THE IBO AND

JBIBIO-SPEAKING PEOPL£S
OF SOUTH-EASTERN
NIGERIA
BY

DAR YLL FORDE and G. I. JONES

 TlrU ttw/_v ;, IIW tutiotl "f tlu Etluor>graphir Surory
of AjrYil 'll:lrid tlu llll"ruzltrmal AfrVan l"tlitulr u
JW~-"l nth IN tAt/ of" gFillll tNUir by tlu Srm-
"'Y of S11111 rlfWkr IN ColotrUJ lNotlofJ- GM
Jll"nfar• Ant,011 tlu! reco•lfVfUiation of IN ColotrUJ
Soa.J Scint&~ &uarch Cotmeil.

PJIIT P\.'ILIIIIID 19,0

. ,•. ,.u, 1961
 l.lli:\<H;I{.\J'IIIC -;J"I{VF.Y OF AFRICA

FOIU. \\OK J)
Ttn prtp•r•tlun u( 1 comprct.rnl'l\t" .... ,n~y of th~ tribal &hcit1iee of Africa wu
d1o.;u~ hy the Lucuti\"C Counul of the lnotituto: aa far hack aa 1937. but the
into:rruption and rntncung ul 111 act1vitin uouoo:d by the war rnulto:d in the po.t-
pono:mo:nt of the projo:ct. E venta and drvelopmo:nta durin11 thr 'IIIIV led to a wider
recognition or the Mtd for collatin11 and making moro: generally nailable the
weahh or ni8liDg but uoco-ordinated m.atrrial on the e-thnic groupinp and IIOCi.al
conditiona or Mrican peopln, panicularly in connnion with plana far economic
and social development. lt appeared aleo that the International African lll.ltitutc, aa
an international body which had received suppon from and performed Knicea far
the different Colonial govemmenta, waa in a very favourable situation for under-
taking such a ta.ek.
The Institute, therefore, in 194-4, applied to the recently establiahed Britiah
Colonial Social Science Re~~CUch Council for a graat from the Colonial Develop-
ment and Welfare Fund to finance the preparation of an Ethnographic: Survey of
Africa, and a grant was allocated for a period of five yean from 1945· A cOmmittee,
under the chairmanship of Profeaaor Radcliffe Brown, waa appointed to consider the
scope and form of the survey; and collaboration was establiahed with re~~earch inati-
tutiona in South Africa, Rhodesia, East Africa, Frmch Wc:at Mrica, Belgium and
the Belgian Congo.
The aim of the Ethnographic Survey ie to present a conciR, c:ritical and accurate
account of our preeent knowledge of th~ tribal grouping~, diatribution, physical
mvironment, social conditions, political and economic lll:rUcture, religiau1 belicfil
and cult practicea, technology and art of the African peoplee. The lllllteria1 il to be
presented as briefly and on as consistent a plan aa possible, and the tat will be
eupplemerrted by mape and comprehen.ive bibliographiee.
The Ethnographic Survey will be published as a aeriee of eeparate, eelf-coutained
etudiee, each devoted to one particular people or clueter of peoplee. It il hoped that
publication in thia form will make reeulte more quickly and readily available to thoee
intereeted in specific areas or groups. The sections of the eurvey will be publiahed
u they are completed, and a liat of thoee in couree of publication il given on the
cover of thia section.
Since the unequal value and the genenilly ~ nature of the available
information constituted a chief reason for undertaking thia eurvey, it will be obvions
that the lllllteria1 here preaeitted can make no claim to be complete or defiDitive.
Every effort has been made, however, to BCnJtinize all available lircndure and to
check it by reference to unpubliahed sourcea and to worbrll ac:tnally in the field;
thue it il intended to preeent a clear picture of our aiating knowledge and to paint
out the directions in which the need for further lltudiee il nJ.OBt prasiug. Any
aasiatance from thoee who are in a poBition to remedy deficiencies and COiftCI
inaccuraciee by providing snpplementary material will be greatly app1Watud..
6 R)REWORll
'Tht ln'-tional .a.frian lnstitu"' np~ its thanks to th<" l\>lonial Social
~ Rftftn:h Council. f\v m:om111('ndifllt th<" grant which has mad<" r<>ssihl.- thr
initiation ofth<" '11'\Vt., &nd also to th<" mam· scholars, 1"('5earch workrrs, aJministra-
ti\'Or ~and missionarirs in Europr. &;uth Africa and thr \-arious Afriran t<"rri-
tories who haft S(l ~MroUS!y respond<"d to our appeals for information and who
M\'Or spaml timt to corm:t and add to tht drafts. We 11"(' rspecially gratrful for
htlrgi'"ttlinthrprtpar~tion of this part of the Survey-Tilt lbo tmd lbibio-.<P'ak~
~ P,.,s-by Mr. G. I. Jonts, Lr-ctul"('r in Anthropology in the University of
l'aml>ri~. v.·ho madr anilal>le his exttnsive rti:ords of lbo and lbibio groups
IS!Itlllbled during his long period of service and study in South-Eastern Nigeria;
and also to Miss Barban Pym who assisted throughout in the compilation of
published and UDpUblished material.
DARYLL FORDE
Dirrdor, Intrmational Afnctm lnstit11te
 CONTENTS
IDO (IC"iiiO)
PART I. GENERAL
Tribal and Sub-tribal Groupings and Demo ra h
Language g p y POB•9
Physical Environment 11
Main Features of Economy 12.

,.Social Organization and Political Structure tJ

"'Some other Cultural Features '5
J Religious Beliefs and Cults 2."
:as
PART li
1. Northern or Onitsha Ibo
2. Southern or Owerri Ibo
3· Western lbo
4· Eastern or Cross River Ibo
S· North-Eastern lbo
Bibliography

IBIBIO

PART I. GENERAL
Tribal and Sub-tribal Groupings and Demography
Language
Physical Environment
Main Features of Economy
Social Organization and Political Structure
Distinctive Cultural Features

P.ART 11
I. Eutem or Ibibio Proper
a. Western or AD8ng Ibibio
3· Northern or Enyong Ibibio
4· Southern or Eket Ibibio
S· Delta or Andoni-Ibeno Ibibio
6. Riverain Ibibio or Efik
Bibliography

MAP
-
 180 (IGBO)

PART I. GENERAL

'
TRIR.\L Ar-oD SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY
LocATION

South-eastern l'liigeria: Provinca of Ouiuba, Owari, Riven {E.), Opja (W.),

8eDin (SE.), md Warri (NE.).
NOMI!NCLATIJU
~fore the advent of Europeans the lbo had no common name aad !illace group!
were generally referred to b t tative :liJC:atnl founder. The WUI"d
fbO l~- ~_C_f!__!!_~Cr among the peopt:athemaclve. U a term of
itlverain lbo (Oru) for their hinter ~· IUggab that tbe name
may,1lke many African tribal title., mean ~le', embodying the Sadauic root
-bo (or -po); it may also mean 'slaves', a title conferred poaibly by tbe lgala. 8JIIIJDg
whom the word for slave iB onigbo (oni meaning 'people'). Jeffreyw coaaidcn that lbo
originally meant 'forest-dwellers', and, u a secondary or derived meaniug, 'ebve.'.
Its use by Europeans in the form Heebo or Ibo appean early in the alave trade ID
refer to any lbo-spea.king groups. It wu also applied at first to tbe Ibibio wlw WCR
later distinguished as' KfDtl lbo' after the principal river in their c:onmry. TCHky tbe
name is used by the people primarily for the language, eeconclariJy for Jbo..speaking
groups other than one's own, but with reference to oneself only wbcn speaking to a
European.'
a . ,.,..... _, .. .,..~

_,"-r(Mit,.ft ~ • . ,
f•~o~B 40)

~'-""' !l•b (OS) . . . 11

S-4aa
..---· · 'd' A~• (OS), Okigw• (0\\) 21J.oa.o
o:...
S ulb. l 1, -e-
(OS)
Total -----
7.0Qo

US-i~
. . Orlu o-rri (OW) 167.6oo
=··cow>:
A._, &ack (OW)
Ahoada (RJ ss.ooa
6:o, 300

----------
JkDde, Okigw• (OW)
-1 9.soo

o,-hi {]ku, Agbor (B)

K.ak(~
hi
.
t.Jku (B), Onotsha (ON),
Total

-
J04o40Q

33.<>oo
1 9·500

~ (OW), Ahoada (R)

Total 99,1oo

Afitpo (OG) 20,JOO

Jlende, Okigwi (OW) 14,8oo
Aro (C) I,8oo
Total 36,900

Ababliki, A&po (OG)

Total

I9ZI 1931
Total for Nipri& 3o93o,o85 3,r~.sss
Narcbem Nipria ollly a,666
.
u ,796
It lbould be DOted that theee figures are unreliable, particularly those for I9JI,
when, for admiailtrative reuons, no attempt wu made to take a complete census. .
DliuJ1T OP POPULATION

Ollicial provincial estimates per square mile were: Onitsluz (1921) 306, (1931) 224;
I J~, 0,,1945·
1
I'I'OWIIUI llllllal an obbawillr.d u foUowo:
1
1~• 0••• • 14, oo, roo-, 1933, p. 70; Coz, 1931, p. 117.
.<?WJpp• ~B(O~~ Benin (B), OaoJ• (00), Calablll' (C), Warri (W), Rlvera (R).
 rill 111!>-SI't:.\KI~l:

~ hnTTI l14.! 1) zh~. ( 14ll) 1 ~-4.

PEOPLE,.; ..
Hut mth"h hia,hrr local dt:n"itin have been estimated
·or p01r1:o ol !heM prn\ I~H. ·rs.-t·.~-
. C'1'tlmat"" of boo -1,000 pcr80NII per aquare mile over
nul'h uf ()kri:ru l>i\i&ion. Pn:ftr:nt data art: not adequate to determine c\oee\y the
arC'as th;u art- lll·n~rly populated, and such areas arc often Ranked or intersected by
.>then! of much lowt:r dt'nsity.

HISTORY AND TRADITIO'SS OF ORIGIN

The I ho ha ...·e no eneral or elaborate traditions of origin or migration. The
tra auons o migration of panicu\ar groups wi\ out 1ne 1n ater aect•ona. The
power of the kin dom of Renin was probably felt amon the Weatern and Southern
I o y I e teenth century; tn t e &txteent century the Portuguese appear to ave
penetrated as far as Aroebuku
Bonny, ~]licb became one of the principal slave marketa on the coast, wu
largely peopled by Ibo. In 1790, according to Adama,' t6,ooo out of the 2.0,000
Braves SOTalhere-annuaiTy were lbo. The last Britiah alaver sailed from Bonny in
18o8, though the trade continued tilli841. By 1846 the Rev. Hope Waddell reported
that Bonny had become a flourishing centre of the palm-oil trade.
The first missions to be established in Ibo country were the C.M.S. at Onitaha in
1856 and Bishop Crowther's at Bonny in 1864. Government achoo\a were opened at
Onitsha and Owerri in ICJ06. Meek estimated the total number of profeasing Chris-
tians in Iboland in the I9JOS as not less than 6oo,ooo.
A trading station was opened at Onitsha in 1856 by Macgregor Laird, by the
United Mrican Company in 1879 and by the Royal Niger Company in 1886. The
Oil Rivers Protectorate was established at Bonny in 1889 and later extended into the
interior.
The Aro expeditionary force of 1901-2. brought under control what are now the
Bende, Owerri and Aba Divisions, but civil authority was not finally established
elsewhere until 1907. There were serious disturbances in 1914 in the Aba, Okigwi.
and -Bende areas, but since then apart from the Aba 'Women's Riota' of 192.9 dis-
orders have been slight and local.•

LANGUAGE

• Quoted by Talbot, 2, 1926, Vol. I, p. 249-

1 Meek; 2, 1937, pp. 4-15.
 14 THE 110-SPE.,Kl:'\l; t•t.lli'LF>'
il o--ri ~n«. T"ht lllftl C'Ut raJm fruu. tar and ... 11 r•lm win•· •nJ aloo pa1 111
ell wild rlw • ........., ~- In~ 11n>nw"n r...,..n·~ and ..-11 tht· ~ancls. "I'!Krc
..r Mni uod 110ft oil .,.... ..-tUch <HTrlap lang~ and ,·ultural I:>.•und.ari.,.. Tbt
Mrll oil is~ t~ W.,.; (!'Oil<rr) and Oguu (Oras.•i ri• u) and the ara
- • ~ part ol tfw w.,.; and ~rri Provincn --·hich f~d thrsc routea.
~- oitk soaprrior 80Ift ail lies mainly in lbibio <'ountry·. extending into Ab.
~ thr ml beiaig ~!N originally through Calabar. There arc subsidiary
•llllli8« ~oil.,_ in the ADamt>n (:Sorthem lbo-Onitsha-Ogru~ru) and other
- 'lllt 1.-. riw:r (Opobo and Bon.ay) ..-as inta'1mdiatc between the hard and
11ft a i l - ud ~~or soft oil, mainly the fo~r.•
l.n'a'roat .,., FISBDIC
01omt to tk ~ ol~WCBe fty there are no horses. save f<>r tho~ obtained
r. -=rific:a u-. !'olortkna and :1\onh-Eastern lho, and few cattle, apan
rr- thr W'cst Mricaa sbonbCII'Il lifted. The .Eaa and north Afikpo groups of the
At.bliti . - ud cauiD ~ in DOrth Onitsha breed dwarf cattle for expon
ID ac::Citl: amq .,_ an a small scale. The continued u~ of cassava as a ~mi­
a,., ia aaid to had to the reduction of canle beau~ they often destroy
: ; cnpa. <>- 40>-llad a yar ~through Umuahia, the centre of the Eastern
...,._ ccJt tnde, which - origiDally developed by Hausa dealen and
. . _ . IBd i a - wpa •iaed t o - eztmt by tbe Vetuiruuy Department, which
. . rtt r • t • Clllle c:ontra1 JIOIII at Umuahia.
Pilllill& is olliale importuM:e .-y &0111 the N".ger and in many ar_eas it is for-
......_ • W.. .e beliftal to embody the souls of ancestors. Game IB scan:e. •
'l'auc l.oc&L, hnalw. &NI) EnDJw. .
s- Nenbma lho, apaciallJ lbo and Baa in AbUaliki Division of OgoJa
........., ........_a Clllllidlnble :pm BUrplus for- trade. Hill rice and some forms of
....., za .. dnoelopiDc • lllhaidiary uport c:ropa in Ada and Abakaliki, as is,
ID a t..r--. rabber in the poGftl' lmd whic:b, being unsuitable for farming, is
111ft iD baiiL. Wllae dlae - fon:ata, iroko and mahogany are also exported. The
apart ol palm ail ad. lraDela &wn czrtlli.D · - ha a1rady been mentioned (see
IIIJgft).
• - do _ . ol die petty tnde which is very active, though trading by men
ia ....,_ in d.: lm ara. n-e
a.nufactu.re of pottery and its sale are nearly
m.,. a. die ...... vi-.•.
Cuaaiaa
v.-
~ np...
~ l.llllll.- tD Jbo IIDd neighbouring peoples have been used in
'?--· - ao inflated • to be valueleBB save in very ~
....... md oblau.i &am NCII'tbem N'JFria by way of the N"ager, are found in
die W-. aad &.bn ODitaba, the Nartbero Ika and moat Southern lbo areas.
Jl..;a., u.d alBo by the lbibio ud Ijaw, have been CWTeDt among some Southern
md ttn.nin gruapa. ,._ rDtls are uaed by the Eutem (er- River) 1111d North-
' ........ S. - J<:'--,_:;,19.- IM5; r..._,1 1946,
ea..a.. J -pp.8, 1946; Meet,
4&·3.
&, 1937, P. 18.
 I 5
t-:aat"'rn .:r\\Upa atht h•n- !lprr•d tn1t1 p.HU uf the Fut~rn Onitaha are-a, whe~ an
........, ...~urrC'rK~· .... ,\n!l.iMtn~ L't lmy arHI-.-.-shai""'J pit:'f..~n of iron, ia alao found.•

TB\'HNOIOGY

Thr lho h-,-e ne,·cr ~n noled, like !heir nrighbours of lknin, for artlatlc
achieH•ment in mrtal-v.-orking, hut thr ~lackamitha of Awka have lollfl been
~nownrd and iron-smithing waa formerly general. lbo wood-carving ie of high
quality and lbo ClJ"pc:nters are now found all over Nigeria, many woriir~~ in Euro-
pean style. !'.1asks, statuettes, otools, chip-carved doors and panele are nubllanding
forms. The stylized character of the masks-figure• with beak noeea, slit eyee and
thin lips-is in marked contrast to Yoruba and lbibio work. lbo chip-carvillfl ia
severely geometric:al with designa composrd of hatching, croaa-hatching, lozenges,
circles and quatrefoils. Clay statuary is also encnaivcly developed in some ueu.
Distinctive curvilineal patterns are used in body painting (u/i or un).
fo~ is made by women wherever suitable clayt1 occur. Although, gme:nlly
speaking, of poor quality, it has however reached 11 very high standard at Inyi
(Awgu Division). There is little weaving or dyeing of cotton cloth (ezcept when:
introduced or borrowed from lgala or Yoruba), no leather or beadwork or b . -
smithing, and Ibo woven basketry and raffia cloth weaving are inferior to th,_ of the
lbibio and the Cameroons tribes.•

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION AND POLITICAL STRUCTURE

l..ocAL AND KINSHIP GROUPING
The localized patrilineage ( u - ) , often ocxu~ a single hamlet of ICIItbnd
hoiii"esteada, is the biiBIC 80Ciiii wut· The saze of group indiCiied by thi8 term
vanes according to the context; it may refer to a small unit of male aibliDga and their
children which, with the wives, often colllltitutes a compound hOURbold group-
Meek's 'eUellded family' -or to larger groups, often embncing several auch tmila
related patriliDeally-Meek's 'kindred'. ColllJ!(IDCDt minor lj"CJ&&""{JmOWD inaome
areas as :>luJ) are recognized u sub-div1Sf0ns of the major lineage_ No definitive
studies to detemiine the degree and context of segmentation m me liliCage 8tr'Uc:tllre
have yet been made. When the lineage group is small it is in ·
 t6 THE IRO-SPEAKil"G PEOI'Lto~

lfisruta; t>tt.,......n ro-rrsi.kntm<'mbrrs and th<-ir "~v" are selll<"d h~-

tht· l~<·:td ol~the
b<>Wdt,,Jd. Tht- h<'~_d_('f_dl~or b~_s!t_~_l.h~Jiru-u_<",with th<' lwa.I< of sub·:-
~-- 1djudK:a~ in srri,)u~ otfrn\."'f"S invoh·ing a larger group. sUch as yam
lllnli~. •·hich is ronsidt-!Td an offen~ against AI~. the earth deity. (Sec' Religious
Bdif'fs and Cults', ~- p. ~sl
Tht- territorial and k.insbip relations brtween patrilineages are not stable O\'cr long
perio<h. :\ li~ of whaten·r scale may dissociate itself from its previous village
group (qx. ittfr•l and join anothf't'; when exogamous lineages increase considerably
in siR th<',- tend to split into inter-marrying groups. Lineages generally tend to be
~in .pairs. e.ch briDI!. distinct group only in relation to the other, i.e. col-
leterallu-ges of rh<' - branch are fused in relation to a more remote collateral
lnndt, and a small liDeag\' which leaves one village group and joins another often
fuses ..,;m an ui:sting lineage in the new group. The definition and cohesion of
~ is thus relatift and c;an only be describ~"d in terms of the wtder socuil
-Sinl~-·
A nuiDber of liDeages which may or may not claim ultimate common descent,
-'ly occupying a cluster of hamlets, constitutes a territorial unit which may be
c:allcd a ~ in the sense that there is some considerable solidarity based on
neigbbourbood and that the farmlands of the various lineages or their sub-divisions

1occupy amtiguous areas to which other sections of the villages have reversionary
rights.
A taritoriaJ. duel
'lrfii€ and 'low', is
nqpnjzatjog i e the diyjsion of villages and communities int~
also characteristic. Jeffreys reports that in Awka, Onitsha
Province, sz out of 77 communities showed some form of this. In Awka itself the
town was divided into a senior and a junior part, a low wall separating the two.
'I'IIicft InS no animosity between them, nor did they form exogamous units,
although iD other cases the dual divisions had exogamous significance. • Green's
lli:QIUIIt suggats that reciprocal social control, including coercion of offenders in
the opposite group, is an important function of dual grouping and that a balance
may be deliberately maintained between the two parts when groups develop un-
evcnl.y, so that a minor lineage may be transferred from one 'half' to another. •
.(!:or most the highest politicat unit, at least among the Northern and
, IS o g o a c uster o Vl ages s anng a
C»>IIIIIIOI meetmg p , eh is at once a ntu , po t1 an mar et1ng centre.
TlCB are OEteil eijlieSSCd in traditions of common descent, d~p1te the fact thlit
11CCn!ti0Ds &om other areas have occurred, and also in the possession of a common
ebriDe of the earth (AZ.) or other nature deity. lr_hese groups or clusters of local
CDIIIJilUIIitie are themselves sometimes organized into larger groups, again usually
a:pRII8ed through assumptions of common ancestry, the possession of a common
- - and the ~on of a senior lineage round which the wider group is be-
Mm!. to bav.: grownj Thus in the Okigwi Division of Owerri Province there is a
group of so,oao people known aa the Isu Ochi, the many local co%munities of
which aaed together only in occasional extreme circumstances, such ·as threatened
invuion, oc to lld:tle intaDal diaputes between two groups which were provoking
1 Mlllk, a, 1937, PP· 88-:1* 1 Jc&nya, 5, 194(1; Meek, op. cit., pp. 93-4·
• Gmlm, z, 194i, PP· 16, 139-45.
~t·neral tlisturhalll.:c. :\h·t·tinJ.!g \\Trc tllt"n hdll ~tt the rnmn central market under the
presidency of the !wad of tlw "cnior lim·a~<· of the !ICnior village.• On the other hand
some singk villa~es with a population of some zoo-400 were formerly autonomous
and had no common centre for cults, trade or recreation. Instances occur among the
Northan, Riverain and Southern lbo.
FoRMS OF SETTLEMENT: HousE TYPES
The t rn consists of loose clusters of homesteads
irregularly scattered alon cleared aths radiatin from a centra meetm ace of
t en e an or v , which contains the shrines and groyea of the tnc3i
e ckity or other chief spirit -anaalso serves as the market. It will be aeen that
many of the Cross Rtver groups, among whom there IS a trai:l.ition of compact
settlement. are dtvergent in this resper.
~ c:ori:lmumtLes often consist o two or more such units, each with ita own
meebog plice and radiatmg paths. Most self-conscious local communities fall
between the lnruts of 40 to 8,ooo people, and the average is about 4,soo. The home-
steads of a settlement of 5 ,ooo people may extend over an area of from one to three
square miles.. The land and homesteads along a given path (ama) are usuaUy thoae
of the men of one patrilineage, consisting, in the case of settlement by a small unit,
of male siblings and their children, or, in larger settlements, of several such groups
related pa.trilineally. This pattern of settlement has, however, broken down in con-
gested areas of continuous cultivation and has also been modified among the North-
Eastem lbo, where rapid and extensive colonization has taken place.
The homestead, comprising the houses of a man, his wives, some of his sons and
sometimes patrilineal cousins, is often surrounded by a mud wall and nearly alwaya
separated from its neighbours by undergrowth and gardens. In the north the houses
are generally mud-walled; in the south, of mud on a stick framework. They are
rectangular or circular in plan in different areas, thatched with palm leaves or grass
and ftoored with beaten mud. Each wife has her own room, kitchen and storeroom.
Small children and daughters live with their mothers.
Om (cult slaves, q.v. infra, p. zJ) in fanner times lived in separate homesteads
immediately opposite the entrance to the compound of their owners, but at the
present time they and their descendants live by themselves.
In uus of dense population this pattern has largely broken down as belts of bush
behree:n former centres have been cleared and occupied, so that all that remains
to-day is a continuous spread of homesteads and meeting places connected by a
netwarl ol paths.•
M&ui&GB
Muriage is an undertaking entered into by the close kin of the man and wife,
in particular b~eir respective lineage kin, with regard to the paternity of the
wife's cbildren woman's children belong to the linage of the man who has made,
or is lllllll:ing, ·age payments, for the payments are often made over a period of
ycus, and each of them, like the original consent of the bride's father, must be -re

B
 18 THE IBO-SPEAKING PEOPLES
iD the ~ of iiDmlen ol both parties who act as witnesses to the transaction.;
Claildzal bnm .to a W'01Da11 for whom no consent has been given or pavment made
belallf to the JiDelwe of the ~·s father and not to that of their b~getter, even
tboaJia die - . a may be Ii'flng openly with the man as if married. Most of the
Plrilge pa~ are RCIIin~ by the ~fe's ~ather, the mother's portion being
.-1 to pronde the daughter wtth domestic equtpment. Infant marriages, i.e. trana-
Rn of ~ payments, are not infrequent, but neither- 1:-.;-~..;mmation nor
~ aaion c.bs pl8ce until aftu puberty. Betrothal by gifts, which declare the
ialadioa tn make and IICXlepf marriage payments""'iiiC!'iieCOurse, is also gener:al. Girls
go iuro aeclusiou duriDg the period from first menstruation until marriage, and are
wll led ad heed Irom work, in order to achieve the plumpness expected in a
"fUIIIII bride. 'lbere is no avoidance of parents-in-law and a newly married couple
il apecred tn riait and slily with both sets of parents-in-law. The custom of mar-
riltge by sisrg' grh•QJ"' ja fpupd op.ly aporadically, e.g. among the Awarra (Western
lbo) and aome northern communities bordering the Okpoto.
Minor~ are always exogamous, but major lineages where dispersed are not

f inftriably ao. On the other hand there appears to be a tendency to village exogamy
alleDding OCCISionaUy to an entire village group.
Adoltery, loose character, laziness, sterility, witchcraft, cruelty and desertion may
be JBide the grounds of divorce by either party, and a wife could leave a husband
wllo was a thief or became an OIU (cult slave). But extreme incompatibility appears to
be the mast COIDIDOD motive for returning or demanding the return of the marriage
~- 'Whcft a wife for no specific reason refuses to remain with her husband,
· be is gaJCI2IJy regarded as entitled to fuU refund, but the amount payable is usually
.redallrd if the woman has borne children, and often repayment could not be
llei:IIFed mttil the WOIIIliD remarried. H failure to produce children is considered to
be the husband's &ult, the wife may be encouraged to go to another man; if the wife
il tboogbt tu be barrm, she or her relatives may be required to provide the marriage
JIIYDirDl for IIDOI:her wife. Alternatively she may adopt a stolen baby or the child of a
miBtn:ss of her husband.
Clam!earine extra-marital sex relations are very general and spouses are usually
ellpCUed !D ignore such a1fairs. Sexual relations between husband and wife are for-
biddaJ during the nliRing period of 2-3 years, and among the Southern and
Northeru groups men umaUy bring a mistress (IM) to the compound if they are not
in a poaition to marry again. The wife often has a hand in selecting such an iko and
1mB with her amicably.•
Acm SJrrs
the Cross River groups and are more

