) FROM DUAL;
 Functions
Scalar / Numeric Function
SQRT (n) : Returns a square root of a number n
– SELECT SQRT (4) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT SQRT (100) FROM DUAL;
– SELECT SQRT (169) FROM DUAL;

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EXP (n) :Returns the base of the natural logarithm (e) raised
PP
to the power of passed numeric expression.
Hear e = 2.71828183.
– SELECT EXP ( 2 ) FROM DUAL

MOD ( m , n ) : Returns the remainder of one expression by

diving by another expression. Reminder when m divide by n.
– SELECT MOD ( 10 , 2 ) FROM DUAL
– SELECT MOD ( 36 , 8 ) FROM DUAL
 Functions
• String Functions
ASCII(string) : Returns numeric value of left-most
character
– SELECT ASCII ('A') FROM DUAL

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– SELECT ASCII ('a') FROM DUAL
– SELECT ASCII ('z') FROM DUAL
PP
– SELECT ASCII ('APPLE') FROM DUAL

CHR(n) : Returns the character for each n integer passed

SELECT CHR (97) FROM DUAL;
SELECT CHR (65) FROM DUAL;
 Functions
• String Functions
LENGTH ( string ) : Returns number of characters in
argument
– SELECT LENGTH ('HELLO') FROM DUAL;

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– SELECT LENGTH ('HELLO HOW ARE YOU?') FROM DUAL;
PP
CONCAT( string1, string2 ) : Returns concatenation of two
strings
– SELECT CONCAT ('HELLO' , 'HELLO HOW ARE YOU?')
FROM DUAL;
• String Functions Functions
LOWER( String) : Converts all letters in the specified string to
lowercase.
– SELECT LOWER ('HELLO') FROM DUAL;
– SELECT LOWER ('HeLlO') FROM DUAL;

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UPPER ( String) : Converts all letters in the specified string to
uppercase.
PP
– SELECT UPPER('hello') FROM DUAL;
– SELECT UPPER ('HeLlO') FROM DUAL;
INITCAP(String ) : Sets the first character in each word to
uppercase and the rest to lowercase.
– SELECT INITCAP ('HELLO') FROM DUAL;
– SELECT INITCAP ('heLlO') FROM DUAL;
String Functions
LTRIM ( string [, set ] ) : Functions
Removes all specified characters from the left-hand side of a string till the first character not belongs to a
set.
– SELECT LTRIM('AAAGDCST','A') FROM DUAL
– SELECT LTRIM('BBAAAGDCST','AB') FROM DUAL
– SELECT LTRIM('BBAACAGDCST','AB') FROM DUAL
– SELECT LTRIM(' AAGDCSTAAA ',' ' ) FROM DUAL

RTRIM ( string [, set ] ) :

Removes all specified characters from the right-hand side of a string till the last character not belongs to a

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set.
– SELECT RTRIM('AAAGDCSTAAA','A') FROM DUAL
– SELECT RTRIM('BBAAAGDCSTBBAA','AB') FROM DUAL
– SELECT RTRIM('BBAACAGDCSTABCCAA','AB') FROM DUAL

PP
– SELECT RTRIM(' AAGDCSTAAA ',' ' ) FROM DUAL

TRIM ( leading | trailing | both [ <trim_char > FROM ] ] < string > ) :
Removes all specified characters either from the beginning or the end or both of a string till the first or last
character not belongs to a set
– SELECT TRIM(LEADING 'A' FROM 'AAGDCSTAAA') FROM DUAL
– SELECT TRIM(TRAILING 'A' FROM 'AAGDCSTAAA') FROM DUAL
– SELECT TRIM(BOTH 'A' FROM 'AAGDCSTAAA') FROM DUAL
– SELECT TRIM(BOTH ' ' FROM ' AAGDCSTAAA ' ) FROM DUAL
String Functions Functions
LPAD ( String , n [ , chars ] ) :
Pads the left-side of a String with a specific set of
characters. n indicate total size of string after padding.
– SELECT LPAD('GDCST',6, '*' ) FROM DUAL