=-
·~~~·J::s;;;:~•v•s. P· 240; Leith-Roa, 3, •.9:4i• pp. 97, ••s; Jouea, 9,
IDlOIJI the an>upo with malrilinal deacont iD the Crou
 , 11r. t u\1-;-,1'1~1\KIN(; PEOPL'ES
to 1H. 'l'lu:rc an· t·lahoratc ccrt·munic!\ for the initiation of boya among the Ada.
(Cro~ J.!~y~·rll.!roup, hul ~~lscwhcrc there arc no special rituals apart from thoae
cOnrlcctcd with t·ntry into th~ Mm_, or Olber ·alfnilar-8ociet1e8 aDd memberahip of the
Udo cult, in lhc Nsukka Division.• (Seep. 35 below)
Age sets perform ruhlic duties -dear_ing E!atha, ~utti~ fo~eats, act~~~T-~1..
police and guarding the scttlem~nt In ti!'le oi wa!, 'niey also provide mutu~l he!P
and e?'er_cis_e_ Q!~~i.P.l~~-e ovu. ~ir own members jn cuea o( mi&bell~viQU_!_._-Affiong
thC Cross River groups several sets composed of the more mature adult males act aa
police and executive agents of the council of elders, enforcing penalties in caaea of
stealing and impious offences, and collecting fines. They may also demand the
passing of new laws.
\Y9men are similarly organized into_a~st:I.Lin..lh& Crgu. Rinr and ~~~~U~e.other
area8. They subscribe to a common fund for mutual assistance and can hold meet-
ings to draw the attention of the elders to their complaints. But elsewhere there are
only informal age sets among women before marriage and their later associations are
formed on a territorial or on a natal lineage basis.
AsSOCIATIONS: TITLE SOCIETIES'
The social status of men, and to some extent of women is
to c they have attained and the times at which these were conferred. 1'~
essential qualifications are free birth and the-ability to make the necesSa.ry_p.~~nts,
but good conduct 1s alsorequirea.-'l'Jtles are 6oth an expreilion ofw~l!h and a
ineans o£ exercisi~t!ii PQ~~~t-c!)!!f~ri. Where titles are graded in presti_geJ_~ri!ic /
lege and ritual status they_!'!~ormally be-taken m proper-order:ln genetil a man
may not, during his father's lifetime, take a_ titl~ ~e~at toorhl.gher thaii-oneiieiQDy-
lii_!. f?-!her. The range of ·titles and the conditions of"aih:iiission, including the fees
payable, ·vary. from community to community in different areas. While some in-
ferior titles can be inherited, the more important become vacant on the death of the
holder.
0-dmission to titles and to associations of title-holders is by appropriate paymentB
in cash and kind, and by the provision of feasts. Where membership is graded, pay-
ments are scaled accordingly, and only those who reach the highest grade have full
status in the association. Titled men (Ndi N:n) in the past virtually monopolized
authority in their village group. The making of major political decisions and the
administration of criminal justice were carried out at public meetings, at which all
the adult males of the community had a right to expRill their opinions, and the
decisions agreed upon were ratified and ritually imposed by the Hneage heada. ID
fact, the initiative, including the formulation of policy and the debate in the public
meetings, was controlled by the leading members of the title society, who dis-
CUBSed affairs at their society meeting& and secured the support of other title-
holdera.:J
1 Meek, :a, 1937, pp. 197-:101.
1To be cliatiaguiahod from liqle tid• givm by the commllllity to partil:ular ......W. peo.a ia
ntum for publicpaymmlll md the prcm.ion of hub, e.g. the BD tide •louad ill~....._
(Nortbem Ibo), Hone Tides amona the North-Eastem Ibo ond .,me"':"~ ol Nonloom lbo.
Am0111 tbe Orana-lll:wuri (Soutban lbo), wben~ there ia no formol • • - , ..-...,-
milht be lP_, the honorific tide of 0,.......,.. (Bill Mm).
 Er ittr Htn~ rhHI';l~·'T~lta•rr·
tlilftti
_•h!r,,.·t I f.ftllJb[tl
r l Fhlltl ,,hlli··~··J
1 i ~~n,!:• JLuHHP
I r!h. i' 'litl!J ~~~·
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.: it·flt ~l fi·I·I ~1ll···rt~r·, ir! ~
r r - ~ tl[ l r l I' . n;
1
~~ fi.H•Ul r U• t]1hfu ta 1 h·~! · lh~! !!i~HHH1
,. . • t r .··(' ! t f l

;;- a.ILa.-ifi
:itdtd f 1Hi 111 h •
! itif!a/f
1 l'[lin·hi
J ttg.a t~"f r a.lrl tn [h~
ti~hi HH rHH
tf'~H !r ~ i • b,
ti!lfJ i flt· ru:(~-t 'JHt~ ·!~~ !h~~;
•.,r-I.J(~t.
r f I J [111r•ru
1. a.J I.tr.{ Irhl<li
I I J l hrJ.J
11
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t~fr[a.&ll !.,J.. fn~
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 11

~·"- ~-tt • kgol •r-~m and ·~th·t'lrnfl"f ':!__~•ll_ll!_onD_IOnM ID all.....__

htr• '~" " an•· dtmn"ll ,f d•l\lbt_,
• ~;.,;1;;;..-;1",1ci.---all;Ctta"t"h;- ~;~mmunn:r requir~ IM ~ rA tht C"Offtllruaity
conorr~d U tlpr......-ci 11 I publiC I"Dn'tlnt,' "lwn !h. had b.m obuoned by
.,cc brna U<,n I ht la"' had I 0 b. ra11 f>< d by I~ ddotn, In perticul.ar tbt ritual beacll of
taoCb n>aJ'-'t" ~~~ Each ArudJ. hu 7/> <>n IM JfOUnd IO lft'l'~ lk aDCtioD of dw
hor-a«• anc~on. But ..,mt pubhc •.lfdtn wne made ..-rtboul any rdigi<Jul IOIDC-
1;oM . .-\nag-. ad or gToup rA age ad• took tht lnitialiwe iD ~.DC ...eh oo-den.
Thua. if au-aling waa on IM increu<t, they would meet and comider nwwc: .... ue
ptna!ties; an~· dteiaions would b. announced 10 and po-omulpud by lbr ddcn.
llula of parucu.lar -.ociniom wnc: made: bi.odi.nc oo thr:U ~~~oembcn by lbr
,...-dring of a c:ommoa oath.
W omm '• -utioaa apraa their disappron.l and aecun their clrmaDda by
colkctin public dcWdtlatiooa including ridicule:, &atiric:al aingi.nc and damnr
and group ltrikes.
But among 110m<: groupe, aa •·ould appear from <11-eeo'a acqJU.Dt oflbr ri11agoe of
UmuR£ iD lbr Isu-Ama group of Soatbenl lbo, the -=wing of public~ aad
justice ia marked by a bigb degree of informality; 'clifferaJiiatal judicial •••i••••.._
cm hardly yet be said to bave emagai' Tbere is a ~ for the patia CDD-
cerued to eeule mma. amoog t~JemK~va rather tbaD briag tbaa fonaaOy before a
body of eJden. I
(JQDJUTAJIICE
RigbtB and property held by virtue of an~ to the .--.i!ZJ..the
~to the &aaliiiip 01 tlliC illlJthMIC" the ib aod ocba- :_____:_ 01
. I'be major &bare ~ pmpcrtY obaiDed by ~.gilt or par-
Cliiie ia ummteil bY tiX son. who at the - time . _ . _ I'C!pODiiblc fg-
the wel&ie Of hi8 YOIIIIIF brotben. H the ddalt . - is a miDor, a p.rengl brcJdi£r ol
tlii &aaiiil Will UiiUiiJj i& ClliUge" of tble propc:riJ iiiil iiiilit jii'Oil& for lfiC ~
:md marriage of his de:c.eased bl-otba-'e 110118. ID - area-in Amicbi in Ooibba
DivisiDo, for iawaaoce a man may appoiol guardiaas ol his infmt c:hildraa wilD
oeed DOt be member. of his lineage. W"ulowe may become the
wrra olbnJIIMD of
the clt:.cnsed, or, in some loc:alities, of his 110118 by aDOtha- wife.
A mao may tiOIDetimes malic an oral will, • at Azui£bo in Oaiaaba Dirilioa, bat
be may diepoec in this way only of Jll"operty obbioed .m-gh his cnrn a.ertioas, oat
of inherited Jll"operty-.

l....uCD 'I'DnJJm
At the psaeutday ...... ~-CIDIIb"OIIed by~ ofkinsmal----
~e inhe:rited the ..m&liifol ~ tradli
::::::tiaiied l:mde, grotrell _...uunding ~ ·...a bash', etl:.......-JZ:- rar
m: m
IDiiD8IIy !I me !'1113ji. Wba'e iriidii......,.,
bU8b ie bnJIIgilt iniD c:ull:iw-... bi iLe

:=
a:U-GjkUbwe work of a kin group, the lllleiDba1l aud their ~ h • are :ollaallll
portiDae according to their acmority. wbeD the llmd ill r-ecaJtmlal afta- a ~-

!p~~ ~ :.-'~ -;.~ ~~~ o-. :a. ..... pp.._-" J - . ... -

 . fall,'"·""},(-" land·~,·~,,, a.--qui...-d by OM prnron, whilt ultirrurt<" common
n,:hts aTT h.-Id t-~· hj,: ,b.,..ndants, tht usufn.rct is pn-manently assigned to in.
di•;daab: at r~ timr eo( thtir inhtriran......
Pt..."1i.:all.•· all JIC'"' personal rights t<>-Ja~· ..,... obtainrd by !leCUring pl<"dg<"d land
« t-~ run·tr-. ~ng.of land is a gt-Mnl practi~ among the Southern Ibo.
Riplts in pi~ land ~ inherited and ma~· be re-pkdgN to a third person. If
land i!: 1101 Krualry· ~med by the third gt-IIC'ration, the rights of the pledger's
~dants cannot usually be substantiated, some Nati•·e Courts holding that the
.;r.ttw occupiers~ those who haft be-en in occupation for the past generation. In
this ..-a~·~ land ,_,s into the bands of the pledgee's descendants. At Uberu,
in .-\!ikpo Di..-isioo, a man obuining land or palm-uees on pledge in exchange for a
loan is also allo"ftd to eDCt intenst on the loan. What is known as the 'kola' tenancy
~. •-herd~~· the teuant, usually a stranger, makes a token payment of a kola
whicb gi~ him a permanent right to occupy land, subject to certain restrictions
regarding ~on. ia found mostly round Onitsha; modifications of this sys-
tao ~ in otba- areas, particularly the Oboba villages bordering the Otamini
~ in OII'CITi Division. In early days the only payment was the ceremonial giving
of kola.
Alimatioo by outright sale of land is permitted in certain very closely settled
areas. It is reported as publicly recognized in Onitsha Town, the Agbaja group in
Nnewi, the Ogba group in Aboada, the Ndokki group in Aba, the lbeku group in
Bcudr,andc:ertain parts of Awka,andisprobablydevelopingelsewhere. Sales also take
place, but ~ not legally protected, among the Edomani in Onitsha Division, the
Ngwa in Aba Division, and among some of the Oboba in Owerri Division. Where
rights of purchase cannot be enforced in the courts a IDBD wishing to acquire land
from non-kin, with reasonable certainty of indefinite retention by himself and his
Jescrudants, may aalepl it on pledge for a sum in excess of the local pledge value of
such land; there is then little risk that the original holder or his heirs will seek to
redeem it.
Short term transfers, usually for one farming season, are widely effected forannual
rentals-nominal between members of the same hamlet, but for substantial cash
J:liiYIIII=Ill: on the part of strangers. Leases on the English model, for a fixed term of
yean with annual rentals, are reported only in and around Onitsha, but indefinite
leases with annual rentals are more widespread, especially around Onitsha, the
Diobu area north of Port Harcourt and along the Nigerian Eastern Railway in Aba
Division. Leases are also given for rubber plantstiona in Aboh Division, Warri
Province, to strangers from the Sapele and Warri areas. Annual farming leases are
widespread in localities contiguous to over-farmed areas. Men from Awka Division
aecure farms in this way in the north and west of Onitsha Division. 'Shown land',
which is land tempormily occupied by a stranger who makes a varying return in
kind, is fonnd around Onitsba, Nnewi, Amagunze (Nkalu District, Udi Division),
Acbi in Awgu Division, Akaeze in Afikpo Division, Umuahia in Bende Division
and Mbano in Okigwi. In the Ngwa group in Aba, short term money loans are
backed by the security of the borrower's land. But mortgage in respect of house
property only is reported in Onitsba, Enugu, Aba and Port Harcourt.
Women DDnDally gsrclK no ind;pepclent rigbta to land but a wife, ao long as
sh<- hdJ"' tll farm h~rhuoband's 1~11. haa a ri£hllo llllllt£.lo.LhcrJl\V!l_Cro_p_o~'- Women
f!Uy:-no;,.c~,~n, ~-·q.:.;r-,: control ov~r land
outoidt marriaRe by providing money for
purcha.ot or by l<'curing pltdgtd land through a male proxy.\
Matrilint~l inh.-ri'.!!'~ o!._ land _is ro~~c:li_n Afikpo, Edilii, Unwana, Amaseri,
Okpoha and Enna groups In Alil<po TIIvision, and among the Ohaffia and Abiriba
2J

,
in Bende Division.
In gentral, rights over productive tre.-s do not paaa automatically with land rights,
and when land is transferred trees are often allocated separately. A man may thus
have rights over trees on another man'sland. The position with regard to permanent
crops on pledged land is generally a matter of special arrangement between pledger
and pledgee. The situation in the Nike group, north of Enugu, which occupies an
area of some so square miles and has a density of less than so to the square mile, is
quite exceptional. Apart from kitchen gardens they do not farm at all, nor do they
climb palm-trees; in consequence land has little economic value and problems of
tenure have not arisen.
In general it is in Onitsha Town, and the area extending for 2 s to JO miles
around it to the north, east and south, which has had the longest contact with Euro-
peans, that the old systems of land tenure are most rapidly changing.•
SLAVERY

There is no open domestic or chattel slsvery to-day, nor, save in a few exce -
tio areas e.g. ara, among the Nort em o , oea ave on
extreme soct enonty. ves were ormer y secured rom outside the local and
lineage group and were often persons sold on account of delinquency or abonnality,
e.g. incorrigible boys, persistent debtors and abnormal children. But they also in-
cluded victims of political intrigue and the Long Juju, while unprotected strangers
and children were sometimes kidnapped.
Slsves in domestic servitude and their descendants were often absorbed into their
masters' lineages. l'hey worked as labourers on their owners' compounds and farms,
but were eventually given land to farm for themselves. To acquire alsves was a very
general means of displsying wealth. On the other hand it was possible for an able
slsve to gain and retain considerable wealth. Slaves could not, however, many
free persons nor take part in councils. They could be offered as sacrifices and were
often killed at the death of an important freeman. They could also be substituted for
their master if he was punished for a crime entailing the death penalty.
Osu, commonly known as 'cult slaves', but more exactly to be described as
dedicated and taboo persons, are sharply distinguished from domestic alsves,
although the Istter were liable to be dedicated as o.ru. An o.ru is .one who has been
bought and dedicated to the service of his owner's cult or the similsrly dedicated
descendant of such a person. Such a person cannot be redeemed, and is both feared
and despised. No freeborn person would marry an o.ru.• Their economic and legal
disabilities were slight, but they were ostracized while an ohv was 'not.

1 Chubb. 1948; Green, 1, 1941; Harria, J, •943 11nd 6; Jouea, 9.. 1945, 11, 1949; Meek. a. ·~
pp. 100-4i 5, 1946. p. z98; Field, a, 1945·
a Harria. a, 19Pi Meek, a, 1937, P· 30f..
 raWNIN<;

·' man 111 .......d ,., rnonrl '"'"'1,1 plr,t,rt- lunuw·lt, tua , hllthc·u ,,, 1.1 .. ~·•u11 1 ,,
bftlf._..nIV AlltrA u ....,_.,UU\ hw a t... n, ••• I•• l'•t a ,Jrht 'l'hr I'•"11 I la• n f,,., •uar ..
drp.-odrrnl In h11 n\Uh"''• huuwhui.J unul thr tlrht wa• 1rpahl I I•• ••• "'••·• v..r,,
n"'JIIhlniaihrln,t 1n1hr nalurr••l.mtru·•••m lhr .tdu, thr pr•••m nul ltriiiM lrlr•IIM•I
Urtllllhc- ···ra••l ...''"'r•hJ A
acnl _ .... '-'11111 1\4&\\llrtl 11111(111 hrt.ulllr llu· ~llr uf.
awmlwf o( hrr maetrr'e houwhul", thr t.htlrrrnrr hriMrrrn tlu· IUIIIIIIII(r p•~•11•111
aad th< 1muun1 ultht lnan brtlljl •.JjuottJ '

MT&TI'• <If WOMIN

C-dt-Rbk C'OIIIrol ........, women 11 Urrn.. oJ hy thrir UWII lllllt'IIIIUIIo llld
<'CIO&m, Uld u dary lafrly <'OIItrol thr (uod 1uppliro I hey,.• ,. onlln•n•·• thr mrn onol
briac tbr ouetiOM ol te.a1to uc.tral •pirilltu brar "I""' thrm. Wmnrn woll olou
, _ , '" llrika, ridicule UHl cuni111 i( thry have nu (urmal rn~ana ul fllllllllfllhtir
· mda. 'Thr wicl.pn!ed riat1 ol 19J9 will lun1 11and 11 an namplr nf thr unioy,
,.,_ Uld dftl'l'ltlioation which lbu women can di•play.•

SOME OTHER CULTURAL FEATUJtEH

Ca&ucnaunc V .u.u•
'nil lbo are ...-ny held to be tolonnt, uhra-clemocra!lc and hi1hly individual-
a. T'bcy diaJib IUid IIIAp«lany form of oator11111ovornmcnt and authority. Th11y
._,. •lltnllllly deveLoped CODUDCrciiiiCIIIIC and 1 practical unromen!lc approach to
lit&.
APnwJia AND 0...
Upper IUid .motiiiiCIIlower inciaon an filed and rod cam wood 11 uaod 11 a body
dye; tribal awb, which ere now dyln1 out, vary accordin1 to the diatrlct, and·
.-nlly include a diq0111lp1h on CIICh chook.
Bath aeua WOII' 1 loincloth 1Nl nwrled women 1 cloth 1klrt fuu.nad round the
W1i1t 1W1 reacbi.nito the lr.ua. Spiral briCCIJeu and anklott 11'1 worn. Elaborau.
ltyla of lllirdreuln1 ere edopted by Ibo women.•
B1m1
A child illllllllld by the head of the houlehold In 1 ceremony held at varyln1
et... after the doUv"f. Tb4 period of lactation !uti about two yoart, 1ome ehlldron
IMil beiqwCIIMd until they uo tbroo and 1 half year• old. Clrcumeillon and elltorl-
dectomy uo perfonDad four eo twelve day• alter birth. Twlnaareaonarally roaardod
wldl far 11114 In fonur diiiCII were dmroyld, but at Enup-EIIka In N1ukka
Di.won they Ul COIIIiderld lucky.'

: ~· •• ,,,, p. lOll lludon, ,, •.,., p .• .,.

ell., I!P· 169, 101 fl. 11 Pllfllm.
1 1-.
1 · - · ap.
e, 19+11 T•lloo!, 1os6, VoL 11, pp. J91 If,
Mllll, ... Oil., pp, 101 11.
 I Ill 11 11 I I 11 q

I I I 1111 11 Il l I I'" I

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lllt ll l tt ,, j w l 111
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lllill .dJi y ltl l d Utlllt d iiiJ' ) y I IHIII !il l) 1) 11 11 101 11 1 JIII HI I Iioii i •II•H III I ll d itt pll l • • ~~~ ,f
t 1 ll• u•' ti ll tn uu HI• , lj l d' "' I' I "" J·~· I'' II " ' "' " 'K • tt l• .dtt t~ hu "' l" ' 'dtJ• l11 1 ,,dult• 1 y 4411 d
J{ I VII IH hull1 ' " I W III h 11 1 u l llt•H tr u d 'luldt ' 11 •" ' ~·11 llfffii" H IIJ~" III ta i A/If J .. •w• .,,,
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,.,,d ti t• 11111 111 Al~< t i1 ' W' ''' ,J,,
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tt l"''~~' ''" /1/, f ttlu ull'l 1 ~; f,,llod HI' ,,, J, vdl r•w , ''"" ·' , 11 l •o In th• '' ''~'"·' ' •'n '"'
vdl uw •Jf tiH v d "•J{~ · 1-< ''Hll' '11 qtJu' wJdt' ' ' H•tll;llnn y J'ul ;ll• '"' tt ~·•· P' rl•nH•'d .11
VU JifJII ~ ~ I UW ' t\ nf tJJ, f.,tJIIIII IJ, ' y ~J, '111d W ll'' ll' V'I lf iV IIIHIIUI d111 Hli - f• l llilllf Jll
dlf d ll t'l Jlt f d f 11 " '~lilt ffHiiHIIIIIIII• b ~~ ti11Jd Jtj f , iiiOdJ y Jul l tH I III',j lq /1/tt Wh'lf 1.1
utllttl l u~ nld UJH I pt 1 I:H Ill' d ttl '''' ~ ~~~ '''' 11f !Ill 101• l' tt HH Ji :dt• 1 '1diiH V. 11 4 j,, W,, ~,,, ll 1'
A!~ 1 uu · ti 1 H 'll' dt ~ ' w "I''"Ji'''' ·''"'J•w uV;··~ ·u ·•'' '' · dll y nd ,, ,,,,,,. q,J.- . tldl ,t
dt v iu ld l ••fl lt1Jt lllc Jt jiH ti llgr ''Ill '' .li t; ''J d• Jl' rJd ''•Htsidt Hd tl y 'H I th, jl' l ti' lh l1t y , ,f
''" olJJI IJ•;Id• I . !IHd tl u j , ~ l oflll tJ v.Hina w ldt ly ,,,,,,I ''""''""" Y ,, ' , , , , ,IIII I II Y , ,.
j

ti O!Il• 11 ir; '"'JI'''t uul 1 IIIIIJWH d Will• tiJ 11 ,,f 111ft uw lt• .ul 111 urul/ ''' 11th J•r;J,J, 1 4 A /,
JH in; l t'l " ·•V' ' JII Ifb l jiJdll w lftlfll d•,Ji tt , oiiiiiiJ ,J. Jll' tsJd• tll ti ,,, fill I tfo g a J,, Id,, d•' ""
H• I ltlllti dHsJitllt •tj Ulld t b jJI'It .df y I .i f't l t; lif IIIIJiliiiH\ 1,jft111 t:, \
t f iiiiJf 1 ''IH'i ft- tttSl 1 bJIJI fl tt '''' l l iJJI 4 l V I d 'HI -. uJ tlif dJJHdl ll1 /1/1': ., fJI Jtl b •tf W,.l lt ; :.&lid

fHIJJJ ti, Jl' , ~, ,dft• ·:tiJIHi t; nf lwi•IIJ• 1 dt b llll Y rid w• .JitiJ , ' '" l1 {t ti At ,lm , t •J V• I 1111 11
J}llilt l ll,, IJI YIIIJI ~ ' J'IJIIf H lf lliiiJiflfjii C':i utili I flrtll hyb pirlht
' J'J,, tllll f·b ii JI I'I (Ntlu ht~<) , w ho " '' ~d ti'l 11HdJ 1 tiH '•Hilt'll 1,1 AI", '1 '' ' l1•, "'V.'" ''·
lll'i g u:il di!tJJ • /Jr ,,,,, ill itYJ ,,f wJJi, ,, ""Y ,}; J'~H 1111 , r, rilfl I Oc. lquf rt H• Y J,, , I V·• ' ,J, d • 1
Ju,·r,,f, ' 11111 j,,,,d {.' J/tpnrn)• 1l , ,HIJ b oiJiirti ,J~• . 111 l) w' ' ' ' • f,o ' "·''" Ji f• , '•W' 1,,
Ulli)Jtllit y J.u gd y l i t Jil tl 11JJ1 Uti fiJt ''JIII b tJJI IIIIVI ltiHf illliitll!JJI•U Hf tJi ; Jllt' ,.H
 ..
~ ~~ t-y ~ ~ sntr pfA Sacritkn t'' the anCC'Sion
tl&ft.d pm..-.b..'lll~- aDd •hmr--n- a di•-iner so indicakS. •
Priest!. <ti ~ .:uh$ aho ha~ aD ;,p. which is tM means of rommuniarioc -n:
W drity ,.. spm .00 IS abc> hc-IJ tt> ~nt those who f~rl~- rninist ..rr-d to tl.
~; * .f.• may~ idalti6td with~ rrincipk of truth ADd justi~. and ic lllllc•
rr-I'S oath!: ~ ~..,.. oo it. ·
\ la .uy ~~sprits~ imper!>Onated by a group of mask..d mm in tho
l Jl., ~ which ..,._.-s ill public at kstivals aDd celebrations of fuD<'1'1..1 rites
'i 'J1K ~ of~ ~ -:r aot be seen or known by women. It has certain judicial
fattiom, such E 6pftq an~ from her husband's house, and couJG
~ orO:s- ~ ~ ol..-itcbaaft to undergo trial by ordeal. (se .. 'Leg.J
\~·.,....,
Melt lbo @~'MPS ~ that -=ry buman being bas a genius or spiritual ~
' . _ _ .s llis di, .t.icla is -=iatrd with bim from the moment of coooeption, tu
; ~ llisllbililits, r.b ad good m lad fortuoc are ascribed, aDd into whose~
I is .-r.-d me f1lllilmcBt o1 the destiDy which c,._ bas prescribed. Mtu mar.
\ riiF • tllr: binll fila c:bild a person estabtisbes a cult for his or her clri, building a
. - - at ftida SKrifices fur assistaDce iD achieving desi.red ends are offered. ~
\ . . . empbasis flldae di calt is Oil futility-
T'llr beW ia dR n:iDcamation of decascd persoDS is genenJ and prominent,
wllilr: i a - -dic:n: is also belief in the inc:amatioo ollocal spirits in childrea.

t
NMift dDaars (.&ia • a.) use babal remedies and magical techniques b
Ill£ , _ . . . rl. spBila. '~'hey also prw:tise IDIIgicaJ diviDatioo. Their profession is
lqdJ ltaaila), . . . . . -
llr: atuipias falma a tNi•
ftiCI"'Iits are fvuod in boys in whom a tlibill ~
tiMa: of motbea' deceased tlilli4.
Oaxlcs 1ft sllrB:s at wbidt ~caD be made to a god and respooses obtained
a6m ........, c6:riBga; they wrft formerly used ezleDSively as a means ol
' ~ liaplb::s aDd aedl:iag divine • noe They, like the more important title
.....-., ilaft: beeD aa eh::tPe aaeaDS of integntiDg local 001i1111tlDitie. (see 'Legal
· ~·,...,..._)&-,tie the oracle of Ci1rA. at Arocbuku, the oracle ol Ir-M
Ala at u-.aba aDd ol ~at Awb. achieftd widespftsd fame; but theft lftR
..., a!Bge ~ ollllliilc. oncles with local clienteles. Veoality, c:orTUptioo and
tllr: high fees fll the onde prials favoured the wealthy and po-werful, but it is
ewidalt dlat t11r: eitwlatiaa of ondea sho-.1 skill in sifting evidence, as well
•--= i&paliio&y aad recnpitirm of public opioioD. Local agents receiftd fees for
. . . . - gaides aDd ..m-. of appellaDts and farther paj'IDC:IItll for the serricee
\ .. tllr: god- a.k .. pledged at the sbriae.
Wm:::lllaan DID ~
\Wia wildw:nft aad ....,-is Wiiip&iaaively atipt •-..: a...-g the Westeru
..... aad ..... tllr: 8IIUlbaB aad--- bonlera wher-e it .... spread &om oeigh-

....... tiDBJNo ..............,

ba.iac atadies ollbo wildacnft bne Jet been made.. •

'l"hae _,....,local ........... iD ...... riaa. Grne burial, - geD<'I'Il) far all
a ......_ .. llln. PP. _..,. ~ .,.,., VaL 11, p. au. '
 .,
••!' f~''m<"rh a~-~.·~,r~h·~..t ,,nl~ h~ thf' a~"TJ ,,, tth'M' ,,f l'o...·ial impurtantt, tht- bodie-1 o(
~"\'Un~r JV ..•plC' ~m~ thfl'l\\n tnhl thr ·~aJ ~uf'h'.
l"us.t . •m.t.r~ ''.t.dm~ ,,ftc"n ~~~n~ ~ft'U' drath. Tht' "'"r-' is pn'p&rt'd for burial
~~- has ft·nu.lt· r('l.ati'" ,,, ~~- mrm~n o( his~ wt. A man 11 ~t'nt'rally burird
~nc-ath the.· ri.,"". . r l'l( ht~ hut or ~o7omround. \\'idou., &rC' uaua11y !ll('(')udrd for one
nll'nth .t.nJ art $uhjfi"1td tl' various taboos. h is beliC'\'t'd that thC' 11pirit of tht' dnd
r<"'$'"'" "a.nJ<on •~our rc·sdns and homt'le"SS until tht' final monuary ritn, 'SC"COnd
~urial'. &T«' pc-rform('J., SC"\'C'ral mt."nths or C'\'C'n y~Nn ahC'r the dnth. If thnr rite
•~ too Ion~ Jdnt'J.. th< an~r of th< J<eeu<d's spirit is b<li<vt'd to malr.< itorlf felt
through mishaps to th< famil~·.
In Ow<rri. according to L<ith-Ross, th< religious asp<et of th< oecond burial ia
kss inlportant than it is in Onitsha, but •~rywb<r< it oerves to """"" or enhance
th< prestige of the dead penon's kin.•

• Mm. a. ao17. pp. J06-•..: l..eith-R.... a. 1939. p. au.

 PART Il
1. NORTHERN IBO

TRIB.~L .~SO SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

LocAnoH
ODicsba Province and the northern part of the Okigwi Division of Owerrj
l'nlviDce.
A/>lm>%i'l'fiQ,. numb.,-
Jl-~ of m:tive adult maiG
(1935-40)
l•) W...-a ..- Nri-Awb Onitaba, Awka (ON) ''5-400
••> E.tl:na ... nap
(c) Oaialla Towa
Nsulla, Udi, Awka (ON), Okigwi (OW)
Ooioha (ON)
213,000
,,000

335-400

Tbe bulk af the population occupies the high ground on two ridges which run
ruagbly north and south across the area. The Onitsha-Awka area, on and to the
wat af the wt:IIE1I ridge, ia the most denselytpulated. The vaiiey of the Anambra
a_. to the north acems to have been unpeop ed unbi recently and contains only
IIIIJIII groups of eettlers of miud lbo and Igala origin. The low-lying area between
the ridges and the flanks of the plains to the east has been peopled by settlers
sprau1ing &om the eastern ridge. During the last fifty to a hundred years Aro
&om the Eastern (Cross River) area have also settled in the lowlands between the
ridges, now forming the Ujalli group of Ndienyi (Nri-Awka) and the Ndizorgu
groap of Elugn (q.v.).
The geographical distribution and regional characteristics of the many !!!!!!'
groap1 into which the Northern Ibo may be divided can be summarized as follows,
in tama of the map anti the tables given below (pp. Jo--'7):
I. WI!STI!KN UPLANDS, contains the most distinctive early cultural centre of the
Northern lbo in the Nri-Amka area (Western group ro, 11, 12, IJ, 1-4) with an
elaborately developed :Jr~ title system later expanding southward to the Agulu
(Wc::stem group IC), :zo, 2I) and !SVDfoz areas (Western group 22, 23, 2-4, 25, 26).
11. ONrriiBA Lowl..ums, an area of early westward expansion from I to the low-
lmda of the Niger valley (Western group rs, r6, I7, I8).
ni. M.AJIIIIIIU. VALJ..EY, an area of recent peripheral expansion northwards from I,
occupied by Western group I, 2, J, -4, s. 6, and Eastern (Elugu) group I.
IV. Nlii!Wl Dllmucr, also colonized &om I by large village groups with a war-
liJJe reputation in the past (West.em group 27, 28, 29, 30).
V. EairniBN UPUMDB (northern section), an early and possibly independent area of
ICttlemco1 with its focus at or near Nmkka, now occupied by Eastern (Elugu)
group 2-IJ and IS-18. The northern part was over-run and culturally modified
by the Igllla and haa an elaborate political atructure including a title system and
 I 111' IIH'-~1'1·.. \1\.1~(; PEOPLE:-;
titular "ll•~c h<"a.Uhip (f:u). The •outh came nnclu Nri-Awlta inRuence and
1dor'h"ti a simrlcr \'t·rRinn of tht· :J2.J title "YRtcm.
\"I. EA.<TFMS l' I' LA NU' (•outh.-rn ocction), occupi<:cl hy numerous omall and
isolat.-.1 ,::ruups with liule external contact and no title ayotem; Eaatern (E/ugu)
group rt,~, lO, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, and WeRicrn group 32.
\'11. EASTHRS PLAINS (oouthcrn acction, southern Nkanu), colonized from the
Eastern Uplands to the weat, mainly from the southern eection and Abaja Udi;
occupied by Eastern group 21, 24, z;, 29, 32, 33, J4, 35, 36-40.
VIII. E.-.sTERN PLAINS (northern aection, northern Nkanu), isolated and under-
populated, colonized mainly from the Eastern Uplands; occupied by Eaetern
group 14, JO, 31.
IX. Not ENYI, a low-lying but broken area in the central lowland to the west of
the eastern ridge, occupied fairly recently by Aro from the Crou River region.
X. IMo RIVI!R HEADWATERS (Ndizorgu), an area of broken country to the south of
IX, the higher ground occupied by Eastern group 25, 26, and some northern [m
(Southern lbo) villages, the rest more recently occupied by Aro immigrants,
Eastern group 28.
XI. ONITSHA ToWN, probably eettled from the Western Uplands, which it still
resembles in many features, being an intermediary with the Uplands in the
Niger trade. Early contacts with the Edo (Benin) peoples west of the Niger and
modern commercial developments have led to special features, and it haa now
become a centre of Westernized cultural development among the Northern lbo.•

LANGUAGE

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

The main aubai.etence is ~am ~ Only in a few areas does a combination af

good land and low population denaity make yam growing for ezport feuible, e.g.
Ikem, Eluz,__,., Ofemili and Nike. Some surplus in palm oil and kemela ill shipped
out from Onitaha along the Niger, from the ADimbra nver and frum po1ida up and
down the railway from Nomeh and Agbani (Akpugo). Palm. wine w~ pre-

lated areaa augrates r abort J)CI'iOd!, th~ m the n _

pop::=
pared from the oil-palm u the ~,.. a.ifera) is not abundant in this rqpon.
!' llli'ge tiU! un:::;priji011ion of the male die aeDiiaj' popu-
WOitillll• +M
·~9.·-
 ..
TABLE I

... ~ ~~ ..
(A) WES1'EIN 01 NRJ-AWKA

....
.--..
,.,.,.,...,-!'-'
""'-- ,.,.,
"' ll&fiiN aJub
.... ( "~1J- 40)
Poii~WA
DW.Ioo

.. u.....,.
L~ T
..
I +floo (.lnillllg

.......
J. u_.

.......
J.O...
ST
G

G
3
5
z,ooo
1,200
1,500 .
,......
G 3 8oo Atrka
G /loo
.'
I
YG 1,200 "
··~
"
.......
f. U

u. Map.
I I I
ST
ST
T
T 3
I
,,100
Z,7f»
l,ofOO
Onirllll
Awb
,
aa. u-. (Jiri) n
z I ,loo ,
IJ. . . . . . . (Awb)
'+- .......
G
G
•I
4,.fOO
6/KJo ,"
IJ. Opi '3 1,500
16...... G "
OnirJIII
•.'
2,200

..
f7 . ..._ G
4,.fOO

..... ..,.
11. JW.i G

......
G 3.]00
~ T
'3 ....,
3·300 "
Awb
"·~
T
...
........
.......
G
G ,'
I
f,JOO
3,1110

,..,. ....
......
G 2,)110
G I
IJ. ...... ,
G
G
7
J
j
..-
S.'IOO
,
OriD
 f ff t" J Jl:l) "",.

r ••. 1..
P' • .A. I l l . , 1 I

,
1 --"
....,..,
rP.I lri,P.-;

__-...--- ,_
,.

11
"'·-
A«+,.~
...
al ~:..., ......_
:19 !loft.-
..........
7 .....

('

('
., r.
,,.....,,,/
v......, ,,....r "'•'I I
···--<tf••
T
,..,._.....
............,......, ,,.,., ,
... _,.,
4
...
-..,...
·~
~,,~,
,_

l"· ALhall•
)I EI"C''
)2- Ncbonyo 'IT
T
r; I) ,...........
... ~
I,JM
,.
A.U
'4

NrnB
1. lbo-1 with""""' l~b .Amirt•Jr<~Jnn• and 7 'ltho:r lnocal <>wn• -in.
2. lkrintl frr,m Abaja tnh~ lf..IOJ!t'' '"~•-•in,.;...,, St). •!r-G...W.pa ....t L'kpola.
Adaba and Ukume.
l· -Ac<>lm, lrt-"Wa aad Stqc. Set oote.,., r2
4- Nkw<:Ui, Nougbe, N.Ai, Ou:, Umuan:ra.
S· Ugbene, Ugbenu and AwbQ.
6. Okpunn, Mboakwu, In, Urum and AmanU.:.
8. ()gburiU, Umulens, Nnandn, Awkuzu.
9· Ukpo and Ukwulu. R.elaud t1J Umunachi and Umu.diob at IJ.
11. Ahapna and Aba, fr~m tme tribe with N"rmo (ro) and EzioweOi f1l IJ.
12. Nri (Awgu.lo:u), Enugu, Oounagidi, N--m-----cbim a aibal fnaDder fmm LW! (Jplra)
and tiJ have formed origioally oaoe Jribe beaded bJ Nri wida die - - . . loal
mmmunitia at 3 and Nngbe, Nadi and UIIIU:IDJ2 f1l 4 and A - * ftl 6. (See
aJ.o DGC.c OD 22)
IJ. Awb, Nibo, Upuoba, Ebcnebe and 4 other local ce '4•.
14- N:mkpu, UDIDinnlla and lahUgo.
IJ. Ogidi, EzioweUi, Abacba, UJIIIIII:Idli ad Umadiob.
J6. Obofi, Obra, Akwukwa, Ojol.o.
• '7· ~. Uamoji, NtJIOI' ad me.
18. Nobi, Noclkwa, Awb Nbkwu, Abom ad Orutwa.
19. Agulu Ani, Agula Eoa md AgaJa U:m Icbo,aloroebraltoAc I '+ (Zf)_.
Ogboji (2f).
:m. Adzzi, Obdeda, Icbida md ardlred Yillap ~fill Awb ..t Nai..
21. NaabauiAwba.
:n. lpo, Umaoaa md Orai. 'l'llil ... 'l'ill:lp c:lai.- Nri _.ID lie to..,_..,_.,.
- - - to it, but . . . it deaird bf Nri.
2J. Ebulobia, Ob ..... Mkpolopa.
2.4- :.-&.., Ezmifire, Up, ApJancdlalm, opoji, ODdi ad Drap.
2.5. AdliDa, UIIIUdm, Akpo, Aa.sbi, Elap-U_,;ba.
:z6. Akokwa. Obodo, All:poro, o.biDe ad u...n...
27· N.-i, Orifir.e and L:bi.
28. Amicbi, Ulubi, Ehula l!lld Aza Ipo; die J.t Jpo (zz).
29- Ukpot', Ezmifire, Ola, tha, Uhaja l!lld Ozaboda, die ........ ID Aol:l..ai (JD}..
._.,._,_fr.-
JO• n.itJa, ()kip IIJid &11 _ . . . . . loml CID .,,, J:remba&
3 •. u - _. 1:1 -u ._. ·,· .
 ,a THE 180-SPE!I.ICISG PEOI'Lt:»
p. l 1;.&1i and l.l <'lhe-i' :!li'Rall t.:-:.1 C"'Oamunit~-fn..,m :\r~ ....-huku \l~r,lS.:- R•,rr lbn
l'_;.Jh. n....... Ohnl.i~a ...... ni .-..~>·

DlsnNcnn F&Arous
Among the W..-.m 0< Nri-Awb Ibo (Talboc's Onitsha-Awka 'clan') local

i: a.amaDities are autanomoa:s and ha"-e no common na.mes for wider groups. The
, ....;anty insi:sl that they are unrelated, eECept by marriage, with their neighbours.
Tbe IOWII ol Nri in Awb Dirisioa is the centre of a priestly cult connected v.·ith
the iasDIIatioo ol c::bids., pw1ficotioo and title-taking. Nri priests and diviners an:
widoly tnvdled and haft spracl '-11 the title system and the religious cult. In
_,- set:t1emcuts ...t.ere a Nri cult was established the priest who introduced it
~ the locol E. 0< rules-.
Awb bl.c:bmitbs haft ezerted coosiderable influence, not only as blacksmiths,
but as doCiars (6£ see 'Religious Beliefs and Cults', Sfi/WD), circumcisers and
~ ol the onde a AgbaiL Organized into a guild with an elaborate system of
appeolliceship, they are diftded into two sections, eacb of which should travel
ew:ry ahermtr :yar, the other remaining at home. Membenlhip of the guild is not
c:oafiDed to practisiBg smiths; all who have served are members, and are under
ob1igaiaD to be present at the annual ceremonies held at Awka. Meo from mest of
the otber village~ near Nri and Awka, and extending to Nnewi and other
villages in the Nnnri district of Onilllha Division, travel abroad, principally as
'cloanrs', c:nf'ba-. and market traders. People who came from this area were in
die pasr c:ollecti11ely 1mown u u..m
Aflllul_
Tidc:s ~ gnded, each with its distinguishing paraphernalia of stools, spears
aod bags, aod title-bolders were themllclves distinguished by their ichi facial marks.
Alldaarity in load aJIIIIII.unities wu een:ised by senior ::Jz:~ tide-holders. Each
tided mm ba bis own obu house, wheR shrines of ancestors ue housed, trophies
displayed and &imds adl:rtllined- The magnificence of the house varies according
to the tide of the owner, only those who have reached the highest grade being
allowed to adorn their obu houses with carved wooden panels.
The M., society, whoae members impersonate ancestral spirits in funerary rites
lit the death of a fellow member, also performs for payment at the death of non-
members_ Women are not permitted to see the performances.
Malevolenc:e &om the evil spirits of certain categories of ch:ceased persons is
gratly feared. Belief in reincarnation is a prominent factor affecting status in
ordinary life_
Thae are specialized ltyles of wood-carving for masks, statuettes, doors and
stoola, but little decorative art of other kinds except for occasional paintings or
lllll1l1ded designs on the walls of houses.•

1
lludmv• a, •938, P· 11.5; Pleld, a, 1945-6; Joneo, 2, 193'r. 9, 1945; Meek, a, 1937, p. 18; Tllbot,
19116, oL 11 1, pp. 767 If.; )elfrcya, 3, 1934-
 TAilLE 11
(11) I .\STERN OR ELUGU
r~.to,. ( 1'l
NuwtbtTojl~al Apprn.rimorr ...,,.,.,.
Sa~ Sub-rnto,. l-"1'l f"OMiftlntitif'l
Uroup (G) 1'l'IVTI' rrporrrd of anivP aduh Polirital
Vlll4gr (;roup (I-' G) mal•• Ditririon
Ogboli} (IQJS--40)
1 • Adani 2 T
1,8oo Naulr.lr.a
z. Etchi G
4 5,100
3. Enugu-Ezikc T
10,000
4 . Edcm G
4 J,8oo
5 . Nsukka G
4 5.6oo
6. Eketekele G
5 4.700
7 . Udunedem G
7 7,700
8. Uburu G
4 5.8oo
9· Nkpologu G
5 7.,700
10. Opi G 6 9,000
1 1. Igbodo G 10 8,900
1 z. lsienu G 2 ,,Soo
IJ· Ikem G 3 4t200
14_ Eha Amufu G 8 4,700
15. Abaja (4o,8oo) T "
Udi
Eke (Umuosie) ST 3

·~~
Udi (Umuaneke) ST 8 5.900
Owa (Osie Akuli,
Umuezeagu) ST 7 n,6oo
Ebe (Ojebe Ogene) ST 7 5.900
Ma (Uku Ugunye) ST 5 4>400
Oye ST 5 7,7.00
Ngwo ST 1,900
16- Achi Tor VG I 3·900
"
Awgu
17. Aboyikata G 2. 2.,900
18. Mmaku G I,8oo
19. Owelli G II 5,700
20. Anike G 6 2.,300
2.1. Awgu VG 2.,6oo
2.2. Isuochi T 4,6oo "
Okigwi
9
23. Nneato T 3 1>400
24. Umuchieze T 4 2.,8oo
25. Otanchara T II S0 IOO
26. Otanzu T 8 2,900
27. Uturu G 2,100
28. Ndizorgu STorVG 3.6oo
VG 2,2.00 "
Udi
29. Nike
30. Idodo G s 3,000
"
Ababliki
31. Ishielu T 8 3.400
2. 7,100 Udi
32.. Akpugo-Agbani T
33· Akegbe-Ozalla G s 6,6ao
c
 THF 180-:\fF.Ui.l:-.il~ fEOf\ F~
Tat>~ 11--<"fllltJ.

~
~\1"'
~~STI ......._..,...,
·""""""'•l""wl
_....,..,... ..f.f'M\\,...,,, ....,.,r...-
f'l.!...,·rn·.- ..,,~;:
.-... l~(GI
~,,"1..
G
.. -.,,Jn
\IQ,I~ 4C')

~--'.....- 4 ... 0(.\1,..""'

l$-~ G 4 s.ooo
J6.. ll:t-wb G a s.•oo
~:--~ VG J.Soo Awgu
)11.. Ml>P- \"G 1,6oo
,.._Abh> G 4 4-700
~...., \'G 3,100 Afikpo

NOTI!S
r. MiRIII Ibo ad lplla. Qrboli tribe -Ogrugru e.nd 3 small local communities. Adani
is.~~ group.
a. .... :Smclu, Obukpa and lbag1ft Ab.
3· EIMip Eaike, • tribe ol mind lbo, lgala and Okpoto origins; number of local com-
IIN&dies DOt gi\'ell; joined by Amube, a small unrelated lbo local community.
+- &lem., Okpuje. Orobo and Okwutu.
s- ~ n.p. Am, Erw Uno and Eror Agu.
· -6. Oiab, n-kpu., lheaka and :a small local communities.
7· Obalo, lmilille, Amala, Ezimo and 3 small local communities.
8. 1Jbura, Nibo, Abi aad Ugbene.
9- Nkpolagu, Obimo and 3 small local communities.
ro. Opi, Abftgbe, Obodo, Oala, Lejja, Ede.
11. Ab, URhe and 8 small local communities.
ra. Eha-Alumooa and Orba.
13. Jhm, Jlleke and Mbu.
1+- Ela-Amufa, • small tribe or large village group of 7 local communities and the local
mmnamity ol Umualo.
15. A tribe wbich claims to be derived from Nsude (Eire) and which subdivides into 36
local COIIIIIIUIIitie grouped as follows:
Eb: sob-tribe =Nsude, Eke, Obioma..
Udi sub-tribe =Udi, Ahia, Amokwe, Agbodu, Nachi, Obinagu, Ullluabi, Umuaga.
Owasub-tribe =0wa(Jlocalcommonities), Umuana (:a local communities), Umumba,
Obuno6a.
Ebeaab-tribe=Ebe, Ahor, Ukana, Awbum, Okpatu, Umulumbe, Umuawka. Also
claim Ukehe (see 11) aa related.
Ma sub-tribe =Egede, Afa, Akpakume, Nze, Owbu. Also claim Ukpata, Adabe and
Ukume of Umulokpa group (Nri-Awka, No. z) as related.
()ye sub-tribe -()ye, with less cloaely related local communities of Olo, Awha,
Okpoho. Also claim Umulokpa (Nri-Awka No. z) as related.
Ngwo BOb-tribe =a aiDgte village group (one of ita villages Elugu Ngwo gives ita
name to the township of Enugu).
r6. All eularged ~ group dividing into 11 villages.
17. layi Uld Awlaw.
19. 'l1le N1ebe-Neae tribe, i.e. the 4 sections and local communities of Ogugu, Abogugu,
 JS
t)"dh. llw .1nd tlh· ),.,·.d n•mllHIIHiit·!ll ~11 lluku, tlma Owrlli, hu, Ohfoeko, URho,
llt ... ·.t..:u ,,,h\ lH•·•·l.' t'hv hlth :-t·dwll ,,1 the" Ntrh('-Nt"l'r trlhr i11 thr Akunano
,.:"'lll' ,., \~q.:h· \l:.d\.1. l...;,_.,. ~ •• ,\_\)
ao. 1-:n\\\'ll pll.t~ '1...::1•,,\,), l::,·tc. \wJ.!Uilt.l, i\k''''· L<'nRwrnta and \lgwueme, the laet
"''' ln•nl blh••·lu t'•' ~:.).
11. :\~null 'dl.aJt..~· Jt.:'•'"l' '"''''nl lttllll .\w,.:unt.- (Ntl. 20).
u. t:mut•lt•m, :'\di''"·'· ~,::.ld<~, \tb .. ILt, l1muaku, :\muda and J other local communitita~
a(::,,, '-·l.um l.c·n,.:wt·nra a1h.l l'r.t" Uc.'lllt" (.zo) as rt"latr-d to them .
.IJ. Aka\\.&, \lhaha .\nd Ezi;una.
24. l.okpa.uku, Ltlkpant.a, Lckwr!"\1 anti IA"ru.
as. s
lhuhc, Okigwi. Ezina ..:hi, \ lmuduru, Okwclli, lsiokpo and Bmaller local communities.
:\l•o daim llmunze (:-Jri-.\wk•, No. ~z) •• related to them. Okwelli ia said to be
part of lsu (Southern lho, Isuama, No. 4). lsiokpo prefen to join with Nkalu (Nri-
Awka, No. 27). Otanchara (zs) and Otanzu (26) local communities are intor-
mingled.
z6. Umulolo, Umunna, Okwe and 5 other local communities.
27. Offshoot of Otanzu.
28. An Aro village group or sub-tribe. Consists of one large village group and a great
number of outlying settlements scattered throughout Otanchara and Otanzu terri-
tory on land bought from them.
30. Ogbaho, Amankanu, Owo, Oruku and Amechi-the last is an offshoot from the
Akunano section of the Ntebe-Nesi tribe.
31. Nkalagu, Nkalaha, Ezillo, Umuhale, Iyono, Amezu and Obeagu.
32. A.kpugo and Agbani.
33· Akegbeukwe, Uma, Amodu, Ozalla, Obe. First three from the A.kunano aection of the
Ntebe-Nese tribe; the last two are related to each other and claim relationship
with No. 32 and with Udi (No. 15), and Ugbawka (No. 36).
3+· Amagunze (related to A.kunano, No. 33), Akpofu (which came from A.kpugo, Na. 32),
Onicha Agu (from Onicha of North-Eastern Ibo) and lhuokpara (from the same
Onicha and from A.kpugo).
35· Nara and Nomeh (related to each other), Nkerefi (from Ezza, North-Eastern lbo),
Mburubu (from Lengwe, No. 37).
36. Ugbawka (derived from various village groups in No. 32 and 33, particularly Akpugo)
and Amurri.
37· Derived from Lengwenta in No. zo.
38. Derived from Enwen (Mbidi), No. zo.
39· Abbo, Mbu, Uduma and Okpauku.
40. Like 39 is of mixed origin, elements from Elugu sub-division and Eastern Ibo.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
The north and central part of NwJrluz Division is considerably influenced by
/gol4 culture to the north. In many settlements the lineages have Igala IUIIIleS,
while many also have an Ama title system, derived from lgala, as opposed to the
:J :tt:1 system. They also have Odo and Amaba 'dodo' cults in addition to, or instead of,
Mrru dances. Other lgala elements are the weaving of cotton cloth, and the use of
circular baskets or calabash basins in contrast to the typical reciBIIgUiar basket of
the lbo and lbibio.
The most northern settlements are of mixed Ibo and lgala descent (....,._.Ea*
and Ogboli group). They are autonomous units and, except for c:ertaia villages in
 ~ •/;;YY. {(A;r'. • • •, :'/~''
-k7'"; ~.,.,.___ ~;. ............-,.-.t"' .. -;:r '"-1 z '/..;:i__.# u"-J:-.:~ _..r.~::~..)
p ,_' 7-.r//.. :;~ ~ ;..-! . . . :-~4 .ea{:~;,-/.!//,
M .. ..,._.t . J ' . ...;. .., ·.~ . . . . i .. '.&:-1.>...~..-~ fvre;Jt;;;_Yl:-~..~, .. ~-; ...ertt.a.L tier W:,~
:"' "-' .fl~!~ "~·;,~ Y~'Y~l'.. a /. .... -'! Y.~411da ~ .. /t~..~

:'f ~~ 9
-",.~ "':~ • • ;;z: ~"'~~-": H*::k..~ r;( ~;-4!: .t :!~.r:::r', ft. i11 (t::litiJ ill;#j".J
... ~ :~~ ~~:4"/- ~t::: ~y6.;!'~tl; - _ :,-g.t",~ .. y.. '11 e ~:tfJll::: ha·{l; vr.-;.-
1~ ~\ fn:t ( .!;.. ·" .i4:;t'"~-r r/:~J'I:."t-.f:l~"'St/.!t frr,f(t tf-,_c; /}.;-t..., ~".;-£
 Apyr<4i1114U
~....zu...,
lt~l};-A;.:;;.,
;a-i ar.d . •• (~• • •
(J err; fx·: ·,, ar>i
~ rA (- Y.tm-
/!'=lf'''l T itT
..~tr... fJ:/ ~ '>'n, '.,'. a"4 S"'li. Be-:
fJ:~ "'~n
& -le ;,;A fJ<iJfi , l)i-.- ;'lOa

1 1-'A.~, a, 1'/Y., pr, '--~-7'J, q,r, 11'1 (r..r~tt.J J-A;:J,.... V ... f!y f.,..,.. • , 2 , ..., • .,,pc!.. I r ~ .3 •
''~. f,.t... J·~ .,... 1',4,-;.
 : :·.~':;

:rr..
-;
- ~'J':
: . -4 .: Jo:.
y '
'J· -
;:_,:, ....
·- i
:-r-
: -:r.
! ~ ::
-- = o--
·4r -~-- ._ - -:::::=..; - -- - L : - -';.: .