P
– SELECT LPAD('GDCST',9, '*#' ) FROM DUAL
– SELECT LPAD('GDCST',8, '*#' ) FROM DUAL
PP
– SELECT LPAD('GDCST',8,' ' ) FROM DUAL
RPAD ( char , n [ , char2 ] ) :Pads the right-side of a string with a
specific set of characters (when string1 is not null). n indicates
total size of string after padding.
– SELECT RPAD('GDCST',6, '*' ) FROM DUAL
– SELECT RPAD('GDCST',9, '*#' ) FROM DUAL
– SELECT RPAD('GDCST',8, '*#' ) FROM DUAL
– SELECT RPAD('GDCST',8,' ' ) FROM DUAL
 Functions
• String Functions
– SUBSTR ( String , Str_Position , [ Length ] ) :
– String : Original String
– Str_Position: Position to start extracting from original string.

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– Length: How many characters to be extract from original string
– Allows you to extract a substring from a string.
PP
• If start_position is 0, It means start from the first position in
the String
• If start_position is a positive number, starts from specified
position in the String.
• If start_position is a negative number, starts from specified
position from the end of the String.
 Functions
SUBSTR ( String , Str_Position , [ Length ] ) :

• SELECT SUBSTR(SYSDATE,1,2) FROM DUAL;

• SELECT SUBSTR(SYSDATE,4,3) FROM DUAL;
• SELECT SUBSTR(SYSDATE,8,2) FROM DUAL;
• SELECT SUBSTR(SYSDATE,8,4) FROM DUAL;

P
• SELECT SUBSTR( 'MCA SEM-1 BATCH', 1, 3) FROM DUAL;
•
•
•
PP
SELECT SUBSTR( 'MCA SEM-1 BATCH', 5, 5) FROM DUAL;
SELECT SUBSTR( 'MCA SEM-1 BATCH', 1) FROM DUAL;
SELECT SUBSTR( 'MCA SEM-1 BATCH', 5) FROM DUAL;
• SELECT SUBSTR( 'MCA SEM-1 BATCH', -1) FROM DUAL;
• SELECT SUBSTR( 'MCA SEM-1 BATCH', -5) FROM DUAL;
• SELECT SUBSTR( 'MCA SEM-1 BATCH', -5,1) FROM DUAL;
• SELECT SUBSTR( 'MCA SEM-1 BATCH', -5,2) FROM DUAL;
• SELECT SUBSTR( 'MCA SEM-1 BATCH', -5,5) FROM DUAL;
 Functions
• Conversion Functions
– TO_NUMBER ( char [,fmt] )
– Converts char, a CHARACTER value expressing a number, to a
NUMBER datatype.

P
– Formatting characters are

PP
– L for currency symbol

– D or ' . ' for decimal marker

– G or ' , 'thousands group separator
– E.g.
– UPDATE EMP SET basic = basic + '$1000' WHERE eno = 2;
– UPDATE EMP SET basic = basic + TO_NUMBER('$1000','L9999') WHERE
eno = 2;
 Functions
• Conversion Functions
– TO_NUMBER ( char [,fmt] )
• SELECT TO_NUMBER ('$1234','L9999') FROM DUAL
• SELECT TO_NUMBER ('$10,234','L99G999') FROM DUAL

P
• SELECT TO_NUMBER ('$10,234','L99,999') FROM DUAL
• SELECT TO_NUMBER ('$10,78,234','L99G99G999') FROM DUAL
•
•
•
PP
SELECT TO_NUMBER ('$10,78,234','L99,99,999') FROM DUAL
SELECT TO_NUMBER ('$10,234.90','L99G999D90') FROM DUAL
SELECT TO_NUMBER ('$10,234.90','L99,999.90') FROM DUAL

• UPDATE EMP SET basic = basic + '$1000' WHERE eno = 2;

• UPDATE EMP SET basic = basic +
TO_NUMBER('$1000','L9999') WHERE eno = 2;
 Functions
• Conversion Functions
– TO_CHAR ( n [, fromat ] )
– Number conversion
– Converts a value of a NUMBER datatype to a CHARACTER

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datatype.
– Format characters for number may be $, 0, 9, , , .
PP
SELECT TO_CHAR(1234,'9999') FROM DUAL;
SELECT TO_CHAR(1234,'9,999') FROM DUAL;
SELECT TO_CHAR(12.34,'99.99') FROM DUAL;
SELECT TO_CHAR(12.34, '$99.99') FROM DUAL;
SELECT TO_CHAR(12.34, '$0099.99') FROM DUAL;
• Conversion FunctionsFunctions
– TO_CHAR ( date [, fromat ] )
–Date conversion
–Converts a value of DATE datatype to a CHARACTER
datatype.