Sous
I .-1 Z.. bD-()ria diridts .... 6 . . . . ...-..~
(•) Nc.dlaa =C-. Id . 'mri ~ ..S 5 G6a- __... . . . pa119L
(6} Saold.l:n = ~_. ............. .a , t • o - b , a-.

...Alb., Olwwlo ..t 6 c8a- ............ ~

(c) Ehcji-Edli-Aa, tk ~ 'l'iDifle P-i- ol .......
~.
~ Nbari-"-iilo =Nhari. .a-1lo- z aGir ...-a-~
(e) ~lyi - - . .u.;a. .w..
u-.
Oda, u -

(/) ,....._"-i.-0~~
a..-Mbiai ...... a..lllliai, Or-.~ a-illi. ..........
Obab.. Ea- .... .v.a ..........
:t.· l'~n. '"'*"""~- '~'· tlla, t·murw .. r an ..t lt--rn ....- ,dl•~l· .,:r••up'
4· \'P\."'-"'-• , ... ~. Jn,I"Aht, ·'"''"""-'· '"••'-~•hla. -\u ... ~'\U'\\1, , . .,.::lll>-:''· )!J,,. .111d
smalln ..-il. I:"'" I"'.
~· l't-:hinw\ and 14 (l'lau\ an" • arntth- tr1hc-. ,.cnu•r ,.,11.,.. Ji:h•up t ·n~tu·/·· ... t'l"'
(\oni-t.-ha \I"tm Se-w). s,,.,._,"......,. ot '4 an- \'n•urrr, \'rnurl"ral ... ·\!'> .. , ••. ''rnulut
anJ l'mufta.k.anu. Sub-tribc-e oi ~arT llnh·h• (llrn1 Nrzr), :'\::eu. lk)'•·rc·i··rr·, ...\hd
aft<! l...owa , , , . r">"P"·
J. 'S~na. lnytcCUCU. lauota.anr-u. l.!muhu, l..agwo and ll-=-ku. Frro;.• '"., dt!'loptll
M'-fttftl"'''n'.
8. (lkr-ranadim, Mp.m, lbi-ro..ku, llmuobill.a, 01-oohia an.J Ekw.-n·uu.
9· Oni,·ba ..,mua.n, E.Dudo, Obizi, ltu, I hit~. H .. and 9 small~r \·ill~g<" f!:ruups. Ngw
io ~18..-d to tiU8 tri~.
10. 0.'<'ro, Mt>utu, Am~ and Lorji •-il~ groups.
11. ., ....,..,.,_, l'li, Omuma, Amini, A... na, Mhidiand 11 oth<"r small village groups
This tribr is tra..Orional ~Wftn lou-Ama and Northent lho; B village J!:roup 1
claim a . . - n foullder, Oma, who came from the banks of the Niger; 5 villagt
gn."'re aft drriwd from the Epma tri~ (W..,.tern lbo, No. 2t); 1 village group
trom Okija (Northern lbo, No. 31). Uli is of mixed Oma and Eghema origin.
u ...S 11. Transitional ~tween lsu-Ama and Nonhern lbo (Nri-Awka). Orou 1: Osu-
~wu and 4 amall villaga in Noewi District of Onitsha. Orou 11: 2 groups (a)
Orau A}a Miri, CODSisting of lhite Owerri, lhite Nasa and other smaller villages;
(6) Orau D.po, c:aaaiating of lhioma and Awondemini.
14. 1'nDsitianal benleeD Westa"D and Eastern lau. Umuduru, Umunumu, Nzer<:m,
Obiohwu, MbeR, Angana and a number of smaller village groups.
15. A well-inlqrnted tribe or large village group with dual division into: 1. Okwunanso:
Amuzi, Alike, AYIItu md 4 smaller village groups; 2. Ekwelenote: Ehume, Umar-
riam and 5 amaJlcr village groupa. Founder from lhiteafouku (No. 8) or Abaja lsu
(No. 1) disp~Bd. Okaiub (C. No. 1) derived from Abavo.
r6. ~bite ad Umuha (C. No. 1): originally dual divisions of the same tribe till Umuhu
~ the lmo. Ihite-Aminyi and 5 other smaller village groups and claim that
the fOUDder of lhite md Umuhu came from Umueze (No. 5).
17· A wdl-imgrmd tribe or eDlarged village group-Amugu, Ogbe and 9 other smaller
village gro• .
!>nmNCTIVB F'BA.TURI!S
The Isu-Atlltl &how a number of features variously occurring among the lbo of
the adjacent Northern, Western (Southern lka) and Eastern (Cross River) regions,
Thus they have the D:n title system of the Nri-Akwa area, but no Mm:~ dances,
having inBtead mulr.ed dances borrowed from the Ika and Riverain areas ( Okorosia
and ElcNic.) or from the CrOBB River (Oiumko). Their houses are built of solid
mud.
Many emigrate for part of the year to work aa traders, craftsmen, healers or casual
labourcn.•

1
]01111, 9. 1945·
 I Ill 11111 :,1'1· \~l~t;

T\111 I. 1\'
l'Ft•l'l.l·.S ,
(11) <11\\TI',\ IKWLHHI
,.,,,, \1"1
...... ,,, .. h. 1.\"1) ,'\ll~h,., ••f lu•nl
'"~rrn.orrrlu·l
Ap,.,.,,.,rranrr ,....,.,
, c;,.,,,,.,c;l
lrll,ll(r (,"r,~p (l'f,") ~<hrrr ''"/117Jird llj
12 1
' "'" tJduh "
rrrnlr1 Pol•lirol
_ ()!;tll.l Tnh~ (I ~.400) ( • ..,,, 40) IJn·uum
1
l lralta ST
10
A).::ha llmun,,·oha ST
q
•.soo Owerri
N•·kt·th· ST J,ooo
6
Aha la ST 2,700
Owt·rri sT 9 1.000
Ohudi sT s t,l>oo
2. Ohoha T 7 2.,6oo
6 z,soo
3 . Umuakpo G 11
t,boo
4 . Umuhu (Ngor) G 6 l-,200

~: ~~~;;enwc
G 6
G 2,700
Etche Tribe (12.,700) 7 2.,]00

7. Okpala ST 6
8. Etche ST
9· Omuma ST
34
6 Ah~ada
Ikwerri Tribe or tribal group (ts,6oo) Aba
10. Elele G 11 6,6oo
1 1. Ieiokpo G Ahoada
6 1,2.00
12. Rumuji G
4 J,ooo
IJ. Emohua ST 4 I,ooo
14· Allua and Igrita G 2 700
IS· Okpombu Tolu VG 10 8oo
t6. Obia Tor ST 16 2.,JOO

Approximate total aniw adult mak1 55,000

NoTBS
I. A tribe which divides into 6 sub-tribes:
Uratta =a single village group.
Agha Umonwoha =z village groups, Agha and Umonwoha.
Nekede -Nekede, Ihiagwa, lmeabiam and 3 other small village groups.
Abala =Emii, Emekuku, Ulakwo and 6 other smaller village groups.
Owerri - Owerri and 4 other smaller village groups.
Obudi =originally a distinct group, now prefers to consider itself Oratta.
z. A small tribe or large village group. Ohoba is also the name of a Native Administration
(Political group) formed of Ohoba (No. z), Umuakpo (No. 3) and Awarra (Rivenin
Ibo, C. zo).
3· Eleven small unrelated villages and settlementa. .
4· Ngor, Umuhu and 4 other small village groups; 4• So 6 and 7 are !mown c:ollectively IS
Ngor.
S· Obike and 5 other small vi(lage groups or villages. .
6. Two village groupa: Emerieowe, Umuaro and I unrelated village.
 ••
7~ Ea.- aftd ~ ....... amall nlbp ,...,u,.~
I~ ~""" J . _ - ! ....,.,.. llwulru. \lt. (l'mualuru) anJ Ell:'"'
10. Eldr. l" ........... F~ .~ 8 nthn amaUrr ,;J~ R"'OUfl"' nr \dial(··~ ( 10- 1fJ •

........-r ..............,
CDDrctift'ly t-r--n • U..-rn. ftvt ,....._ no fC"t'linR"! of lnt..l uruty •nJ rdut
~ ~
11 . ......,.., ...... (md...t.nc Sbnhia which on~r~nally gave ir• namr ro rh
,...,...., Obodo .,;. . ,...,..p, ~ nl. group and 3 orhcr arnalll<><al c<>mrnunJIJe
ra F- ....... ......,. ol ~ (•ndudane Rumujj), lba, Vmuekp< and !'<dele.

I
IJ. f'.-~ .
.... .U.-tlp1b .......
IJ ........ l!ad 9 adl£r ...;JJopa.
r6. c.11.n11r .-a- '""" .. brT lkwcrri groupo. Haa a J-day wcck. Conaiara of Woji
v--......, Dioba (Purl fUrmurt 113tift town) and IJ olhcr villagn.

DwiiM!Iifi Fla'r'n8
f 1'llcft io ....._lad, puticularfy iD the lltrNrri area, and an ample supply ol
1 . . . , . _ fna lk ..U.. Tbe peoflle derive most of their wealth from the sale of palm
/ ....._. IIDd ail, by ldlill8 food to the more densely populated neighbouring areaa
..:1 by ""Yiaa roiJa 011 per.- paaing through their country to trade or work

I
farther -ab. Their produce ia marketed am.oog the Kalabari and other groups in
lk ~ Drriltiall to the .wth.
T- p~ il compantively small, owing to exceuive rainfall. The Etche
ad (J,tlllfl pvapa to the aorth are better yam fannera but less wealthy than the
D:wari. F.-- an -w by both mm and women, the latter growing cassava and
. _,.._ bsida ,.__
Jlbtri ~ u-e the ouutandiog cultural feature of the Oratta proper. These
llniCIIII'ea, wbic:b baYe tbe appearance of templea, contain painted mud figures and
~ Id . , iD bGaour of the tutelary IIJiirita of the various villages. The building of
diaD ia iDitialcd by a priat, after conaultation with the eldere, and ie carried out
widl ~ labour and 1Upplis, the builder• remaining apart and being aub-
ja:t.ed to nrioua tabooa ulllil the work ia completed. The building& are not, how-
- . aec:d for wonhip. Tbc:ir purpoac: ia aaid to be the propitiation of a deity or the
ft'G1iag of IIIMiortuDc, but they are aiJo'tl'ed to decay lOon after they are finiahed.•

TABLE V
(C) OHUHU-NGWA
,_ U-IIW Tri&IJ~
Numb. 11/ IIJeaJ
-,.,u;.
A/!PrmmDI6 rrumbw
11/ utlrl• adult PoUtkDJ
wlrn• r#/Nirfll1 maiM DlrJUUm
vm.O:.,""fJ C•vu-....J
1. ObUD or lpo Tribe ($.700)
Uadru IS 2,000 Bendc
u_.,_.
01Jaiab

:a...... T
I
6
7
l,c)OO
I ,Boo
3,500

I , _ , '· am; ,, J114f; ..... "· am, P• w. IA!do-Jiooo, •• 1939o p •••••

 1'111. 11\(l ~I' I A.,;. I .... (; I'HII'L¥.S 4l
T:ll•l•· \ tuntd.
Appro.,....,,,...,.,.
,,.,._ "h.& ('I
,\'uh tnJ, .. 1.">'1)
(;u,.,f>lf;)
J
of rul"•• tufull
....J,,
PBiirUAI
IJoMrion
V•l/1~,. f;ru.,,. C Vt;) (19H 40)
1,§00
l· tJhall•la TfH \'(; 11

4· Ololr.nru Tor vc; 14 :Z.,JOO

s ~nd-= Tr.r vc; !loo
b. I be re STor VC 1,000
7· Olxro ST or VG 19 >,000
8. lauoq;~:u T ] >,!loo
9· Ngwa T ]46 ]],700 Aba

...
10- Au
Ndokki
T
T
]
6
],500
4,500

Approrimat< total tJLtiw adult makr M,]OO

NOTl!B
r. A comp011ite tribe, Umuhu derived from lhite (A. 16), Okaiuka from Obowo (A. 15)
and Umuokpara from Jbeku (C. 2.). Umubu -llingwu, Onhia and 13 othft loc:al
communitiea. Umuokpara -Ezeleke, Ekenobioi, Obodi, Umunwauwau and 2. othft
local communitieo.
2.. Seven village groups of Ndume, lahieke, Afarata, Afara, Oaa, Emede and Amoforo.
3· Abam and 11 other local communitiea.
4· Subdivided into 3 diviaiona: Umutogbo, Epe and Azuiyi (Umuabia).
s. 6 and 7· Original Enyong lbibio local communitiea aboorbed by lbo coming from the
weat; 5 -village group of Bende ( -Ibibio Mbente) and Ukpom (another lbibio
name).
6. Mbinyang (lbibio word) and 1 t other local communitiea.
7· Mbiokpong (lbibio word) derived from Mbinyang and 18 otbet local communitiea,
including 2. Aro villagea and 1 local community derived from ldima Abam (Eutern
lbo, B. t).
8. Three village groups of Ndiafa, Arriam and U~aka, the laat of lbibio (Otorol) origiD.
9· Derived from Ezinihite (Southern lbo, A. 9)-fuaion of lbo (lau-Ama and Ala, No.
10) and lbibio (Mboko) elementa, with a few more recent lbibio (Anang) local com-
munitiea who lltill apeak Ibibio. Very atrong tribalaoliclarity. Subdivide& into z6
aub-tribee or regional groups of Ntigha, Naulu, Ngwauku. Mboai, Mbutu, Umlloba,
Ovokwu, Ovungwu, Ngwaobi, Amaiae, Okpuruababa, Amavo, =~ Oaokwa,
Mboko Amiri, Mboko Itungwa, Mboko Umuanunu, Ndi Okal:ta, · muojima,
Aba Na Obazu, Ahlaba Na Abayi, Obanze, Untta, Akumaimo, lbeme, Ugwuoabo.
(Tbeae are numbered conaec:utively on the map)
10. The origioal lbo inhabitant& of what ia now the Aba Diviaion. Three aub-triba or
village groupa of Ala, lpu, Ozar.
11. Claim to have come 'from Benin' (Riverain Ibol) and mised with Ala (No. 10).
Tribe conaiata of 7 aub-tribea 1.11d 1.11 lbibio (lka and Alwlg) group and indudel
villagea of Akwete, Azuminl1.11d Obambe~. The firat oamed ia the ooly 8outbera
Ibo village with the craft of weaving in cotton (imported yam) and probably
repreaenta 1 aouthem diffulion of Yoruba craft through the clelta rqioo.

H1noav AMD Tlw>1noNe or Oa1o1N

Traditionally the ance.ton of the Ohulul-Npa formed put of 1 mip11:ioD from
~ thfo :'"-.i• arra 1n O"''C"rn and mtwn.t h' lhf" 11\Tr lnh'. Th,,.!!.,. '' h11 ,-,,~ ... ~~,I rh,· In
hrt'arnr the- -\l"'•": tht'IM "h,, Fl"'mainrl.t ,•nrlw u t·stt·r n hMnk atr•· rh,·< )/utJ,_ Th,· 'Jr.:"

I
ft'H"t "irh f"'t'lf'k "h••m thr~· t'all .\l/tr.Jh1 pn•hahl~· :\.n,.nJ.! lbdtrn '' h11 g.an· rhn
Jand, and the- rl"f"''tnt JlnM.Ip is madr IIJ' nf \'ilha,..~·~ tlf ~~\\'lllllhl :\Jh,,~,, tlll~lll.
Some- ,,fthc-lol.. l fn\UJ'f', nt)la~l~· OMv, 0/oJ:o,.u and h."JJot.:.•w, h.an· lh' tndition
of mitntit\0 and rr'!"St'fW' on I~· that tlf thr Jhihitl ~ruups with whom I lu·~· j,,inrd, an1
•ilich ,.orm the- _.nior or part"ftl ,·iii-.,Yf' of tht> local f.'ommunity. in somt• t'a:llt"S stil
~~~~ th<-ir Jhihio name.'
DtsTtNn"l\"1' FIAYUHII
A YIJm surplua produ«d by womrn is sold to the drnsdy populated Owerri
Di\'ision and th<- Ahd and lkot Ekp<"nr Divisions of Calabar Province. An early
ripeAilll: yam. harwsted and sold before ordinary yamo, is a opeciality of the N,::wa.
Womm also produ~ a surplus of cassan, and gari is <"Xported to North,·rn Nigeria.
Jllftl plaDt kftl yams but have the reputation of b<·ing good farmers. They
( CODOeDtra~ on palm-oil products.
SenlemeniB are dispersed. Ngw* social structure may be closer to that of the
lbibio tlw! any otber Ibo. They are also, like the Isu-Item, divergent from most

l
Southml lbo groups in displaying features characteristic of the Eastern Ibo. They
have neither title S}'llkms nor cult slaves (osu); secret societies performing masked
rites com:spond to tboae nl the Ibibio and lower Cross River groups ( Okonko, Akatrg
aad Elfte). Their ut atyle combines elements of the Ibo and the Ibibio and the
lbibio double c:limbiug rope is used. Palm wine is prepared from the raffia instead
of the oil palm, a chancter:istic of the Isu-Ama and Onitsha areas.•

TABLE VI
(D) ISU-ITEM

N..
,...o!:fJ
~(
nw~
~qflotal

.,..,...
.....,.._.,. _,..
III>J>ruj-11 1111mbor
qflldiwtldNIJ
(1935·40)
Political
Divilion
r. Inihruato Tribe (11 ,goo)
11. Umai111111yi ST l 3 3,6oo Okigwi
jj 6 a,400 Bende
6.11u~~~~mn ST a,6oo Okigwi
7
c. OguduiA ST s 3,300
•. Alayi
3· IlDm
T
ST
..
7
3,000
3,000
" de
Ben
... Oauitem ST 3 r,ooo "
S· Ipn STorVG 1,000
6. Umuhu Tor VG 6oo "
~·ttUJte totGl GCtiw tidult rulu ao,soo

I Ibid.
 45
N•HI·S

1. 'l'hr hu of tlu· tlllt't' (tllo) luu·.·~·-.., (rlm•11) .1llt•an· tiH"ir oriKin to tht- villag~ group
of .-\.h.1h1t, .uul ~.:onsi!\1 of a (•) Ahah.•. ()vim ;uull·:zt"rr; a. (ii) i\kolinta, l.hmakoli,
Nk.pa ;tnd .1 othl'l ~unall nuumunitit·s~ h. EluamR and h othe-r Mtnall local corn ..
rnuni11n1; ,._ A•nilw, llnuuwkwu, Atdu1, Amiyi and Nonya .
.a. Aknliufu, :\tnank.alu, t lgwu(•kt· ynd Ezt·uku \'illaJ(t~ groups.
J. AkwMngu, Anu·kr, Anle'kpu, Okuko, Akanu am:l 3 ttmalllnC'al communitictL Claim to
hot.VC" rnittrntt·ll front the CrnttM H.iver. CutltomR Vt'ry <.lietinct from other groups.
~.g. Otusi (village heo.J), play•, et<·.
4· DC"rived front ltent.
5 and 6. Smalltrilwo or village groups which consider themselves unrelated to any other
groups. A part of lghcre has migrated and become incorporated in Akaeze (Crooa
River lbo, Ada group, No. 6). There is a legend of 4 communities who once lived
together and then as a result of a dispute separated to become the present tribes of
:z, J, 5 and b.
DISTINCTJVI! FI!ATURI!S
None of these groups has any tradition of origin, with the exception of lttm, who
claim to have come from the present Arochuku Division and to have settled at firat
with the Alayi and two other groups, whose names vary in the different traditions.
Following a dispute, these moved north into the plain to their present homes. The
Oauitem, an offshoot of the Item, also claim to have separated at this time.
This whole group is, however, culturally diverse; the lsu-/kwu-Ato appear to
approximate more closely to the Cross River groups (see below) in the absence of the
osu slave cult and 3/:1 symbol and in possessing vestiges of a village headship (OtOSJ)
of the Cross River type. Village headship is also found among the ltem,lgbereand
Umuhu.
The basic social unit of the lsu is a patrilineage, which is also a local unit. Isu ~
and Alayi settlements are dispersed but among others they are often nucleated in
group compounds with outlying yam stores.
The Item are a specialized group of migrant doctors, blacksmiths, craftsmen and
traders. They have distinctive masked dances (Okwa LucluJJ.). Their village heads
exercise considerable political authority.'

3· WESTERN IBO

TRIBAL AND SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

LoCATION
Ogwashi Uku Dtstrict of Benin Province, Kwale Division of Warri Province,
Onitsha Division of Onitsha Province and Ahoada Division of Riven Province.

1 Jones, 9. 1945; Hants. 4. r943; 6, e. 1g.p..

 4" ,,,. ........

-··-
1•) l'anhrm lko

('l ~~<>uthfomlb
"'NI
,. ,.,.,.,_....,._
tt.n .. nf N IFI, "rlt '''
o .....ha
llrt,.....n ~:.h"'f"'· A.J.,to onol
t '11:" ..
k.w111lr
(11)
I o, ,,,,, •of I ~ •• •"""

11 111

I
I·~~~

l1•lfl• I
11nl

,,j
\

h" ol•
rl ... ,
/

... ,,, •..

..
...,J,.Ir"' ....,.,,,

11.··

,.K_.. Aorh n..,.n

!' ..... lloool rlaon, ..... ..,.._
c H..-11111 I )I\ ••'"''
Olllhii•(I•N).IIJ.:"•'"-'11 I~~~~
( \\ )

(cl ltiwniA '"" IWft'n 11 an,l the- Ora~~tha (H). .>\llnoHia(l~, lll•rlllll
an.J A•h n..,.n (W) 4''·'"

LANGUAGE
Thiii"!'IP ia DGt aliJIIUWUC: unit and there are c:onaidrroblc linl(uiot ic: oloffrrnu·.,

I
~ nei«hbouriq >illqea. Dialecta in the northern arra trrool '" lorwrru
allimilated to that of Onilaha. They have not been intenoivcly alluli•·ol lout divcr 11
ma- of aurrouDdillfr non-lbo peopla are reported.
DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
Tht Weata11 lbo I"GUP" appear 1o be of divene origina owing tn influ~ncco from,
and pouibly admi:trtun: with, the Edo-apeaking peoplea to the weat. Snrnc nf the11e
contKta probably antedate the riae of the Yoruba influence and the Edn Htalc nf
lleoin, aa geuuine Edo fatura, found alao among the Urhobo and lankn, arc more
~ t.b.aD are elementa, aucb u titla, derived from Benin. There ia alao
ewideDce of early cootacta with tbe Northern lbo to the eut, particularly Onitaha
Town 111d Nri. SitU featura, eapeeially chieftainahip (Obi) and title ayatema, are
cbarac:teriatic: only among the Nurthlm 1/cQ. Soutlwrn Jka contact• are likely to have
been l"eater with the Urbobo. The RitJerain lbo are the moat hctc:rogcneoua, their
di9Cne dialecta being lllid 1o contain elementa derived from the I jaw (to the aouth)
uu1 tbe lgola (ldah) 1o tbe north, a likely conaequenc:e of their poaition along the
Niger 111d the biat.ory of earlier movementa.

TABLE VII
(A) NORTHERN IKA
of
Sub-:u::-J~
Numbn wa/ A~oalmat• numbw
N,.. CDmmurriiUI
,.,_. r.parud of'"'"" adult P•UtkDJ
vuq. a.";.,""fJ maiM
(19JI-+D)
Dlllilllm
I . .\cbor T 13 4o700 Agbor
2. Abovo T t,8oo
5
3· 0.... VG 2,200
4· ldwnu A11 VG 400
S· Utc Okpu
6. Utc Dibeii
VG
VO
•.•oa
400
 11

I''' •I
, .. f

flt,Jl,
'
,.., "
~Ill If
I 111111•
'I
'I
ljol
"
1\!1 ... ,
" I ,,1,11111 I ljl'llf !.1 1 .• 1

,,
1\ Clj•v. • l11 I~~ 11
I llnn 11~ ! 1 I , VI
'I (I~)"''""''
,,,I 1•11 11~
I
I ,.,. ...
•7 Akuku A111111•
.~ Jllllli
'·
'"VI,
()tli .. tu I ... vr, ~

I
.,,,,..,
.,....
.
,,,
"I
ld UfliUJI
N•uMw.•
'I ...
I,
vr ,

N•rru
1,Conaioll of A(lhnr with 10 nutlyin11 •illa1co nr IC\tlamanll lofllthar with 2 illflapendant
•llla(lco of Oli11i• and l>rnuhu. Jlnunded hy Chima whu mipalld from Banin w
Onitaha and hock tJ> Ozorra •illaae nf A1hnr.
:1.. Fl•a Yilla11u. No tradition nf llini ori1in. Pounder A•o with u,., lilla of IN, wllo
came from a place called AYn.
3· Founder of Oyehu (Owa) wu Odn1111 onn of lji& of Ute Okpu who hinwlf caN fr0111
Nohi (Nri, Northern llw). Tha other villa&• are derivad from Bini or Ulblr Apor
(lroupa.
4· From U11boha in lahan.
5· Claima to be the 'mother villa1e' of Ute Okpu and of vuioua IICtionl in lp..lo,
Otolokpu and Onllaha U11hn (Ezechima). Founder -=- from a.nio; thll POUf
alao claima to have come from the lbo aide of tha Nipr.
7, 8, 10 and 1 1. Foundcn came from Ienin.
9· Claim a founder from Ienin. Aabor claim them u an .\tbor ollaMol.
rz. Vlllaae aroupa of Onicha Uabo, Oni<:ha Ullwo, Onicha OIDua, '-la U\D, WN
Apaba, laMie Mlrpitime, Obior IOd Ezl, alao Oburullpa in Odianl poup. J~
Chlma from Ienin, who ia alao claimed u founder of Onllaha and APor·
13. Founder Oda labe from Nabi (Nrl, Northern lbo). A villqe poup of al ...
(La. villaaea or aactiona).
14. Uburu Ulre, Uburu Uoo, Uburu Olr.itl; founded by two brUlhan, Obodo and r..-,
who miaralld from Kwala Diltrict to Uburu Uno.
'5· From Uchi (Umuabarrautchi) in Abob dlltrict; Okpenam willap PDIIP 11111
lbuaa and Achala villal•·
u.-.
r6. Founder Umejai of lau (Southern lbo) and 3 brothan from Nabi (Nri, Nortban llla)
17. Alrullu vlllap lfOUP of I lfN (-u-), darivad from a llltc-1 lbo . . . . _
Atuma villq• from 1-1a and ot.bm from lbl., Uta (lnill) IIMl ,,_AWL
 1"1w- SC\l'tfrworn Jla art" anu ....... ~ .... t ..•.. ~~\ · '" l'f l )ntf:-;.fl.l ·'' \ ---···· .. u·rm aprar·
mtJ:r ....u.n,: "h... hJand pc"\~·. P.fosc wtriC"nM'nts h•'"l" dt"rinirt· fraJiti,ms ,lf ''ri~in
l ,..,... .,... '"'"
""~ crop. :lOin<" an-a.• producin~: • surplus fbr export. Tht
( rredo-d ""rplus of f*• ail and kemds is amall.
T'Jico illflu<oDcr of Bottin is marttd in IM political "'lf&"i&ation. The ,·arious com-
~ ,.,..... ~in wan with 11<-nin, to whi~h the.' majuriry finally submillcd,
.,.,.,.;m., lirt.s and nalen from Renin. Mast ha\T a ·,;fi•~:C head· ( Obi) and a ,-illage
-or (0...., 06iuoolr) oonsisbJ~« o( IM o.·and a numh<-r of s.-nior 1irlc-hold.-rs,
1:- rides .,... hereditary bur othen ar rhc.' disposal of rh.- Obi.
" - .-.. oftal of Ba»n type. The inrunal and external wall surfaus are
- a - clecaneed by outline dra..U.. olulimals carved on the mud wall. Brass-

.....
- - . a.- Beaia ..,.._ aod UIICIIII some JrOUps, especially Agbor, a car\'ed
- of . _ . type il - t a the symbol (,/,) of li~ he.ds.hip and other
.
F8cial - ' a Olllllill of lift or u -.enical pshc:s on the forehead and small scan
. . . . die e)"'S. I

TABLE VIII

---
(B) SOUTHERN IltA OR KWALE
Nrm ............
N.-.o/,_, Apprvi- _,.,
..,..
...
1'- .w..e.ie( fi/..OWetbJt PoliJial
llDii-.

t. u-• ...... d!:r~

T
(1915--40)
2,?00 Kwale
4
LU~ Tor VG t,OOO
l · Ahedei Tar VG r,ooo
4-0.... STar VG 7 2,?00
S· AWii STnrVG 1,1)00
6. .-.; STnrVG 1)00
7- Ahb Tor VG 4 I,?OQ
I. u.p. ST a 2,8oo
9- Oaidaa STorVG 4 r,soo
JO. £lllu STorVG r,aoo
4
u. otu- Tor VG s 2>400

AN-ti-*,.,. .niw .ab ~~ •9.$00

I , . , _ , .. 1914: _,_, 9, 1945·
 Till IIIC> o-1'1 \1,1,,; I'Hli'I.I·:S

\",11•~ M:'''"l'"' ,,, 1 .,,.~ 1 •.•.

''"'"'
r ..... num, 1 mw h, .md lll•t.aruku. ~ntl, uria:inally, Ahraka,
1
l•ut thu• \diA,:•· '" ""'\ ( ... ,.~ ..... 1.c,"-utJ.:. l'rd't·'- 1 . .1 .&ntl .l uulto l ....·.•h~ fint group
,,f 1,..,,plr t.• .. rrtk ,,, llu . . ,,,,,, h 1 :\11 ,(.11111 lo han· nJinr froru Urntn. .
4 . ~. fl,-; •n•l l't. l \ 1n...,Hinnlthr .. ,., """ ,.:•••up to at.lll\>r; 4, ~anti h dann ·~ lhrtr fuund~r
t-:ttr lrHm lkom, """ "rnlnl rw.u ,,h,,h, t(Uarrrllrd \~illh lhC" ()Ju uf Ahuh lll\d
t'.-" 1
111 ,tr,l FttC" UC"au llll•ttun. IIC" matrinl •n l J(ht"lli (llrhohu) woman and ahC' 91111
mothrr ,,f 4, s arhl h.
1
• Four
4 uaf"lrrs, mu- fnnn l'tr l-4· .s. h). onto front lli(ala, rtnr from Ahbi, one from
O~tw••hi \lku.
R. lltaRha l'no i ttl",:timtt~: 4 frtlfn Onll!toha, J from Naukwa arra (A. No. 11). Utagba
()ghf' 5 St"l·tilH\S from lltattba t 'rw, l hum Okpai (C. No. to) and Umuachi Afor
(C. 1_1).
Q. Fount!C"d fn1m l TtaKh• llno and Onir~ha.
10. Foun.Jr.J from Oni<·ha (9).
11. Late-r arrivals fron1 Bcnin after Aboh founded it.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES
Tb,e Southern lk.a are probably of mjxcd lho and fVIo origin. There are aaid to
hav~been three waves of migration: the original seltlers represented by Ur~DU~Nui.
GtiiJ, AIHthi and UmllllkrData; an early wave of conquerors and settlers from Benin
at the time of the founding of Agbor, represeoted by Orop,., AAioho and Ulafba;
and, finally a later settlement from Benin which brought the Og1uu.
They are generally known collectively as KrDiJU lbo and are distinguished from
Northern lka by the absence of facial marks and by their rectangular houses of mud
on a stick framework roofed with palm mats. The walls are sometimes decorated by
strips of cane let in to form a pattern.
Yams are grown for subsistence and rt. Palm oil and kernels are alao exported.
e V1 age o za on IS on a couna coDSlS g o e a the ~
head of each lineage and the senior age set (NtliokrzJa), presided over by the senior
::J kpara IIA:u.
They weave blue and brown cotton cloth, model and paint clay figures of D&ture
spirits and attendants and have u.JU., masked performances, similar to those of
the neighbouring Isoko, in which the masked danc:en~ perfonn on stilts.•

N•- SW...... (
~(G)
TABLE IX
(C) RIVERAIN IBO
7"n'Wm ............
N.-- 41 ,_.
...... ...,..,.,.
_
..·--
.....
....... ,.,.,.
.o;,;,;,.
ViBoTP~(VG) h935"40)
I. Nam Tor VG 8 1,aoo Oailshot
a. Anam Tor VG 7 a,8oo
3· Asaba Tor VG I 1,7'10
4· OltoOt.- G a 1,000
1 Cbaclwic:k, a, 1937: J - , 9o 1945; -r.tbot, 1906. Vol. Ill, pp. ,...,.
D
r ,.. THE IBO-SPEAKING PEOPLES

- v._a:::;r~
,..,...In
.-.-(sn --..,_.
Tabl~ IX---.--t...

...._,_,..,
-....._...
A~~,,.-...J,.,,.
e/ GICtnv
- J..
tulwlt

s-A...,; G 5
h9JS-+O)
8oo
6-o....n G 10 •.soo
7- o.;.. T•VG I 1,200 A bob
•. AIJ.n T•VG 3 1,000
9· u-t.rn UtdJi T•VG 3 1,000
ro.a.p.i T•VG 900
JJ.Aboll T Z.IOO
ra. Ndmoi
M..-
T•VG I soo
1]. T•VG 6 I,ZOO
14-'- T..-VG J 900
•s- Aabab VG 6oo
r6. l1rrede VG I 700
r 7. Eqrlrl w !wwjW ftlllce- 8 Z,JOO
••. ()pia G 8 4,100 Owerri
.,. ~aBbe G 6 2,700
:ro.A..ra
:u. £Per-
T
T
3
•s
z,soo
z,6oo
..
Ahoada
--at. T 38 6,soo
23· lillpeJa (Qpdia) T 72 6,800

NOTIB
r. Tribe alullllall villages: Nzam from Ayamelum (Northern Ibo, Nri-Awka, No. 1),
5 odren from Ibo and 5 from lg:da (ldah) which speak lgala.
z. linea UDa)l villap: Umaczeuam from Nteje (Northern Ibo, Nri-Awka, No. 3), rest
1lllbown (lpla1).
3· From Achalla and Nteje.
4- Oko -rillage group from Idah, Okwc village from Benin.
S· Atmi and 4 other amall vi11agea from Benin, ldah and lbo.
6. Olomari (from ldah) and 9 other villagea from Benin.
7· FOIIIIdcr from Benin (part of Aboh migration).
8. From ldah and Ibo (Nri, Onitahz, lau).
9· Utcbi, layi and Oauabo.
11. Controlled lower Niger aa far aa Aaaba; founder eaid to hzve come from Benin to
o.iaa, then to Aahzka and Aboh, driving away Akoi people, the previous in-
habitants.
sa. Small villap group once predeceaaon and rivall of Aboh.
13. Obetim and 5 other villages widely diatributed along the Aae river.
14. CIDtdy interrelated with laoko villages.
17. Eight •mall independent villages: U1ie, lgbuku, Obikwele on the Aae river, and Adaia,
Umuolu, Utuoku on the Niger. Onogbokor not located.
18. Opta,_a large trading town, and 7 villages.
19. lzombe, :& 1111111 village groupi and :z villages.
zo. Awarra, An and lkwerede.
 . ···- .u··-··• .-.1'\ro..tNlii I'F.OPLE~ 51
11. Ok•·nl'i 11ntl t:i nthrr ~null '1\b~,- j,!_ruul'"' anti 10 ... mat\~r vi\hiKe• and ac.tt\~menta.
u. Omoku, 11 b.;r.:•· lr.~>lln~ '""" ''· "''"' ."\I "llMII VIII"-KC K'""{ft• viHaKe" and M:tdementa.
Conaiata of_-. ... ul•-111l••·-.., 1:.:•. ().,.,mum <~ontl 1huru
IJ. A I rib: with 1h own IWt uha1 ,bairn anti t:U!IIum•, cnnair.ting o£ 4 auh-triha, Ako\i,
Ubi:, Orup11ta anJ l~o:huJu)a, anJ 71 villail;e& aml amaU ae:l\\emen\11, inc\uding
Ahoada.

DISTINCTIVE FEA.TURfS
The Riverain lbo call themRelves Oru, a name which nineteenth-century ex-
plorers applied to the ljaw immediate!} to the south of them. They are of mixed
descent including Bini (Aboh), /gala (Osomari) and other elements. The groupa
between the Ora.ssi and Sombreiro rivers (•8-23 above) formerly acknowledged the
suzerainty of Aboh (No. 11), the principal power on the lower Niger until the end
of th~ nineteenth century, which controlled trade on the river from I jaw territory
as far ae Asaba. The Bini origin of Aboh is indicated in its title oystem and here-
ditary Obi. The Oba and Ekpeya appear to be very distinct from one another and
from other groups. Exchange marriage is reported as formerly current among the
A warT a.
Yams are grown for subsistence and export, the men being both farmer• and
fistiermen. Two crops of yams are grown each year, one on the Niger flood plain
Wlien the floods begin to subside in October, and one on the higher ground. Oil
palms are leased to immigrant Urhobo and Isoko as well as to lsu-Ama and Western
Onitsha workers, who export some palm oil and kernels. Cocoyams and cassava are
not generally grown. The women engage in trade and in some groups do no
farming.
'\JnJ are not politically unified. They live in compact settlements with their (a~
at some distance away, often with one house in the village and another on the (arm,
In the majority of villages there are red cap (e:e) titles and masked dances, olwroria
and ogbukele, derived from owu dances of the I jaw, The ogbulule secret society has a
lodge in every village, which is often an imposing structure several stories high. In
the dry season members perform a ceremony impersonating spirits.
In the Ekpeya group the men do no farming but rely on the production of palm )
oil and on bunting and fishing for their livelihood. Apart from clearing the bush,
they leave the rest of the farming to the women. This group has a distinctive style
of wrestling in which leg holds are barred.•

4· EASTERN IBO (CROSS RIVER)

TRIBAL AND SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

LocATION
Nonh-east Bende Division ud South-east Okigwi (OW); Afikpo (~
Arochuku (C).
1
Jon•, g, ·~s.
 •• 1'1CII IIlO 1'l'hAii.IN1; l'hll'l 1 ~
.,.,...... ...,. _ .... '
....... ~
... ,...
l•l -'• tiWdal
<•l 4to.m (t\hallla) Ali•l"'·
ll.n.~
An" hu•u
"""·'~
~,

''""
'"·'nu .
'4 ·"'"'
-...~.

-
(t) ""' I,HttO

DISTI Nlll \'I\ FEATlliU:s

. . . . pjryetpd jmmedi•tel)' wgl y( !.he; br!M• .. ~i_':<"!~ havr o.'"". rathrr

thll( .tlinjl'!L.,and G. I. )1111coe •uatr••• that thry uri11;11a~.l in jlarrrrom
l1iO lfOIIPI W\idl ~the O..ipi·An..:huku ridtr at an rarly dntr, tnulitinno ul
whicllblft bellllalt, ud lat.r mlfntN. WNt al<lfiJ(th<' ri.!Jr<" tu mix with nnn-lhu
pNpltt. A nwabN of thtw millt'd pupe .. y that thry Wrf<' thrn .triv<'n north hy
·~ dwufll anMd with blundt'rhulll('a'.lThr kinahip ")'lllrm, mrn'" &lllnci-
ltioaJ ud culta i11diaatr that, apart (rom lll!lllua'iltr, nun-llw drmrntM pf<'duminotr
iiiiOIMI"'''I"o tlpGCially ofth~ .AJ.and .Ak ... ~ at'tM aft' murr hi11hly drvdnflt'd
than 1Ja0111 oth« l1lo and, amona the Ada but nut thr Aham, aft' usuciat<'d with
ellbantr iNdatioll rituala.J
Settlmlerlll are IIIOR ~et than In moat other Iho areas. I louses of all
or
-&:ri Ill utelided ram;y
or. In IOIM tltel, oT &kindred, Aft' joinc.-d tOgt'thcr
to form a CIIQtUlUOUI wall, ccloaina a apace uaually fillc.-d by additional men 'a
bcMI&a, with entrUJCe throqh a m~na houee (ohll) o( the.- Cross River 'Egbo
M.' tJpt. The Wlllfttll, who occupy houeee formi111 the outside wall, have access
du-oqh the bad. doore to ferlced prdena behind and outlide the compound. A
Dwaber of web compound. are arranaed round a central meeting place.
~the Ada ud Abam land l'iJhta pua matri~1tfo' nve for land clea~d
&itA ll iii;a 6Ui6 67 I pin1llnwt arvup. I ne typl o ayatem of block (arm·
IDa, whereby the lud culiivated by the community in any one year consists o( •
lup contiuuoua tract, In which each lineqe hu a block or subsection from 1
qlllltw to a aq~aare mile in extent, ia exceptionally well maintained as compared
with otber anu. Y11111 are the main crop and a s~ue for ~ort is obtained in
!!F nu•
,IIDSIIL Yan
butt:J AN• 011 or''""'' •m
1ft
exp d cmJin period~-~~¥ih
tpt ln epecial stone (ok) in the farming areu, eaai lineage
\a'fi111 ODe or !110ft on the path& leadina to Ita farmland which are guarded by
qtletl.
Other cultural Cutun~~ are 'IV)' variable, but theae groupa are generally dia-
ti!llllilhed by the iVWVbn" a"'chd to head-byptinr, whl'th ia alao marked
IIDOJII the 0,. u•
(North-Eutem Ibo); by 'eecret aocietiea' of the Croaa River
type (e.a. OAMM and Allae amor~~ the Abam, and distinctive forma, e.g./fop
11110111 th1 Acla); by 'dodo' and other muked performancea, and by ucred villqe
hacla and Ofoli lhrlnea aiiOCiated with vill111 he.dahip. Villqa headship, which

the lmn and the Aro. IUtualetavea of lmeaae heaclahlp (,/,), 1,.,_.
OCIIINft a1ao amona thrt lau-ltem (Southern lbo), appeara to be decadent uve amonr
aDd other
 1111 11111 ',1'1 .\h.INL I'HII'I I·:> ~l
'llll\"11 1\1~1 .rt •..,, .. u .. "'Ill<" .1\llllo\ " ' " " ' " ,\11 llh .. t"lll ( )u llu· "'"''' luuul ()hatft, tht:
lluhu• 111111 t. _'•u•• HI\ • 1 ""I","'' ,.,,,1_ ·'l'l" .u• "" ,, ,\,·aty •uhutt\in"'" •.m1y lu ~nl"h
(
~ ~""-'"l. ''ha I. P..: ,, ,,,,/., '1 t'l." 1.. I ,,,,,J;,.J,,, ~ 0" n 1 I) 111 IK"'~" (t hut..lm) •• u. t\mmler
•plltl t. 'uh .,),"'"" ,,,,. _.,.,,,."' (.•· ·'""'"!' 1\11· I \huhu N~t.W.I, :--\•mlh•·•n lhn, whn ~~olan
IUI\1' ( Jlro,.lrr• 1\1\d .11aa,,,, •un u·tu· ... ) :\"'""~'. llu· .'\111 1111tl thr 1\IHim tht• h!.hun D~Kim't
'" m• la . . "{\U\,;. u IU.ll.Ul~ Llu~ lluluu.:Nut 111\lv Ill I' t1H' rwinM t\ralruyrtl, at. arn('fi\ny
inumw, thr lho, hu1 l)u· mulhn '" ""t~lut ,111\TIIuut ol th(' nnnmunity. Nn adC"li\IRir
JIUtlirR t•f th(" n1ltuu· ""'lthc- IUlt"llll "''"lrm" olthc-ac- tc,ltmpa hllvc- yrt hrrn ma.dC"'. 1

TI\III.E X
(1\) 1\lll\ (Eillll\)
'/),hr l'l') Nurrrr.,, qf lor11l Approrimnl~ '"'"'• .,.
ftJ,.,,., s •• , ,,.,,.,(.'\'1") rom"'uMti•• q/ Oll'fitJp mlull Polllltol
l:nnrf' ((i} '"hn" rrpnrlfld frlflllll Divition
I. A•l• (li.hlo)
l'•llrQifl (o'wufl(l'lo')
T •f• ,,,oo
(IQ;\!1 40)
Afillpo
(Q vill•ll" aroupa,
17 villoan)
a. Alik(IO \'(; orT •(l) ••soo
3· Amooori VGorT a,ooo
4· Okpoho VG or 1' 1,100
S· Unwano VG nrT soo
6. Aka01a VG or 'I' 2,200
7· Nkporo VGorT a,ooo Den"de
Appr<»rifflalt lolal atlivt adulr fflahs ao,Joo

NOTBB
1.Nine village groups, including Ngueu, Akoli, Awutu, Oeu and 17 amaller villqea.
Related patrilincally to Aro and have same eponymous lbo anceator. Ada, with
a, 3, 4, S and 7, wu oriainally one tribe living in the pment Arochuku Diviaioo,
which broke up and migrated aa individual groups to their praont turitoriee, the
fint arrivala being No. 7·
6. Of very mixed origins, part Ada, part Elugu (Northern lbo), part lau-ltem (Southern
lbo, D. No. S)·
DISTINCTIVE F'BATURBB
The Alia have a tradition of miantion from the eastern aide of the Croaa Ri'VV,
thence throuah Ohaffia to Npau and Akoli Ada, whence they spread down the
plain.
Both matrilineal and patrilineal kin groups are found together, but nsidence
patrilocal and the patrilineagea alone are territorial unite. The elaborate f:emllcmies
ia)
for the initiation of boya emnd over seven yun, being carried out for thne
months in each year, lncreaailll! in severity and culminating in an ordeal in the
arove of a nature spirit (..4ron) sacred to the Ada, in whk:h bancla of JWIII mea,
• 1-. o. •Ms: Talbot, 19a6, vot. m. p. eoa
. 5• • THF 11(~-~F.,I\.1:'\':
J cedl_.. a~-~ ..-.rh No.-fl •-th<-r "' ~· th~"
r.-,,rl Fo'
c•n.l·.l•:, :"'"'ul'b u..
1 ~ _... "'* ,......................
h<- is ta .... n t...f,...- th~ f''"'" .•t th~ ~~
1 ~ ...._ ~~l ~-"~with r~ .... ~"""''""·'
I

TABLE XI

..
·- ....
•. Aka
~
n.(T'I
~(ST\

~.~
ST
---
(B) AB..o\:\1 \ OH ..o\f'F'B. l
_,........ tl/latwtl
ow~
-~_,.,,
~
... ~
...""" .. .,Jt,•."T

_.;.,.
\IO.I!11-4t"''
:.JOO
b.::«>

.....
,.. ..~ T
ST•\"C
J ,(lOo)
1.7<>0

.....
~- l'- ST•VG
ST•VG
l,boo
1,000

.WO · - , . .,.. . . . ..In q.,Soo

Nons
1. ,...._ ~ .,{ 0.. I.._ ud Ndioji, widt a nUIIIber of small satellite local
a. A_.....-...._. fiiWII&a ol Ebt, Ebem, Amell:pu, with outlying~ villages

.... n.
-~ Aaea. ~ uc1 ..u.., ~with a lar1le number of
). o.n-t E.. ( a - Rna .._....._... ar-P of tribes) but lived with Nkporo
IDIIlOC satdlite

(A. No. 7} r . - a- bSIR tbe lllllll:r moftd furtbel' north .

,, . . ._.......
.. 5 _. 6.. o-1J ......,.. ., Obdia hal, beiac a1 wu with them when Colonial govoern-
- IIIJil _....., padened IQ~ with Arochutu so as to be in a SCparak

OBillC11ti haJuBs
 """"'a
l-'~m '~ \ lh•ffia. "h("t r t h('t r .u r 1hr C"t' 1'•tlh.'lans l" .....,..,..) euhdnid.:d into
-~n h~~tt \I'll, ............ ,, ~·r ...... .~~,. ln .,l,htit•n th«on arr rour rnatric..laM
l.._. ........ -....,\. '!'ub,tl\ td(',l mh• nwu· 1han r,,ft\' hn"•r"•· Rn.idfonl~t' 11 patrilocal~
thf' J'-UthnC"a~ lf"tt) .::ll'\15"<',{ h'UilJ I. ,·cntul rn«llnl( rla~ i!l thfo rH:id~ntial Unit.
ln an,lChc-r C..lhatfia ,.,li•Jtr..~. Flu. h''"c't"r, ttMo f"alarr not tf'nlturiall' united but 1ft
...-.n~""' thn.'u~h,.'ut thC" \1lla~r. Thc-u· an patnlirwal and mat;ilinnl anceoaor
ahrinn. IC"n..l.-.1 by th~ ••hl~<t man ,,f tl>< rn· and the" ul.kst woman o( tlw .._
~i'Th·.
l>at."h ma"tridan and n<h patridan hu it~ l.lwn hnd. ·~.!~ !!J~ ~~~11~1
is Fno-n.lty ,·h.,...n frOrnlli<' """'"r matnClan: Tn ihrOhaffia •·ill~ of A.r. how-
rm, th.. tnular villa~ h.. aJ is <hosrn from th .. ~nior patrician. tlw matriclans play.
ing DO ran in thC" go•· .. rnmrnt ,,f th~ ··ilia~. In Eb..m the" vill~ hnd and tlw
lwads of thr oth~r matridans h~ar s~riuus disput ... jointly with tlw ornior • ort
(......,_.,), which adl"iS<'S on ,·ustomary law and d«id... nt."h ynr wlwre fut111
shall ~ mad... Thr comnlUnit\" farlll$ u a unit and not as ind.ividuallinnp. Usu-
fruct of land may br a<·quirrd eithrr through the matriclan or the pa~.
When a man at."quires land by ckaring forrst or by pun:base, it ill ~oerally d.itidod
up on his death ~rn=n his patri- and matri-kin. but tbC"re are variations in eus1nm
from >-illage to >-illagr. :\t Okon. for eumpl ... dared fomn .,.....,. within t1w palri-
lineqe, the matrilineage having no share, while bought and p~ lmd . -
within the matriline•~· no share going to the" patriline:agr. At Aaga fumiDt ia
organized within the patrilineages, but rights to bought and pledged lmd -
inherited within the matriclan.
Ebem, in addition to an active age-set or-ganization (Mr), has three men's -.:i-
ations, Altd ~.Ob and EkJw. The ceremonies of the first two,tlw ac:aiw WICiatiooa,
are held only in secret, but EkfM performs publicly abo. There are a nUIIIber of
other dances, some using masks, which are not connected with - uso .., • .....,
such as AJ'-Itol, performed at the new yam season.
Abiriba is a wealthy community of tnaders, blal:bmiths. doctors and cnlbmen,
among whom mat::rilineaJ institutions are dominant.
Many cu1tun1 featmes of this group have parallels aJDOIII tbe 'lani-llanla' (,
peoples east of the Cross River, such as the Yak6 and Apa'apae.• )

TABLE XII
(C) ARO
..........
, ........
DISI'DIC1'Ift FIIAT!IRBS
(~-
The ....., are a tn"be of specialist traders, IMDf of whom-~~
lbo 1111d lbibio country, livilla either in partic:ular 1oal ~ ........ •
·~9.1M$o
 $6 TIIF 180-SPE."'Kll'\o..; rt::ort.F.s
~ or in ~mall tanni~ ~1.-~nts whi,·h th.-y han·,. bou!(ht and farm ,·ommer-
oially f'(> ~ <"Xf'\'11 <'n'f'&. To-da~· th<-~· a...- found in thr.,.,- main con,·entrations
(1) tk hom.- trib<" <>r ~1.-ftl<"nt ~p of Aro.-lt11At. with outl);ng plantation.
~ tk ~rn-.unding tribe>; (a) .\"~ sub-tribe among rh.- Northern Ibc
(~ ~. l'\o. ~S); O) s-.yi sub-tribe among the Nonhern lbo (see Nri-Awka,
No. 3a). A ~ oumb.-r of smaller settlements and isolated hom.-steads are now
i.oc:luded f« administntiYe purposes under \"arious other tribes or groups.
Tbe Aro claim to hal'e em.-~ as a distinct group at the time when the Ada
~ mignltillfl to tbe north. The village of Arochuku was founded after a successful
~by lbo slaftS who called in the assistance of Akpa mercenaries (possibly an
o«sboot of Agwa'~) .gaiost their Ibibio masters. Of the present patrilineages
in Arochuku, si• c:Wm to be of Akpa, five of Ada lbo, three of Amaseri Ibo, two of
lbibio aad three of other origins.
At Arochuku was the shrine of a spirit called C/aJru lbinokpabi-the Long Juju-
famed as m oracle and also as a fertility spirit throughout the South-eastern
Provmces. At tbe beginning of the present century the Aro spread through the
Nigoer---Cros:s Rive£ hinterland as traders, money-lenders ~d exploiters of the Long
Juja. They dealt espec:ially in slaves and gunpowder, and 1f a man could not pay his
debls he sold one of his relatives or was himself sold. People who were unable to
settle disputes were urged by the Aro, who had great prestige, to refer the issue to
tile shrine of tbe Long Juju, where, after suitable payments had been made, the
priest settled the matter decisively by reporting the disappearance of one of the dis-
putants. They ofma made a pretence of killing the victim, but actually sold him as a
slave.. Am po1Rr and inBuence were also supported by hired mercenaries drawn
from the Aba, Abam and Ada peoples.
The nineteen 'towns' of the home tribe are derived from nine patrilineages (otun)
each under a headman (also olasJ). These patrilineages are localized in the nine

I1
'parent towns', the remaining ten settlements being offshoots and accretions under
an Cif!. The head of the Am chiefly lineage is known as &~Aro and is the otwi of
tbe 'town' of Oror. He is the eldest living freeborn male tracing patrilineal descent
from OM-NtJL:Jw, the traditional founder of his line, and is always regarded as the
senior o1mi no matter what his age. There are no data concerning the existence or
cbaracter of matrilineal organization.
The Am council consists of the nine otwi headmen, each representing one 'town •,
together with representatives from the other ten 'towns'. The basis of its power is