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–Format characters for date may be ,MON, YY, MONTH,
DAY, YEAR , HOUR, MINUTE, SECOND, HH, MM, SS etc.
E.g. PP
SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DD-MON-YY') FROM DUAL;
SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDTH-MON-YY') FROM DUAL;
SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSP-MON-YY') FROM DUAL;
SELECT TO_CHAR(SYSDATE,'DDSPTH-MON-YY') FROM DUAL
• Date Conversion Functions
Functions
– By default DATE datatype column/field store value in the following format.
– 'DD – MON – YY HH:MI:SS '
– When insert the date filed/column value in other format TO_DATE function is used.
– TO_DATE (char [ , fmt] ) : Converts a character values into a date values.
– E.g.
– INSERT INTO d VALUES ('25-01-90')

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– INSERT INTO d VALUES (TO_DATE ( '25-01-90','DD-MM-YY'))
– INSERT INTO d VALUES (TO_DATE ( '25-JAN-90','DD-MON-YY'))
– INSERT INTO d VALUES (TO_DATE ( '25-JAN-90','DD-MONTH-YY'))
PP
– INSERT INTO d VALUES
( TO_DATE ( '25-JAN-1980 10:55 A.M.','DD-MON-YY HH:MI A.M.'))
– INSERT INTO d VALUES
(TO_DATE ( '25-JANUARY-80 10:55 A.M.','DD-MONTH-YY HH:MI A.M.'))
– INSERT INTO d VALUES
(TO_DATE ( '25-01-80 10:55 A.M.','DD-MM-YY HH:MI P.M.'))
– INSERT INTO d VALUES
(TO_DATE ( '25-JANUARY-1980 10:55 A.M.','DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI P.M.'))
– INSERT INTO d VALUES
(TO_DATE ( '25-JAN-1980 10:55:30','DD-MON-YYYY HH:MI:SS'))
 Functions
• Miscellaneous Function
– Uid : Userid of the logged in user. It is unique for each user.
– User : User name of the user who has logged in.
– UserEnv : Returns the information about the current session.
–

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Parameters
• language
– SELECT USERENV('language') FROM DUAL
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• SessionID
– SELECT USERENV('sessionid') FROM DUAL
• Terminal
– SELECT USERENV('terminal') FROM DUAL
• IsDBA
– SELECT USERENV('isdba') FROM DUAL
• Instance
– SELECT USERENV('instance') FROM DUAL
 GROUP BY Clause
• Syntax
SELECT <columnName1> <columnName2> ……<columnNameN>
AGGREGATE FUNCTION (<Expression>)
FROM Table Name
WHERE <Condition >

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GROUP BY <columnName1> <columnName2> ……<columnNameN>
 The Columns1 …. Columns N are not used within an aggregate
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function and must be included in the GROUP BY clause
 Aggregate functions are AVG(), COUNT(), MAX(), MIN() etc.
 Select Statement :: Grouping
• Sorting Data
• SELECT * FROM table-name GROUP BY
{ column_name1.., column_nameN [ASC / DESC] }

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E.g.
Add City attribute in Student_Master table.
PP
ALTER TABLE Student_Master ADD City VARCHAR2(50);

• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master GROUP BY City

 HAVING CLAUSE
• It impose a condition on the GROUP BY clause,
which further filters the groups created by the
GROUP BY clause.
• It filters on fields that used with aggregate function.

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PP
• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master
GROUP BY City

• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master

GROUP BY City HAVING count(stud_id) > 2;
 WHERE clause & HAVING clause
• WHERE clause impose a condition on all rows in
table.
• GROUP BY clause is written after WHERE clause. It
makes a group on rows selected by WHERE clause.

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• HAVING clause impose a condition on group. It
filters on fields that used with aggregate function.
PP
• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master
GROUP BY City HAVING count(stud_id) > 2;

• SELECT city, count(stud_id) FROM Student_Master

WHERE city like 'A%'
GROUP BY City HAVING count(stud_id) > 2;