largely religious and it carries out an annual sacrifice of ekeji at the feast of new
yuns.
V The Am have adopted some Efik customs and have elaborated the Okonko-Aka 0
laecret IIIISOCiation into a title society with numerous gndes.
Aro houses are rectangular with palm-leaf mat roofa, often joined together to
farm a compound encloaing a large courtyard. •

...; I;::~·~~~:t"-5, 411; Tollbat, I~P6, VoL IJI, p. 893; Nola on llw
l
 1 Ill.• &an•-••1 1.",/\"-lf"\\(.j PEOPI...EH 57

5· NORTH-EASTERN 180 (OGU UKU)

TRIBAL AND SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

LoCATION
Ogoja Province, Abakaliki Division and the part of the Afikpo Division north of
the Asu river.
TABLE XIII
Tribe (T) Numbn of local Approz;,..,. ...,...,.,.
Sub-tribe (ST) comrrrunitin of actitJfl adult PolitWJI
Group (G) whnerfljHJrted Dioiritm
1. Ezza
ViUage Group (VG)
T :az ST
""'"'"
(IVJS-40)
26,8oo Abakal.iki
2.
3·
Ikwo (Ekwe)
lzi (Iji)
T
T
IJ
IJ
.. 11.ooo
24,000
4· Ngbo T 8 5.6oo
5· Ezengbo T 4 .. 2,000
6. Agba VG {•VG
1VG
{2,200
2,500
..
Afikpo
7· lsu VG ...zoo
8. Onicha VG 2,900
9· Okposi VG J,OOO
10. Oshiri VG 1,700
11. Uburu VG lo-400
12. Ugulangu VG 1,200
IJ. Ukawe VG Jo-400

Appro:ri1111Jte total actwe aduh mala

Nons
1. Subdivided into zo sub-tribes of Amana, Amaezekwe, Amagu, Ameka, Amuda,
Achara, Ekka, Amuzu, Amudu, Ezzama, ldembia, Nsobra, Nyere-Ekb, Oko16a,
Oriuzo, Umuochara, Umuezokoha, Umuezoka, Ogboji, Nkmuru, and 2 groupo now
considered as sub-tribes, namely the farm-land settlement of Bzza-Agu and the
assimilated Orri village group of Effium (Ezza-Effium).
2. Subdivided into 13 sub-tribes of Akpanwudc!e, A.magu, Igbudu, Inyimagu, Okpuit-
umo, Achara Uku, Akpelu, Amaguru, Ameka, Ezeke, Nmuta, Achara and Alike.
3· Subdivided into a pareli.t village group or sub-tribe of Amagu, and into the additioual
sub-tribes of Edda, Enyibs, Igbeagu, Inyimagu, lshieke, Okpuitwno, and also of
Abia, Achara, Agbsja and Nkaliki. Abia is an assimilated Ea:a grnup and the last 3
sub-tribes are derived from it.
1, 2 and 3 claim that their ancestral founders came &om the Bende ridge (from 1 -
or from Arochuku). They also claim a. remote relationship ezpressed in • genalacy
which makes the ancestors of :a and 3 brothers, and the ancestor of 1 married IlD
their aiater.
4· Probably derived from s with • certain IUilOUDt of Igala (Apla) cultunl ud -w
admixture.
 <.,
S· _,D""""""' , ,. ljt ~~~-
l'"hr $('1oo."1a.. ~fnk"'tU~ Ctl. 1-_c; J,tf.on;. fr.., m th:n ~,.,f ,,tlw-r Jb.., 1n that ,H"!l\ .1 :'mall pan
the ("l''pU''Mton of • ~ur In~ in ·~ '"n~nal hliU$~-bnJ. the- rt·m.unJ~r an:
(tl..
~ O'ft'l' thr farmland\ ..... \ m a lA~· numlw:-r of smot.ll h.1mkts l•G-....p).
I• E--. (•> iR<ft'eSit oi J"'.lf'Ul.tll'n has rn......Ju ..:~d a J1tfC"n-nt pattrrn ag.un. in ""hich
~ . . lribes . . W' ~n "jumf'"'-'" and ~ttkrrtoe'nts made- in the lo~nd occupied
~ ...... e.-. tn Eaa-Agu and El::u-Ertium. Th<- SC'Uit-m<nt pattern of the

......
.-.iRi"Ciri'- (~J) is similar tc> thar of or her Ibo village groups in the Eut""'

6, ~· &. u. QriciR ad ~p nor g;,..,n.

9 ..cl ro. Ooim to lor rdoiN aacl deri"" founding oncestors from the I gala.
aa, 13. , . _ SOJI>.tn"bos o:Mt ...... bralteo away from Ea:a ( 1 ).

DISTINCTI\'E FEATURES

) 'I'b<n - thftor ~ tribal groups, £=11, lkwo and bri, known administratively
<E 'cbns'• ..-ith a num~r of smaller local communities in the northern part of
'.IJikpo Division, related in \"lU)~ng degn:es to the Ezza. A few surviving groups of
' ~. tbougbr ro have ~n tM inhabitants before the arrival of rhe lbo, are found
\ ia dais--
The dialects spoken by this group appear to be more closely related to rhose of
o-rri than to those of tM Awgu or Udi groups.
The aJIIIIU1 is smooth and genlly undularing. Avenge rainfalls at Abakaliki and
Alilpo Gowamaeot &mons are 81 inches and 77 inches respectively. Thin belts
md small islands of dosed forest occur, but most of the area varies from open wood-
lad to ordwd bush and tall grass. The rain fon:st zone begins in the south and
east of .Aapo Di-rision. In the - season streams are numerous, but all except the
bq:at dry up ia the dry season. •
The Nordl-&stern lbo are renowned yam fanners and they export conslderable
quiiifiijeS: The grater part Of the surptiis goes to catabar Provmce via i:he Cross
Riia'iiiir its tributaries, the east and west Aboyne and Okpoku rivers. There is also
a wl••nJial aad growing tr.Uiic in yams by road to Enugu and the eastern railway.
Oil palms m-e little exploited and there is no export of oil or kernels except in periods
uhay bigb pri1zs.
Owing to the great size of yam-heaps (up to five cubic yards of earth) and the
'RII-dnined aoil, JliiDS can n:main in the ground throughout the year. A farmer
- ' llllly store those he wants to sell or eat in the immediate future. This leaves
time for new &nna to be made and planted in the dry season (November to March).
Yoang men, particularly in the Ezza and north Afikpo groups, also take advantage
of tkis by making their own farms early and migrating in March to other districts
wbeft tbeJ obtain employment in making yam-heaps. A special type of hoe is used
with a large ciradar bladl: a foot or more in diameter. This hoe (ogu rJw) accounts
far the IJlllllle gives to the group.
Incrasing populalion is making for land shortage; the only opportunities for
~ aJe to the aorth, away from water, where recent settlers from f:zz.c!IJ.f,
I Walloce, 1940-
 f
TilE 111<>-:-<I'FAKIN<; I'EOI'LES 59 ,
,.,mCT"ntratin.: on other commo ...iitit·!'l., such a~ prpp~r and groundnuts. The Ngbo I
~rrour wt-avr Ctltton duth for salt" to tht· rc.·!'t of the area.
In somt' art~a~ Jlvt.""stuck. partit.:ularly ~..·anle, constitute~ an important source of
im:·ome. Youn~ bulls (NiRcrian shorthorn) arc ~xport~d to Owerri, Onitsha and
Calabar Provinces, mainly for use: in ceremonial feasts and usually paBS through the
market ot Uburu in Afikpo.•
SociAL STRUCTURE

Each patrilincage has its original home land (ufu), where the Ishi Alt (head of the1
senior lineage), the elders and their elder sons live with their wives and young
children, and a large area of more recently acquired farmland (agu ndiagu) over
which the young men and their wives and families are distributed in a string of
small settlements, the most recent of which are on the boundary.
The lineage heads with ~he senior age set form the lineage and sub-tribal councils.j
Lineage councils meet more often than the latter, settling internal disputes and
dividing out land for farming. There is no central organization governing the
various sub-tribes. The 'horse title' which among some Northern lbo, e.g. Nsukka
and Udi (q.v.), is part of an elaborate title system, is found as a sole title among the
North-Eastern groups other than the Izi. The title claimant similarly provides a
public feast at which a horse is ceremonially killed and eaten.
Settlements are very dispersed and household units do not farm together in large
blocks. Houses are square, with low walls about three feet in height, circular grass
roofs and a small verandah in front; they are set in a compound surrounded by a
fence of sticks or a mud wall and the entrance is through a clay porch.
Although some of the groups border the middle Cross River, they have not
adopted Cross River customs. Head-hunting was strongly developed, as east of the
Cross River, but it was also widespread among other lbo. Unlike the setni-Bantu
peoples to the east they are singularly free from fear of witchcraft.
They differ from neighbouring lbo groups in dress. Instead of a loincloth meu
wear a cloth knotted round their waists as do the Tiv. Ezza, Izi and some lkwo
women do not wear the usual lbo waist-cloth but go unclothed except for a small
cloth apron stained red with camwood and hung from a string round the waist.
The rectangular lbo basket is unknown, being replaced by a round baaket, which,
when carried on the head, is supported by a wooden disc.

RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND CULTS

Clruku, the Ibo supreme being is known, but Obaui appears both as a
and as a go o e un erwor . e cut o gv~e, o g tmng and rain, bas
"been lntrodaeei1 by ttinerant ""diviners from the Northern lbo. Aro traders and·
priests have similarly established the cult of Ch~Jru lbinokpobi. There is an elaboratl:
ancestor cult connected with the graves of fathers and more remote ancestors, but
no 3/3 staffs. Heads of lineages are buried in their o"fl.. compounds; a shrine is
erected over the grave and a house built over the shrine{_l"be living head is priest of
the shrine and also of the other cults of the group, the most important being that of
Ale (earth deity), for which there are shrines for each lineagejTbe priest-hc.d el
1 Wollace, 1940; Jo- 9, 1945.
 tilt llftiHw ltllftt";, '" turn ~-lttad (/Jinllrl 111 t~r ~uh-rnl~ dll.f r/111 u( tht
lltllior ,U~·tril!r i~ rnNt·llf'ld ,t( rltr trr/lr. Th~ rhr ~hrlflr! ,{ ''" ,, " ,, ,,;,,"
)•"' l'hnM' tl rllr tnllllanmtm and ,,f .4/t (,,, rhr rri/'1(· •~' "h,•/r n,,, iumrrht
' of rituef1utflt~, .-ht\"h IN'tfli'J ht hnr p/11"!'111 Cftn~itlmh/r f'JII rrr lfiJirrl~tnini
I 1 lW'IIIr tl rrit.J unin·, ;, tllllll tkiTirrrJ am<mr tht .'V~ho •nd run /1" Jur mPill
hi lpla inftumct l'hich is mdtd amo~~~: rhi~ ~oup.'

',_," ••u; lil»>. ,.-, Vol. 11, p. 4r. Vol. m. N' m. s9,
 HI HLIOGRAI'HY

180

AnAMS, J. Slutche• taken tlurirrg tm fJOYtlftl to Afrira btt~ttn the yearr 1786-18oo
London: 1802.
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Oa.,...L. F. Fflll S,_,.,_fr'p• ..~,....._ .\'tr..n~ l ...,n~f,,n L.. n~nun,.. ( :,, . •. 5.. l ·. 'll''
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..
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B
 IHIBIO

PART I. GENERAL
TRIBAL AND SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

LOCATION
The lbibio are found to the south and south-east of the Ibo in South-eastern
Nigeria-mainly Calabar Province, save for the /tu Mbu.:zo sub-tribe in Bende
Division, Owerri Province and certain villages of Obcmg (Anang) and of the /luJ
(Eastern lbibio) which have attached themselves to the Ndokki (Ibo) of Owerri
Province and now form one of its sub-divisions. A few fishing villages (a few
thousand people in all) from the Riverain group now form a small tribe (Isangth)
in the Kumba Division of the Cameroons.
GROUPING
The lbibio-speaking people, whose total population is estimated at over one
million, are, after the lbo, the second largest linguistic unit in the South-eastern
Provinces. Six main sub-divisions or groups of tribes are conveniently recognized:
Loe41ian by Admirtis!7aliw At>tm>zj- ,......,.
Diuisimu of tJ&tiw adMJl trrDID
(1944-5)
I. Eastern or lbibio Proper Calabar Province: Uyo, Itu, Eket, Ikot
Ekpene, Enyong (Aro), Abak, Opobo
and Calabar Divisions-Owerri Pro-
vince: Aba Division So,goo
11. Western or Anang Calabar Province: Abak and Ikot Ekpenc
Divisions-Owerri Province: Aba
Division
Ill. Northern or Enyong Calabar Province: Enyong (Aro) and
Ikot Ekpene Divisions-Owcrri Pro-
vince: Bende Division 6,6oo
IV. Southern or Eket Calabar Province: Eket Division u,aoo
V. Delta or Andoni-Ibeno Calabar Province: Eket and Opobo Divi-
sions 7JOO
VI. Riverain or Efilr. Calabar Province: Enyong (Aro), Calabar,
ltu and Eket Divisions--Cameroons:
Kumba and Victoria Divisions 8,700
1!j(i,ooo

NOMENCLATtllU!
The name lbibio, actually th&t of the largest sub-division of the people and com-
monly applied to the whole for lack of any other, is now generally accepted as IlB
• The compooition 1111d distinctive featura o f t ' - main ...,_ ue oadined in 1be .....__.
below.
 68
edmicad~tnm.'I1w ~ fonn.-rf~- had no name t>y "h" !: ""' rcft·rr<d
to tbeuwhe 11!' a .......W. 11w na~ -~'"· used by Euror<·dn• in the '",.,.
teeuth CleiRUfY to decri~ tM ~and e<>Untry·. apptars tt> haH .:c•rnr!t-teJ,· do.d
oat. Se.. lbo call them .V-t . ..-hik- tM l'mani (Ekmn~·) lbo call them J..:r;.a. TI."
sboakloot ~ c:oaEusrd with the similac Efik ~ for th~ indigenou• !"'ou ps amun~
wt-. the Efik srnied.'
HJS1'011T A..'ill 1'a..uKT1oNs cw OaiGIS

~ first nro sub-divisioas, EGinrl oc lbtiiJi6 Propn and U',st<'Tft or A rtmtg, hn~
oborious1y ocaapied their p-eseu~ babiw fill' a very long time. The~- ha,·e no tradi-
lila of~&- elstubcre. T1le other groups appear to ha,·e been deriHd
from the lbibio Proper.
Its a rc:sair ol the slaft trade, direct references to the lbibio occur comparativdy
e.ly. T'beil' !.la- hislary is bound up with that of Calabar and the Efik settlemeou
.tuag the ..,_. er- Riwl'. 'I1Ic: first mission was establ..i.ahed at Calabar in 1846 by
the Rev.~ W.tddl md schools wa-e started. During the latter part of the nine-
~ cmrary various military expeditioos were undertaken to bring lbibio groups
1IIICI£I' COIIb"OI aud. as a resuh of the Aro expedition in I9'JI, Ikot Ekpene, I tu and
U,., wa-e opr:aed as military poasu iD IC)OJ. It wu, however, se"·eral years before
'ljl · · raiwe alllbtll cou1d be ....,.b!ished and there were repeated skirmishes,
troaps beiDg .mc-d .r lbt EkpeDe as lately as 1921 and again aher 1924)- 1

l"oPmAnmi Es1DBTIIS
'I'he 1~1 Ca.us ....mm..! a tobl population of C}6o,.f00 for the groups con-
llidsed 111:R; tile 1931 elllimBe of 749-6oo is thought to be less reliable. The total
...a- ol ~ adDh mala has been estimated • approximately 1C}6,ooo from
• 1944-5 Namiml Rolls..
J:liiiBn
'I'he ~ dr:aaity a Calabar ProviDce was estimated at 1 SS perso1111 per
.....-. lllilc ia 11)21 md Lf2 pa11011B per aqaaR mile in 19JI. These provincial
_.,.are,~. m"' £.ng, as dalsities nry CODBiderably. From such
cll:ailal figures • are :lftibbloe it would appear that deosity is greatest in the Uyo,
AW md. lJa lflttae Dmaiams (Easaan aud Western groups), when: densities rise
to 6-llao pc:l' .....-e mile, :md lowat in Im, ~ (.ho) and parts of Ctdabar
~ ~ Nartbcrn md Rm:nin groups), when:: they faU to 30 or leaa
pc:l' ....-re mile.. "'''IIIB die Af• Olulr village group of Western or ADaug lbibio
iu n:pomd to hme an avcngoe deaairy ol 8oz pcl' square mile, and otbc:r Anang
riB., e.g. Al&aia md Ot.aru, aceed 6oo. On the otbc:r hand the Eki viDage group
ol Nardlr:m lhibio llas a RpOrtal deaairy ol ooly 12 per square mile and the
......,_~ vilbge group ol P.altcm or lbibio Proper a damity of 32 pc:l'
..,-re llllik.. 'I1Ic: Soalhan 01' Plid group is .,.,;mated to have an average deuaity ol
. , . _ SO ..t 100 pc:l' .....-:mile. The North-eastern area of the E6k or RiveniD
. . . , iu dlialy JICIIIIIW, wiU: a dr:mity ol so pc:l' square mile is reported for the
. . . ..a...cribe oldliu group.
0 T ..... 3. ...... VaL I, p. 193; - ' - a, 1')46..
 l'llco ~n~ral raucrn con~l!'tll!. of an ov~r-popt~1at~d core in the Central Anang and
E.t~rn lbibio ar~•. rapidly cltcrca•in~ outward. All the lhibio area lln the Welt honk
<>f t~ Enyong and CrMS Ri,·el"!! i• heavily populated <>cq>t in the utreme lOUth.
On th< ust bank the country "hich, except in the neighbourhood rA Creek T"""'
and Calabar and part of Okoyong and Odot, io mainly forest, io under-populated.'

LANGt:AGE

The lbibio speak a number of rdated dialects, of which EfiJ< ia the beat known,
which Johnston' and Thornaa• have classified ao 'Semi-Bantu' in the Sudanic
group on the grounds of noun claases and noun-verb concord. Weatermann• in-
cludes Efik and lbibio in his Benue-Cross-River group of Weatem Sudanic Lan-
guages. In his opinion, however, Efik and lbibio do not conform exactly enough to
the rules to justify their inclusion among the Sudanic class languages, a tam be
uses in preference to 'Semi-Bantu', and be labels them 'pseudo-daalangoaga'.'
Efik, although spoken by a smaller number of people than the othtt Ibibio
dialects, has established itself as the literary language and ia undentood by all
educated lbibio. This has happened firstly becauae the Elik have alwaya been grat
traders, and secondly because the Scottish Mission originally wrote down the
Calabar dialect, translated the Bible into it and published Goldie'e dictiooary. E6k il
geoenilly accepted among the lbibio as the literary language but the other cliala:la
~ retained in speech among the other tribes. Efik has remarkable ~
power and has spread atensively in the CroaB River area and even into the c--
oons. It is, for example, said to be supplanting the Ododop ~ amoag tbe
Oltoynng on the east bank of the CrOSB River.'
The dialecta differ most in vocabulary, to a laa a1e11t in IOI1IId IJitCm :md
grammar and very little in tone. Compand:ive vocabularia coUa:ted by lda Ward'
show that there is considerable similarity between Ejik and the Ibibio proper, On.,
Ekn, Arumg and lbeno d.ialectB, wbicl1 ~in gmaal muto:ally i:mdligible. The
.ANlotG dialect is said to be more divergent and quite mrintrlligible to IIIUit otba-
lbibio, though it is believed that the Andoni and the lbaJo can 1lllllc:naud cada
other.•

PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

lbibio COUDtry is low-lying, the bigheet poiniB beiDg only 200--]00 fed aboft-.
lcvd. The land is ~of &iable and& aud ia llluDdaB cu.ept far m OCICIIIical
outaop of a thin band of quartzitE along tbe _.bank of tbe en. Rna. n-
are three main zones:
1 c - of .IYipria, '!~'-!.• Vol. I, pp. 14..t 9!J; ~ :1; ....... :0, 1Mfr; ~ ...........
o S... T.o.ot, 3. 19"16, Vol. IV, pp. 9$-6.
•-r-. 1914-
• W - . I, IIJZ7, pp. IJ lt
1 P~ . ,- a, H..-.a- 1M7-
•W-.:a.•929-
•Wad, d""" t......._iea.
, ~~~ ~,.? ·oe Oliaoa ria J. M. o. I'WII, •9f7·
 r th. 1\ • 1\\S, \\ hh·h .U ~' f'l. 1\f, ,t .11lh'll~
n ~._. .,,llt•,"t then\ u\f,, b.t:--lc·ts .tlhl ,·.ut '

, ''"'('n. "1h'
1' ~"' n ·,1 h~ '' ''"' n. l"lw' . r

r hl tr, t.:i<" :, 1\\. \nh in tl.sh . f\ ,{ r.tl!n nil . _ ''11\ l".ISfc't ll .lt\ d
ln:• t, p<:"tt\ hh·, ..~ 1 tf. ,flnr~ . n,1 l.u !-!t" nurnhc.·t~ ~.u n I'·" t ,,f
\ nh n tht F. :;.t rn lb1bi,,. nd :\ n.1n .. , ,t,ntp~ tH.illill.l~ h.\\
n ..~ , . nJ h. ' b n t 't. n'c."d .tl"l'l ·~tdr " ·~t \11 i,•,tn l",'.d
t'rt\fl\ \.' 11 ,·u1.HitH\,"

·~ ...-.--. .
' \. ~t, 'll& )rti \ , l

·~- . . . . . . . . . . . No.,, 1114..

 \"' t I ''I I

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, . u.. t ,..,, \ '. \ 1\1

Il l , ,t. . •, ••. •t \I·' ~lh

I ,,
l \\
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1111! ,\,d\
\lio\ \ 1\ J1
1\ 1

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\ 11
,,.,,,,,,hi. ,.,,. ' " '
1\ . " ' ,\ I I 1..
"'' Ill "' '
Hl ol 1\ 1\ 1111 ]
\ '1' 1\• 1 \
•' 11 1!11
"'''I
IIH!o \ \\
I
11\-t
I'
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111111 • h' ,,,, ,\, h '

\ I h' \l 1'•'1 11 h \I :• I ll \ < 1' 11\t\

( 111 \I \ , \\hi:\.' Ill\ I o h• l \ 11

, •' tl\h\\'•1 \ '\ -.ttlllh 11• 1\ u\.\1 •1. l'11t ilt• \\•d•11• . lti•IH • II I \'11\ \ ,\11 ;Ill " l r 1 11

1 ,., ••11 •• ,~:.n'' -""'l\ 't't'· .11 '· ' ,,, 111\d •• , t·· th·• ••• , th . t h... .. ,,, '' " , ,.u, ,,,, ~~~·
fl>'\t \ 111 \L'"• .1 1 1 "1.\( h I • , •'• - Ill , ,\
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.t h\ . 1\ "• 1 11 ' Ill ' ' \I \!' J l.l l ( 1 11 .d\ 11 \ \ '11\i' "" I 11\ \ll\\\ h l\\-. 1 11 11\l hl\ 1\ 1\ \
\ • lu ·. t i'\ 11l hoiU'·• lt,•\,\•. 1• J, t 1nl 1,1 .\• , • (~ol\ \\\11, h t1 U \ h t· .1 1 l\1 11p•'l ll1!1 , :1 ~~~il l
],•( o\ \ •' \\ .H ,I l r l o•t111· 1'·11 1 ••I .1 Hh k t ··d l\ 1 lll\ 11111 1 \\ht~h 11 1 ~ t•' \l'''' nllr-' 11 h\
~~ ;H· , ·ub t k •:1. t, 1 ,,, · .- ! del' ~l ·~ < lttnt). ~·nh
1.1\ h t lh· 11 \1•'1 1 l'lf" llhll tiHtlr UI C'lltht' l
dl fh r lo-: 11 1\1 1\, l h- 1\ \.\ \ \ ,,. , \j •.fttl lf il<lll\ th\ 1\ ( ll.d \w.td tl! th e \l.lfttiii\Li l.~f" (l .'ff
J'l\f' t. A· ) , the- tl\ .tk liH' tHh n ., t' l \\ h 1,· ), t,,, Ill Ill" ,h ttHll\.11\l tHh J ru ~" til !h(' t~ftt'J
~"''I lL1\', ,,1!,·, t•\ c '' ~ hi '\ " ' 1h t ~tl h l -\ill 11 1tt!: h tiH' 1-'rr ( lfli () 1\l.t\ (\,· di :itllh 1
lt•Hil IIH' rt.
r'_~·{'ll~~ . 1\ ,• IIU\ t\t l ( 11 !-: 1\tl\1\1\ ;h ' ( \\ !1\\lt\1( tlu• \:11t f' t 'ot ft l l\ •i.c' IH
J• t'hc lt h':\1 •' •\ 1\ \ 1\\\IIHI\ n t ,h ~• pe' t ~W d \ tiL\ ~~<" ( ..1~1() t\t •!/lt•l), {'tHllJ'II ~iHH >I HlltHhl"'t
oi \\.nd ~ ~ lLIIti\H :1 , . , ,ll\\\\ t t\1 11\ r dtti K pl :lt' f' ( rfr f\t! ~) ). ,,J11 c h 1:t the ft .ldtht t t\.ll
~· (' 1\U <" •'' hh·.d ,.(,1\lt••l . .11hl ILl\ ttlt.i ;I t c ,·,,~:;, llt :r d l r:\~l f' l .nihil\ ~ th r hc ;lll:t ,,l tlw
litlc\ 1::.' ' :-1 , },'"'" 11 .t ~ ( )bdi}
tit Fr. J.lu11 .
1 1
l'hr dt.-.ttl,' t •H '\dLt}-tr- )<\ lcHl!' ' V-'•'(J), h.th l\\1\ (,IC;tlh 111 FnHI! ' h .t ~ 1\ 'to\\1\
1•\\t 11\tt h (;h' h ' tll.1 ft(' " tllut\ tl w )-: lent!' '' .1" Lu gr l, .1\th'lhH\h\tl:l, fh t\HH, Il 11
llH H hl .1 ~~\)\'tMt• "ith t lh• t' ( h<" t-' in ~· l' 11H' 11f1Hd:!o .wd (~••n:, id(• t('d tt ~<'"ll lt1th.f'd \\ 1lh
thrtn h . h.ins hlp . <'nr 'tll.tgc' ut ~ lh' h .\ ~ ttntf\ \\.1 ~ ~t, t\\ f' tiuw~ tr.~ t'!{ Ot ; rd "'
:' <.~ t\11\1. thr nl,tr:u ll\.\1\ in tf lwttl ~ thr r r ,· ·· ~ ni \ tl tt(lt ,ll k:ttl<'t {(}kt,k•l) ltn thr
\\H1o ~\ \ ill.l~'(' g~tHtt' , ;\ ~c' t' Hi:ll lr ;ttlt't \\,\~ .t\-s,, .t ~ .I till~ ln' t\~1\~ . ~· ~l.utd \i$\Lt}l\
k.th1\\l\ .\ ~ f)/l tl( [,t d(l t U' (l/lci(J {)fiht, .lt' (.' tlltlttl,lt ht hh' .llif\ .
:\ tl'.tiH·~ .\tl(•t•tintt .\ '11\\\ n ' '' n c h .tthlh-d In ,t .. 1, } ·'(M ·f tHnh'il ,,t ('\.In~ ( _\l,,.,,,(t
/Jr~(>), pt('!·Hdc.~ d {'\t' t b\' .11\ Cl/t.l (). I Sd(l, ft \J.t tlh•t \\ tth ~C'l<"df'd tHt'tl\hl•t :- o tlf the
·''!" :-; r· t~ (q ' ), .11\d , 1\ .n tho:· l · , ~,.\sS H" <'1, \\ tfh tht• ff:f' J 1itk
'"''' (' ~--! (· n l ,,t .td11l1
$t\l' l<' l \~
,·,nttwd '' hn~ h ".\ ~ t',\1 H'h't h .\ \\.\t l'\' tt1h' il. ~Hd1 ,l l' tHllh"d \ Lt..;, :t:\111\
tndn,·d nnh tt\ ~tt.-~ .ll ' ' ith ~t' t ;~," ~~ ~ ~~\1{· ~: ,\tlwt" ~ ~· · thr- ;;.n,·t .lllm.:.\~< :l \\.:' h ' th<"
i\l l)d.tnwnul utul ~ ,,t l.t" .11tti .tutlwttf\ , ;dth,,u~ h the' ,ldulr .tf c s\'1 :-~ '"'t ;~h,•
;'"l'(HI.It\t in "'" '" ~' lilt,(' nU.th' t ~ .
,"i • 'Ill<' 'tt.l\' ,, tt t ''"I' ~ v A•p.; i.M ) \\it h .t t1 .1ditH\ H l\t t.. ' t\1\\llh'" .tih' ~In hut 11•'
,,,tnut ''-'\.! .\1\t • .HH\1\ l1t ._1 ,- ,~~~ ~ .\ll\l h ' t u hl tktn tWt'd~ d~t· ,·hkl:!i •.)f t h'-· t\ '11' ..
fH'H\t'll( \ ill.l~! t' :o' HH' t .\, ,\1\ 1;./ If,•,• ''tltiH(.'il ,
I ~1\111 '9 \ . J, '''-4
 n.~
11K ~ aoit. ~. . ~a - · his ..-ik .x- ""'~ and ..:hii.Jn.on. is J.i:>ti nt!u•sh-
ed. k dloe- ..,..\5 _,..the
IN. ~~r.ttion ;&n...i s........ ;>J ,·ontn'l c'U(!HJ.. tb.,
..a.- is-~ withia tM ~and UO!~'lirti.'U$ lin~ ( ~kpvir \ . This
~ of a ~ of pcriliDNl rdal:i'I"I:"S tra<.~ desc=t from " sing!" awl" .lilO.:.,s<or .
..._ . coatiaar to dam the support Q[ their o ..-n lin~.agc- head a.fr.,r rh"Y ~
-ned- ~ lllftl of a~ are liS a rule largd~. but oft.,n not entird~·. gy-ouped
~ widlia a sad K uad coasti~ tM nucleus of a ...-an:~ . .\ ~rtlement may
~ oah" ..ear as -:r as eight ~- Data on the size. gen.,alogi~-al depth
.d ~-afsq; ..;.c. of lbibio ~are not aYailable. but there ap~
.. be ., ~ - 4ltbel' Glgaaiaatiou iar:o ~ clans.
'[k Ji.eage ,._. (Eat Elll-/t) liE moral authority and ritual obligations onr a
..n.R field. as -is dte ~ oi the shriDes oi tM ancestral symbols ( aM1114 ekpo ).
.. ._,. 1te is also ~be far .&piDg farm plots OD lineage land, though in
pndia: .these datia aft geacnDy perfauwd by a secular ward-head (Ete Ot.b).
• 111.1 as dte p:icst of tile liaea@:e is eDtitXd to the respect and obedience of its
~- He Mlo hE the right to claim farm work from them.
'!"kft is &air: ~ to ~ fissioD 01' to migration from one village to
--.r. "niB jMIIICC4iw:< has been~ adopted where pn:ssure on land and
.._..~._become-.... Lin 8 JUayalsosub-dinde without renouncing
dte biM al kia&hip. - of the members migratiDg dscwbet-e to form a new
~ wt.ida B. ..,__., . - c l Uta- the origioal founder of the lineage . 1

F-OP~ lloosli Tnoss

A--r tt.: Eallall ..t. W~ lbibio sett' ts are dispel: sed. Compounds
.., _ . . _ . a 1ll:nia.y D 1 · 1 by a -.D ~ c:ommunity of 200-400
,....-. E.::h ei dime s:cd • clist-sed ~ bas a recogniz<d. centre or
clr:.ed ~ ~ . . .) _.. far 1llll:ll:tiDr lllld ~ by IDOili.DDellts to the
..._ N f ;a it is att- -51-n lllld a:gkctul. as mission and school com-

-
a.-.--
.,_.-me
,...a. wt.ida .... _ , ~ - Id the lilllit<d - - of tOne and labour foc-
-.ty pl.as..
c*' willl roalt of r.&ia ..... -.t. Walls- of smoothed clay
a UZIIk .... falll:i --.....; • 'Shatta<d. wiaclows wbic.h ue DOW CCJQUDUft arc
,......,. " ' - - . • ,.
........
.._ . - - ~~.ne eepaue t a - groaped m
~~
.\GB~
:1.1..1~ in th.,- villatte were fonn...rly gn•uP",J in atte ~" (Ilk.. ) th.. status uf which
i"'·'""asc:J. with ~niority. I nforntally .-stabli:sh.. d for a ltruup <>f boy~ at about ten
:"'arS of~ · a ,._,t was formally r«'Ot(ni~d when its ""'m~n "'""' about t'"(v.,
~eus old. From that time until marri~ (for~rly ill about Rnnteoen years) a !Wt
was subject to the educational and other authority of its seniors.
Adult ~ts remained active until middle age. senin~~: as sdf-wocipliMry institu-
ti<>DS and guardians of public morality . Conuolkd by the mc:m~rs uf the Mniur
~ they could punish their own members for llDSftmiy behaviour towarW. oldrr
men. They were given eXe(:Utive pow,r as p<>licemc:n, could impose 6.DC'8 and gave
assistan<."e to members in time of need . Members of th<" younger sns wen giwen
instru<:tion in mOl'ais, native laws and customs. ·W sets of both sexes often fonDtd
reaestional groups for such purpos<"S as dancing a.nd singing. After middle age the
sets ceased to function.•

TlTU Socll!TIBS
R.:stricted associations are widespread and titl<"S of rank or office within them -
important marks of prestige amoag the Ibibio, but there are DO adequate studies of
these cx-ganizatioos. Some titles, e.g. leio'J, appear to haft bee.n inheritN, but it is
a.o& dear bow generally they wve transmitted to sucxesson by the holders and ill
what circumstances; their acquisition c:ertaiDly depended oa wealth ad kiaship
COIUle:x:ions. The principal me~~.'s as:sociatiom are nto, ,._._ n.,
and U,...
Then: is also an .Dn women's society. The E¥o and
the no,
1-.
soc:iebes aDd pnably
are ~to the an:a, but then,. (also called Aiat oc JC'e) is hdd
by the lbibio themsdves to be derived from tile Ekai tribe to the ea of the Cross
Rivec in Ogoja Province.
The ~ society, which has several Bndea. is DOt lwad UllCIIIf the Northenl ar
Eayoag lbibio, who have societies oi tile Cross Ri'ft:r (E,Io) ~- The Dfeti&R
coofus high scc:ial stams aDCl political authority and holders are ezpected to ._ft
gndaatecl thnlugh at lesst two juDior pwles and must be -atlly-... to bar tbe
COIISiderable expaee involftd. Tbe oqaDialioa is bip):r doi:eDtlliaed. .:11 "Bite
ba...-in« its 0 - Elttlo lodge. Tbe sociecy is bdieftd to fi"*ICt tbe ~ "'
JDII8ical and retigious - - Tbe - ..,. rUers to .... - .-:la-
ben~-~ the .nh . . . tla.e , . _ ..'Wit beaa ~ .-&.
woockD IIIIISb are W'CIIrU and._ peafalwcd ia spea.a.-, N• 1 · - _ .
- are liable to be rouPtr ......... ud eftll l:iBcd.. 'ne '-1 ~ ol
lJo-., ........ •u..-.
L

,
'
'
 H

and me bcrs of tl e decea"d's I·

------
...,ill
"ter ..-hi h a eansing .:eremOn) 1 per

a . . . . - bciag, .AMa', is gaaera), the name being used by pagans and

a.rilll:ilao alilat., ..a-.· is a ell:y god, regarded as the creator of men but aloof and
...... iBdiflis- ID nwpkjpd There is no speci6c: cult, priesthood or place of
.-llipfur.n-;..
Waallip vi the -=atan (EIIpo) is far more prominent. Sacrifices are offered at
lk .-:alnlllbriDe, which is kept in the house of the eldest member of the lineage
..t ~ vl.-dal ata1r.c:a two to four feet high driven into the ground. The
On. line C3n'e11 iprs tqne:w:uting aaaston. The word Ekpo is used in refer-
- tD the dead oaly; a cliBgnmded Ekpo may Wllllder about harming human beings
.ril the c:a-J vi Obi E11po ie performed and he can enter the country of the
dad. 'n.e l!Jtlo ..xty (aee above, pp. 73-•) is a cult group whose members im-
.....,..-. dead in public a:rr:moaiala.
'l1lcre is ..., belief in a great nriety of spirits known as ndem (sing. idem)
-aBed wilh aimala, liiiCI'Cd pbas, objecta, etc. Each local group has its special
~ ;M., cr:rtaia food prohibitiOD8 being obeerved in connexion with it.
Amoag the &lieu group, for cumple, the palm civet is forbidden as food, while
a&mg the ....... grODpll various birds, the black rat and the tree squittel are pro-
bibited. The python is also regarded as sacred among the Anang. The priest who is
rapoDIIible for the care of the group ruJem is called Oku Ndem. Among the Etoi
{Ealran lbibio) be Wlll alwaya chosen from one particular village, and performed
IZRBIOIIieB aud made aac:rifial to the Ndem lso!J (ndnn of the Earth) at the planting
md reapiag of ym.. Besides the group ndem there may be others special to the
bamlct, c:ompmmd or household, which are usually represented by objects ranging
from artbanrare poll to carved figurea.
Belief ia withcnlft ill general and moug. There are said to be more female than
ale wit.cbct IDd a female witch can Jll88 on her powers to a child by putting
'wif.ch lllediciue' iD ite food ••
1 ,....,., a. 1 Talbat, 3, 1936, VoL Ul, p. 511. 1 J~. a.
• ~ :r, 'l'dlot, D. A., 191s, p. 16:r, Talbot, 3, •936, VoL 11, pp. 1•7-18.
 PART 11

1
• EASTERN OR lBIBlO PROPER

,..........
-•1. AJIID sUB-TillBAL GROL'PlNGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

~ffOI'
~
,...,...-.= Uyo, ltu: Eket: lkot Ekpene: .Enyong (Aro), Abak. Opobo
p;.,u;ooa; Provuu:e: Aba Di......,n.
QWCTri

,.4 c.w- TABLE XIV

S-(Sn
Trll>o<n
Vili4<~Jgj
An-i--
...
t/ ........

........ }
!'ldikP"
T
T
h944-,)
a,-
a,-}
Uyo

a. ()tu
5011 ~
3• Olfot
T
T
a.- Uyo
~.too
Stoi
... ~ T a,soo
J· vruan T 2,100
~· Nllir Tribe (8,300)
•~ sub-tribe
Wd(enl sub-tribe
()koo ri1lage group
8. Iman
T
T
9• Vbium
10. Nunc Ndem} T J,IOO
Oaiong
u. llwoo T z,-}
1),100
u.Ediene T 2. 0100
•3· lblt T 1,100 " "
14- Ibiono T 7o4'10 "
Im"
IS· ltam T 3·?00
16. Ayadegbe VG so
17. Idere
18. Ikpanja
VG
VG
so
300
EaJUDC
.
" (Am)
.
~~
19- lb Ahd:
{JG Ala
20. Ikpa T ?.soo Opobo
21. Ukpum T 4POO
22. lbiaku T 2,.fDO
2J. Ikpe T z,zoo
24· Odot T zoo
as. Ediong (villllge) 40
 8o THE IBIBIO-SPEAKI!IiG PI::OPLE~

1. N<>,.. c:aii...J Asutan ~.

6. Forty~~. including 2 Elik and, Oku ,;n.~.
10. N..,. Ndem is from Ubium, Qn;ong from Iman.
r6. Possibly from lt:am.
17. From Ndoro (lbiouo).
18. From lbiono.
19. Coasisb of 9 ~ fonniog tM lk.a Na Anaog group of the Ndok.k.i (lbo) tribe.(~
Southern lbo, Ohuhu-Ngwa, No. 11)
:ao. Rdatrd to Ikooao.
23 lllld 24· 'I1Ie relatioD:ship of these tribes to the lbibio Proper is obscure.

HISI'OIIY AND 'I'aADITIONS OF OiuGI:N

The Eastern lbibio as a whole have no traditions of migration from elsewhere or
of baviug displ:accd any previous inhabitaDts. It is probable that they entered the
district which they now occupy some hundreds of ye8111 ago.• Mylius• thinks that
their progress may have been accelerated by the Ibo and Anang tribes through
whom they passed, but this is unlikely. The Anang of Abak Division are said to
regard the lbJbio Proper with great contempt.
The people themselves regard the Edieru, I man and Nnt groups as related. The
1 - tradition is that they found the Ikmw and Nsit i:n situ when they arrived and
that they thaJ sprad into empty land which they now occupy.•

DIINsn-r
Dr:asity of population is genenilly high. Detailed estimates from unpublished
IIOtJ:B - • follows: .
lJyo Dirli6it. a"Rnge density estimated at 385 persons per square mile
~group .. 38o
l1flll EJp. DiDiJiml ltak and Ediene groups a8o
lbJ ~ lbiono group 195

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

Uyo Division is flat country covered with farms and farm bush. There is no
forest acept for a few clumps set aside for ceremonial purposes. It lies in the oil-
palm belt, although the palm density is low, with an average of ten trees per acre,
u COWJWed with an average of between forty and fifty in the thick palm bush. In
the IIIJrth-eaat, the Un~a~~ group area, the country is more broken, with steep hills
of 3CJ0-4DO feet. It is here that the most fertile farms are found. On the right bank
of the Crosa River, aleo occupied by the Uruan, there are large tracts of swamp
coaWning IIDI8ll islands, and a narrow belt of dry land cut off from the mainland
la which isolated houaea, tJUrrounded by small fannB or cocoa plantations belonging
to E6k tetdera, are found. Opobo Division is also Sat and consiBtB of farms and
r.llow buab, with IIDI8ll forest& in the swampy areas bordering the Antltmi group.
'"-•··"'· • MJ'llul, r. 1 Wtltbanoll.
 THE JRIBIO-SI'EI\KJNt; I'LIII'o.t.-,
~ IIOil of Uyo Division ia aandy clay, \'f•ry n1uct. .,,.,,,,v,..n•h•A a"'l •n•••A-: '''
1~ more than one yam crop rv ... ry •cvnJ y•·•u", Nr, ft·rllht..l':rll ,...,_,,,. w•,..,..t ..t.
aJ"'' uaed. The yanu grown are insufficient for thr cl•~n,.,· P''l"'btll''''• wt,,,_h r•IJ#.• ''"
ai• months of the year on eupplit"B fron• the lfiayfJn rwukr.t rm th~ t ~,,,.... fl J"¥"' 'A,,.,
of tbe inhabitants are dependent on trade in palm P""'""' hr I"'" '" I I~ or h•..-1
1 nd luxuries, and, as middlemen in the palm trade, are arr•''''l( ••·~ wraltt....-:llf "'
CaJabar Province. The saying 'We live by our palmo' io um.ota11tly l"'2r<l. w.,.,,.,.
do most of the work in palm-oil production except for the a<.tual r;ooUor'l( dt"'" •A
the fruit. In Opobo and Abak Divioione, too, the palm-.,il an•l lu:mr.l tra<ir. ;. tl.r.
most important and the middlemen are often nativeo of fJp"h" T•,wn. ·n.., raffa
palm (ukot) is used for wickerwork and piaeaava, and larl(e quantitiea •A palm .,,,..,
and iilkit gin are extracted from it. Many Ikpa migrate IICaaonally 111 the f"wbttlc
porta in the coastal areas and to the Rivers Province for palm-wine tappinc.
The Unum live largely by fiahing, the men going twice a year in partia <A,_, qr
five to the mouth of the Cross River and staying there in rough abed. in the _..
grove swamp.; for two or three months. The fieh ia generally caught in Df!U, _,w
and sold. The lkpa carry on a considerable trade in dried fiah with the ./btdmti. 'ne
Etoi, although separated by the Uruan from the Cr0111 River, are allo ~-
There are large markets in the Efik settlement& at Ifiayon Beach,lkpa Beada ad
lssiet Adaia. lfiayon market is one of the largest food marketa in tbe Proriare.
Yams are brought down the Crosa River from Ogoja Province a:ud &.b &om die
mouth of the Crosa River.•
Tbe component settlements of the various Eastern Ibibio triba form f1irtJ co.-
pact territorial groups; they are differentiated by the lbibio aa pareat a G6I.Gt
settlements. Most of the former are in the north and centre of Uyo DmliaL "l11aot
are 270 recognized 'village units' in Uyo Division, the bouec8 of ada ft1bp 11a1c
scattered over a wide area. Each man, with his wivee aud childnD. b. ltil - .
detached homestead, often at a considerable dist:ance .&om bia origb..._. •

2. WESTERN OR ANANG

TRIBAL AND SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGUI'II1'

LoCATION
Calabar Province: lkot Ekpene, Aba, Abak and Opobo ~
In this group the following tribes are il.ow ao intermiogled did dley IIIR ... •
internal cohesion: Abak, Ikotimo, Midim, Um, Ikpe, Uruk Ala. Unl&liis. R
Obo, Ediene, Ukpum, Manta, lbesit, Nung Ikot, Abiakpa. NliiiC Ita. !Wac. lln
Otung, lkono, lbong, Ekpenyong -and 'Otoro Ikot. Ce:rtllin "1'i111F ..... ._,
independent derive their origins as follows: ltuDg, from Adllm. .lbdc 'lilllp . -
of Ika tribe-Eastern lbibio; Utetuk, from Ogoni (non-lbibio..,. IN- 1 I· t
lbianp, of lnen origin; MbU.O, of Uluu1afun origin.
1 ~~ M,.UU., •• Ch-..m; Commmlll " - - - - .IJ&.odhd•ir". . . . .A
.. a.- •J. .. Q. . .

., cm-.a.r9of6•
I
 TABLE X\'

~---
·---~
-.. ..... ,.,.,...
.lloioooi.-
A. 0 "' 'l'llniiL5
<•--si
•. u... T J,JOO lkot Ekpeae
a. Adasim
3· UbMfua
T
T
a,ooo
s.roo Abak
.
Maba T
4- North Afaba ST 1,8oo lkot Ekpeoe
5· JSoadl Maha
6. l.A&ha Oboag
ST
ST
J,C)<)O'}
a-+()01 ..
Abak
"
ObcJal Tribe
7• Obollg I
Oboag:a
T
VG
a,90Q
3()0 Aha
.
8. (Ooo (Abak) ~tribe of ST 1,900' Abak
Ooo)
I Soo B .. bolaor.

B. MJDo I'UPuu.TIONS WIIICB R&VB BB-GIIOUPBD TBEMSELVIS AS FOLLOWS;

9- OUo (N. Ooo) T 14.1()0 Ikot Ekpeue
(This figure includes South Afaha,
Afaha Oboog and Otoro (Abak),
see above)
10. Ceatral ABug 7.400 Ikot Ekpene
Mind AIIBiig (aJrRSPODcling ID the Political Divisions)
11. Ahak 14.6oo Abak
12. ScRIIh Aamg IS,I()O
IJ. Opobo Amrlg
AhakJMidim
lbesit/Ntmg Ikot
14- lb Na .AmDg
J,I()O
a,8oo
7()0
Opobo

Aba
.

NOTBS
a. Eight .Adiaaim., a Plr:penyoag, a Uta and 1 Ikotimo villages.
3- ~-five villages.
4- FOUl Ekpenyaog, 3 Midim, lllld I Afaba OboDg villages.
6. IDr:lu.do8 I Uboa ~·
8. Ym: '9ilbges fonDiDg the Ika Na .AnaDg group of the Ndoldri (Ibo) tribe.
9· Ym: ..m.ge gruupa, iDducling villaga from Abat, lboDg, Jll:waa, Uta 1111d otba-
_,...;w ADaDg triiWa.
10. lal::ladea 66 villaga af Ekpenyoog, Ikpe and other tribes whicb ~ bem grouped
with .Adiaaim., Ubm lllld Okun (Nortbcm lbibio) tribes and N. A&ha au~be to
fonD the Cealn1 Aalmi Native Ambarity.
 TilE I BIB 10-:"1 a· t~l'\ I\.. I·"' u r £.\J1-1~r4 ;-,
~ I""'P- and thr majurity of the Mi<lim, t:tu, L:ruk, \kono, lkotimo, lkpe,loeo
Jl. ODd Nto Oho vi\lllJI'<". . . _
N . .,. I""'P- including villagn of Ahalr., Ed•<n<, t.:kpum, Manta, hung, ltu, lkono,
11 ' ~rull Echiet, Uruk Ata, l"""'it, 1'-iung \lr.ot, Ahiakpa, Nung Ita, Ndot, lbiulga,
~ Otwtg and lkpe- . . . . .
Jadudeo Yillap of Abak, Ediene, Ukpum, M1d1m, Utetuk, Wan!e (Ogoru), lbeoit,
1
J· Nung fiat, Nung Ita, Ndot, Uruk Otung, lbianga,_ lnen and Mbiaoo.
•+- An Jb (Eastern Jbibio) vilbge group and an Obong Village group. Now form part of
tbe Ndokki (lbo) 'clan' and N.A. Belong etbnographically to lka (l!.aatern lbibio)
and Obong. (See above.)

HISTOIIY AND T1t.ADITIONS OP 0RJG1N

The Western or Anang 'tribes' appear to have originated from a single tribe or
group of villaga, all situated close to the present Abak Government Station, at the
~ east of the present diatribution. Each of these villages ia regarded as the
parent village of one of the present Anang 'tribes' from which new aetdemeul.
hived off westwards in various directions. The component villages blwe bel:ome
intenDingled and, as a result, the majority of tri~ have l011t any tcnitDrial cober-
e:nce. Those which managed to keep together during their expansion now form
mb-tribes but contain a number of villages from other tribes aa weU.
The only village of the Adiasim group which has any traditioDB of origin llliJI
that itB ancestors c:ame from lkot Imo in Abak Division. The Abak, &lime, lJkpal
md Millim consider themselves closely related and look to the Abak Station area a
their place "of origin. The lbesit are distinct from other Auaug, not only in tbar
NdettJ or food taboo but also in their ceremonies of Ntia• and N1uuU~t!ef. 'fbey
are very sensitive about their ilame, though the reason for this is DOt appaR:DL
Aftllul OIKmg has traditions of wars with Adiiuia and lJJum4, and the Otoro
appear to have been their lifelong enemies. Warife is an Ogoui village, Rbining the
Ogoni language and customs. Utetwk coosiden itaelf 'of one father with Warife',
but has adopted ADang speech and c:ustoms.
The Anaog appear to have been the last people in Calabar Province tD - inlo
coDbiCt with Europeans, in consequence of the ban on European penetration far
trade iDJpoeed by Jaja the first 'king' of Opobo. They are first ma:dioned in 11194 by
Roga' Casement, who was refused permission by the 'king of the Anaug' tD . -
through his lands.•
DJINIIlTY
The whole an:a is deosely populated. the Adiasim baring a density of rro penoos
per square mile and the A&ha Obcmg village group a dcmity of b.

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

Farmland is oat enough to support the population. but_ there are clcme .....
wbic:b the majority obain theD-IiviDg. 'l1te- • ....aaal by dte K.•
~:::and i1B tributaries. and the Eswne Creek aad the lmo riwr iD the..._
I Jc-, 0, IM';Ibldia8. :z;,....
... -
 \ ltl lHII11ll 11 I 1N' 1 It 1'\ l

1 N1 11 1111 I

Ill \1 '•I'll I lUll I ,,11111 1'1 lo'• 1\ Ill 1\\1.\l, I'll\

Ill I \ 1

,..,
~ .
,.
• I'

0:
 •
0 ....
THE 181810-SPEAKIN<; I'EOI'I.ES
ad cl the houeee of all th~ rnrn of a lin~•lr"· At thr rntrann· In thr com
~ ia a a.ding holaw, llimilar to t~ Cn""' Rivc:-r f.i:l>o housr. lkhond it tht
t.c:.:.e. all'llmlt ol tM 1III"GDDftt form. a continuous out~r wall to rh(" (_·on1pound, while
m-ol tM I'OI!!D8inder U>d oft~ mt'n ..,... in the:- cc:-ntrc:- of the rncloour.·. ·n,., com.
,....... ~ groaped IU'OUDd ~or morT village squun or open m.-rtin~: places and
dJe whole,...,..._ a compact 'll'illagoe. Th"'"" sub-tribes that havt moved far1htst awa)
clo DOt,~. follow thia an-angement, but that of their lbo and lbihio neigh-
baan..
'l'bill group ahlo diBen from other lbibio in having no Nti11ya holders and no
JiJfoaocidy.lt ba m.ad the Eltf--Aiu"'J secret socic:-ty of Cross River type, which
a- ..-ad from the Aro, and is deYeloped into a title socic:-ty with grades. The
a.tame ia olraSia network, woven in a coloured harlequin effect.'

4· SOUTHERN OR EKET

TRIBAL AND SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

LocATION
Calabar Prcmnce: Eket Division.

TABLE XVII
AI>Jin!<d- rrumber
~CS
7'ri6o (~ ".fa&tiwaJMII
molM
Polit.i&al
Diuision
vw...d::fJ (1944-s)
T c
5 ,:aoo 45 villages) Eket
T 3,200 (13 villages)
T 13,800 (go villages)

~-- tolill tll:tiw lllhdt rMla :z:z,:aoo

HlsroBY .AND 'flwlmoNB OF 0RIOIN
Tbe Southc:m or Eket group claim to have arrived at their present home from the
Iheno area and to have moved northwards and eastwards until they came up
apiDBt the Eutern Ibibio a:panding southwards.

DmlanT OF POPUL&TION
Settlement is leaa dense than in any of the preceding main groups, the average
denaity beiDg estimated at so-lOO persons per square mile. In the Oron area it is
1151 per square mile and in the Oron farming area 340.1

LANGUAGE

Ora apeech ia said to be unimlligihle to the lbihio Proper. It has an 'I' sound
I J-. Clp. cl&., ManluJIJ.
 Tlll-: JBIHJO-~Pl-:AKlNl... l·r~ut"l .. L'.~ 87
nOI found in lbihio and Efik,• hut from compar~tivc vocabularic:a c.o\le~ted by
lcb W&rd it would appear that the Ehet anll Oron d•a\c:c\R arc not greatly divergent
from Efik and lbibio.'

DISTINCTIVE FEATURES

The 9(on live chiefly by farming, with oome fishing. Their otaple food io caooava,
but yamo, cocoyams and plantains are preferred food and cassava io not eaten by
the eminent and well-to-do.
(No detailed information ia available on the Eket and Okobo tribeo.)
The Oron are noted for ancestral figures (Ekpu) carved from hardwood, 3-4 feet
high. Many are estimated as being over eighty years old. Their style is unique, in
no way like other Ibibio work, the most distinctive feature being a long pointed
beard, carved as growing from the point of the chin. The great diversity in the
carving of the head and features suggests that portraiture was attempted.•
The Okobo women decorate calabashes with leaf-form designs with a red-hot
knife and also make mats from strips of screw pine, leaf-dyed and woven in patterns.•
Oron is divided into seven afaha, an afaha being a cluster of villages, the in-
habitants of which acknowledge a common ancestor. The principal associations in
Oron are the Ekpe, which is very powerful and enforces laws, tbe Elwl), a recrea-
tional and funerary club, the Ekol) fertility club and the Abal) women's society. The
large entrance fee required for Ekpe <£4o-£so) waa an investment which formerly
yielded handsome returns. There are elaborate public dances, notably a F~re
Dance confined to men, Ntune, and Ulw, which is a moonlight dance. The Oron
Jiving near the coast worship water deities, the chief being Atabrinyao.
Marriage payment among the Oron may be in kind-e.g. two or tbree cowa or
an equivalent number of goats; or in cash, a sum of £zo...£4o-witb some gallons
of palm wine and a bottle of gin.•

5· DELTA OR ANDONI-IBENO

TRIBAL AND SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

LocATION
Calabar Province: Opobo and .Eket Divisions.
TABLE XVIII
Trik(T)
Sub-tnbo (ST)
~(G)
~ .,.,.,..,..............
Vii/D,p o-p (VG) (1944-s)
6,400
T
Andoni T C)OO
Ibeno

I £rna, 1943•
OOl SUB-TRIBAL

TA
 .. SOUTH
lND SUB-TRIBAL C

TAB
 4· SOUTHERN OR EKET

TRIBAL AND SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

Loca1'101C

_____.....,.
C.W. l'rvrinc:e: Eht Di-n.ion.
TABLE XVII..,.,.,..
,
~(
nw.~
,....o!!;'t
T
T
T
],800
-
( 1944-5)
s.aoo (45 village~)
(13 villages)
IJ,IIc» (90 villap)
..,.,._....., . - el-" _,., aa,aoo

IIJnoay AND 'hADmoNa Of' OluOIN

'n. So.tlaena or liht p-oup claim to have arrived at their present home from the
lbeDo - lllCI tu ba.-e moved oorthwarda and cutwacds until they came up
. . . tbe iMiena lbibio a:paDding 80Uthwvda.
DD.n Qll l'ofm..&TION
8caleauw:c il le. de.c than in any of the preceding main groups, the a"Rnge
chmity beiaa tlllimaled 111 so-rao pcnona per equare mile. In the Oron area it il
•s• p.- equan mile and in the OrOD fumiiiiJ aaa 340.•

LANGUAGE

.._ ....
0... .,-b.!. .id to be unin~ble to the Ibibio Proper. It haa an 'I' IIOWld
 TilE 11111110-HI'I-:Aii.IN<; I'I'.OI'I.EH
•""' h•und 1n lh1hi,, llntl Ehk,' hul hum nHnp&trAiivr vuc..~ahulariC"R cnlle~ted by
hi• w.r..J 11 \\"tlllhl •J'rr•• that thr ,.:Jut anti ( )'"" tliakl:l" Uf(' not Rrcatly divergent
""m li'fik and lhihiu. 1

niSTINCTIVE FEATURES

TM Qron liv.- chidly by farminl{. with onme fiohin~f. Their otaple food ia cuaava,
~ul )'I'm•. cocoyamo and plantaino are prrf.,rred food and coosava is not eaten by
rh• eminent and well-to-do.
(No detailed information is available on the Eket and Okobo tribes.)
The Oron ue noted for ancestral fil{ures (/Urpu) carved from hardwood, 3-4 feet
hijrh. Many are estimated as heinR over eil{hty yeara old. Their style ia unique, in
no way like other lbibio work, the most distinctive feature being a long pointed
beard, carved u growing from the point of the chin. The great diveraity in the
carvins of the head and futures suggc:sta that portraiture was attempted.'
The Okobo women decorate calabuhes with leaf-form deaigns with a red-hot
knife and also make mats from strips of screw pine,lea£-dyed and woven in patterns.'
Oron ia divided into seven afaha, an afaha being a cluster of villages, the in-
habitants of which acknowledge a common ancestor. The principal asaociatiooa in
Oron are the Elrp., which is very powerful and enforces laws, the E/rufl, a recrea-
tional and funerary club, the Elroo fertility club and the Abafl women's society. The
luwe enu.nce fee required for Elrpe (£4o-£so) was an investment which formerly
yielded handsome returns. There are elaborate public dances, notably a Fire
Dance confined to men, NtuM, and Ulro, which is a moonlight dance. The Oron
living near the coast worship water deities, the chief being Atabrinyaf).
Marriage payment among the Oron may be in kind-e.g. two or three cowa or
an equivalent number of goats; or in cash, a aum of £:ao-£4o-with some gallooa
of palm wine and a bottle of gin. •

5· DELTA OR ANDONI-IBENO

TRIBAL AND SUB-TRIBAL GROUPINGS AND DEMOGRAPHY

LocAnoN
Calabar Province: Opobo and Eket DiviaiODB.

~1H
TABLE XVIII
..,.,.._......,
........
......
vm.a:!:f~m (1944-s)
6.400
T
AndOAi T 900
Ibeno
~-- tolel ....... elilll-- 7,JOO
I Wud, + I MUJnJ, •• f946; .. 194Y.
 T .~U: XIX
..,. _......._
.·- ~
.......
G--. CG >
. . . . a-p G
,~

of- ...
.....
--~
,..,..,.
a;....

T
ST

ST
'fG
sr
ST
T

L C::r:d: T cnr:t Ca1&bc.

t -£~~ tEa. ·
i· O!Uai ~""""'part altbe Eat:J:ibe..
- Of Cn:..:m, ) ~ ,.,.... pa:rt al the FJik tribe.
'..n:l3::>~ Ci<i 2 J .-i!lagos.
~- Of &Di. ~ ~. Clligrz:bg ~ !he em. Rm:r E.aouy md Fi
T"""" """""' al¥1it%r.riL Soome r:!hp ~ from n-.o · Eh!: Di:rilicl> md
ilie 11.! • area al Dro I>rrioiao.. Popcbtioa 5prrs iDdaded ~ OmR
(&.o::ihc= Ibibic)..
1"'be:re a= .-. Lpoo a - md Yanlb& ld::den m tbe ~ ~ r:L c.w-
~ a wdl a a b:qe !l'll:mber al Ibo.

Dl:x!;n-r
Popab:tioo • ft:r'! D:IDCb ~aa da:.e m eaw.r .om..ica tt- m U}"D _. Elizt
~. bat c:looee -icro•"* are DOt~
~ AJOro ~ OP Oacnl
'The RicJer-. at EJilt p-oap probably de.dcped froa
 THE IBIBIO-SPE.Hi.l :'>l· , . ._,.,.,_._,..
.Earft-n ThiNe .-ht\ SJ'I"N'f dct.-n fn.,m rh<- hint("rland into thC" Rin·rain am. to fol'lll.
,._,, ~n,: ~h-IIIM"nb... ~mr '-..( w·hi,·h l•t('r J.r-,·("J~,_,~ into trading C"e'ntra. The
~ ••fr~-..- lJ..coi T<>wn and Calahar .
.<\.~ rh< Prifrinal ffi orod ....,. ll>it-io. it is now V<"l")" much milt.-.:!. Jeffreya
"""""' thot ~ Elil daim to ho,... Mgin.or.-.:1 from • small ll>ibio group called
. _ o r .V.... ..-bo-..- dri...., our •·""n ~ .'\ro rook the Long Juju of Aro-
chuku. and om!N &IIIOIIIt other lbit-io groups alrrad~· in possession around Calabar;
meor ~ WftT eitbtt dril'ftl oway or ossimilar.-.:1. Missionaries who settled at
c.Jo.b..- in rllf~ found thot the propie ca.lkd tbemsrl,.es not Efik but EbrtiiM EjiJI.
Both lloh md Talbor ~ ~ Efik as inuni~ts settled on land originally
~ tt> ~ K.,. ~- .<l.ccording to our information, however, the~
cDim tt> br ~group from which tbe Efik originat.-.:1. They settled in their present
silr,.,.a.blyafta-~ fouDd.tioa of~ Arochuku tribe. The founder.~ of the ~r~ng
- s:oiciiO 11oft ceme from Eman or Awb Akpo in the Uruan area of Uyo DiVJsroo
{EII9lan .lbibio).
'I1ar g.,. droim 10 br o( E1111i origin, coonected with the lkptli branch of EjfJifha•
J:J.i. fraar ~ Cores!: ....,. near Oban. 1De K wa dialect is practicaUy identical with
m. cl EjlpmD Ebi, but the KW11 have intermarried frequently with Efik, and
11oft for IIIUY ftUS lliSied the E1ik language as freely as their own.
Thr Efrtl i.;ft loag been ~ as part of the Efik community and have
...,..m the Efit 1up1ce. although they theomelves claim to be of Bantu origin,
~- from the CuDeroaos and migrated to the neighbourhood of Calabar
becluse cl amDDt 6gbtiDg with the Batanga people. They own their land and have
aat become sabonlinlted to any Efik 'House'.
Thr q;.t 1ft said 10 br a mizture of Calabar and lbeno stock.
MIMiomd A.riOrlle 1ft twv of the four groups into which the Efik of Creek Town
.qiDally dmded.•

LANGUAGE

'I1le ll8llle Ejilc is a Dicbame, meaning 'the tyrants' or 'he who oppresses', from
~ praa. The Efik 1ft lllid to have given themselftll this name after they had
aeuled • Czeei Town.
The .and S}'lltaD f4 Efik is simpler than that of its dialects; the rules of vowel
hlmaay 1ft - rep1ar and there are not so many vowel distinctions. For these
1a101111 Efil . . - . to be most suitable as the literary language of the Efik and
.lhibio peoplm. Aa:urdiDg to Jeffreys, however, it is poorer in vocabulary than
lbibio and haa ba:ome corrupt through various inBuences, including the slave trade
in formrlr dayB md the fact that Efik has become the commercial lingua franca along
tbe blllb of the Croes River. The presence of Europeans haa also been responsible
fer IIBDC conuptiaa of the l.mguge. as Ellglish words have been introduced and
E&. -.fa ~ been modified to IIUit Ellglish pronunciation. An example of this is
_. iD the ll8lllel of some of the 'Houses' which are mglicized forms of native
- · 'I1mlllalabaw ,.. origiDally Nsa, Coblwn was Aka6oB and so on.•
I,..,., I; .r-. .. 1946; MJiiao, :a, 3 .... ... I Wud, 3o 1935: Jel&eJa. a.
 Tll~: IHIBIO-SPEAKING PEOPLES

DISTINr.TIVE FEATURES

Thr Efik arr primarily fish"nn"n and traden who exploit the large and important
pnwn fishrri"~ of th" Cross River estuary. They dislike other manual work 111d
"mploy lbo, Ibibio and Cameroon labour for agricultural purpoeee. They are eaid
91

,
not to br generally successful as clerks and teachen.
At th" end of th" last century a craft of hammering blllBII designs on imported
trays was start"d among the women of the Duke House of Calabar. Other Efik
crafts include the decorating of bags with beads (a specialized family cnft), of
wooden bowls with burnt designs, and appliqu~ work.
The organization of the Efik settlement& was similar to that of the Oil Rivu
ports of Bonny and Opobo. Large but compact villages were made up of ~enl.
compounds. In each the house of the compound owner atood in the centre, lllr·
rounded by those of his wives, servants and dependent relatives, arranged to form
a continuous wall round it. These enlarged households theiDIIClves were grouped ·
together in lineages, generally called 'Houses', which were alave-trading organiza-
tions developed where there were slave marlteta and European trade. All Houaes
depended on trade for their wealth and coherence, the head of a House bad much
more power than a typical lbo or Ibibio lineage head. A large number of canoes bad
to be manned for trading and the defence of trade, and the criterion of birth or blood
for membership of a House was often superseded by personal quslities. A House
became and remained a House by reason of ita ability to man and equip a certain
number of canoes. Once a unit had become large enough to do this it could bralt
away from the parent House and form a subordiDate or 'small' House. In the
process the distinction between slave and free-bom often diaappe&Rd. King
Jaja, the founder of Opobo Town and head of the King Jaja House, was an lbo
slave.
Efik Houses, unlike those of Bonny and Opobo, never lcm touch with the land,
aa they had a hinterland of good farmland in which they developed fanniug
settlements (plantations) peopled mainly but not entirely by lbo alaves. The Efik
Houses were also larger than those of Opobo, though the authority of the head was
never as great as in the Ijaw Houses.
The head of a House was called Etvbom. The 06ot of a community or 'town' was
elected from among the heads of the varioua Houses and invested with Ntiaytl Uta-
an elaborate feast; to-day his authority is negligt'ble. Among the Kwa of Calabar the
family head was called Ec/Dyo, the 'town' head Ntoi. He was assisted in govan-
ment by a council of family heads.
A great deal of political and economic power lay in the hands of the leaden of the
secret associations which were restricted to men of wealth IUld cqanized in a series
of grades, admission to the higher ones requiring very heavy cntnmce fees. 11lele
was discrimination against persons of alaft origin and one of the f1mctioas of tile
'societies' was to instil into the slaftll a proper respect for the members. Tile stil-
fully ~ EJt:p. society became a main organ of govemmeat. _ , . - ........
as an earth god with his own aec:ret dweUiDg place iD the bullh, who caahl be t-nl
 n. namt IJA I• • ·
t-rfO ,_, Tho Ml
~W at C.t Town~
n.. 10und eyattm o
f110111rt llort rtl~
w m.,,..,. tt
fo , Aoco,.1
oand ... ~
91 THIIIIBIO.SPEAIING PEOPlES
~ .. ~· r.... W'lft ..dt ia lliai!IIIRIIId ~ paaiahed
byllil~
'1\e K• 1rt aid te ,...., • r.. oldie 11ft socidy which origiDared. • did
tMy ~ .... tile Qoi; thD - Clllfd , . , ud - brought to the
~ ~ ad mcqed we die !'1ft what the Kwa migrated from

·~·· I~ I;....,, I, l9fl: .... I, l9t6; ..,_,I, J 11111&.

 niBLIOGRAPHY

181810

AKPANYUN, 0. A., and IKPEE, F. U. E. Notes on the lbibio, I949· (Unpublished MS.)
_1\MAKll, E. N. Notes on the Efik. (Unpublished MS.)
BRIDGES, A. F. B. 'The Oil Palm Industry in Nigeria'. Farm arul Fortlt, 7, I, Jan.-June
1946, pp. 54-8.
Cmsvs of Nigeria, I9JI, Vol. I London: Crown Agents for the Colonies, 19Ia-IJ.
CHEESMAN, W. J. W. Notes on the lkpa, Ukpum and lbiaku Clana of Opobo Divieion.
(Unpublished MS.)
CoBHAM, HENRY. 'Animal Stories from Calabar'.J. Afr. Soc.,..., IS, April19Q5, pp. 307~.
CoTION, J. C. I. 'The Calabar Marriage Law and Custom'. J. Afr. Soc., 4, 16, July 1905,
pp. 427-J:Z.
- - 2. 'The People of Old Calabar'. J. Afr. Soc., 4, 15, April 1905, pp. Jo:z-s.
- - 3· 'Calabar Stories'. J. Afr. Soc., 5, I8, Jan. I9Q6, pp. 19I-6.
CURWEN, R. J. M. Notes on the Ediene and ltak Clans of the Ikot Ekpene Division. (Un-
published MS.)
DEWHURST, J. V. Notes on the Andoni Tribe, Calabar Province. (Unpublished MS.)
Etu!RE, C. A. 'Ibibio Indigenous Judicial System'. (W.A.S.U. Study Group Lecture)
West Africa, 28, I409, Feb. ICJ+4·
EMA, A. J. Udo. t. 'The Ekpe Society'. Nigeria, 16, 4th Quarter, I9J8.
- - 2. 'Fattening Girls in Oron, Calabar Province'. Nigeria, 21, I940• pp. 38~.
- - 3· Notes on the Oron Tribe, I943· (Unpublished MS.)
GBORGES, E. H. F. Notes on the Ubium Clan of Eket Division. (Unpublished MS.)
Gou, MoRE. 'The Oil Palm' (lbibio information). Nigerian Field, 3, Dec. I93I, pp. 2I-'].
HAlu>tNG, H. J. M. I. Notes on the Ibionos, ldoros and Stnngers upon lbiono Land in
ltu District. (Unpublished MS.)
- - :z. Notes on Certain Unorganized Groups of the Annang Tribe in the Abak District
and the Opobo Division. (Unpublished MS.)
J.AMES, H. P. Notes on the Uruan Clan, Uyo District. (Unpublished MS.)
JBFFRBYS, M. D. W. I. Old Ca/abar awl SorM Nota 011 tM lbibio. Calabar: I93S·
- - :z. MS. Notes on the lbibio. (Unpublished.)
JoHNSON, S. E. Notes on Afaha Obong Village Group of Afaha Clan. (Unpubliahed MS.)
JoNES, G. I. 1. 'The Distribution of Negro Sculpture in Southern Nigeria'. N~ Field,
7, J, July I938, pp. Io.t--8.
- - :z. Notes on the Ibibio, I946. (Unpublished MS.)
KAT, F. R. lbibio Dowry. (Unpublished MS.)
KlRCHNiiR, J. 'Allerlei Lebensweisheit in den Sprichw6rtem der lbibioa, N"Igeria'. &lw
au.s den Mi.srimlm, Aug. I9J9, pp. 2:z8-Jo.
MARSHALL, R. N. 0. Notes on the Oron Clan, Eket Division. (Unpublished MS.)
MURRAY, K. C. I. 'The Wood Carvings of Oron'. Nigeria, 23, I946, PP· IIJ-I+
- - :z. Notes on lbibio Technology, I947· (Unpublished MS.)
MYLIUS, E. N. I. Notes on the Etoi Clan, Uyo Division. (Unpublished MS.)
- - :z. Notes on the Efut Fragments in the Calabar Division. (Unpublished~•
- - 3· Notes on the Qua Clan. (Unpublished MS.) ~ .. --..,__-(,
0 -!··-c'--'·'-:1\
 • ''""""' ,,n t""-t: ·rril. l)u• •nu , , ~ .. _ .
""'-'''-""'' l~'M' \ '~'h' ''" 1hc- Eri.'- an,i F"-•'1 ·r,,b,·:-;. ••I tlu· Fa!!llt"rn l"ruvin,·r• ul
~~~· ,.,,,,~.· ' R,,, . ...f•l.,.."f. 1-.st .. J7. ")("'-.Pi'· ..:t-a -; .
......, .... "'.,_,~,.; ,,.,.,:.,.. .4J.,;.,;.rr,.t;,.., ia .\"ol;t"n.<l. lhl,•~<l I<JJ7. 1'1'· ~.1~· J.
~· - · ~'-'"""' ~.nnc (t'nit..J .'\fri,·a Co.) :'«:o. J. 'lArd• ll,j4Q.
~.._,,_ t' '"" ., . N·,.-·,
.\tystn-Ws of" J"r·i,.rih·t·r l'roflr: 1'11, lblhtr11 of Su,.tlt"a
c .....~n. 1015.
,.,.._. 1,-nJ.."'.
l'~""'t. r '"'nn. 1. ·::;._,me lt-it>io Customs and Rdit'fs'. J. Afr. Sor., IJ, 51, April
- ~···
~ u,.N'• ~·-~~
-~ .\'~. Tw .'1~. Be/Ufs aruJ c,.sto..._. of tJ., lbibio Tribr. Lon-
Jtw.t~.~-
- !-· n,~ -f s-a.r. .\"~rriA. Oxford: 1926.
~'s, ('. P. :Scotes 011 the i\diasim Tribe of lkot Ekpenr Division. (tlnpuhliohed MS.)
~---E. l". Law and British Administration in South-Eastern Nigeria. (llnpubliahcd
)I,IS., Tiwsis foe Ph.D. Degt-er, Univecsity of Dublin.)
~H. P. F. :Sates 011 the Iman Clan of Uyo District. (Unpublished MS.)

LINGUISTIC

~ ll. F. G. r. 'Some Efilr. Plant Names'. Nigmtm Field, 3, 4, Oct. 1934, pp. r66-7.
--.a.. 'Eiik \'ocabulary of Li•ing Things'. Nigerian F~ld. 11, Dec. 1943, pp. 156-68.
- - }- ~Eji/1 Yoall6oJary (:znd edition revised). Liverpool: Philip, Son and Nephew,
I~J.
--4- EjiA-&.fW Y«a/ndary (:znd edition revised). Liverpool: Philip, 1943.
- - 5- c...a.M E.giUA-Ejik tmd Ejik-English Vocabulary (:znd edition revised). Liver-
pool: l'llllip, 1943'
- - 6.. 'Obrri :)lr.ailllf: i\ New African Language and Script'. Africa, 17, r, Jan. 1947.
DauaL, Ea.ftmls'roNI!. 'Further Notes on Nsibidi Signs, with their meanings, from the
n..- Diltrid, S. Nigeria'.J. Roy Anthrop. Inst., 1911, p. s:zr.
~. E. A. L. 'T-Ive Proverbs and one Folk-Story from the Efik Country'. AjricG,
s. •. ]-. 19JZ, pp. 68-7o·
ea.-, 1111c1L Priltt:ipla of Ejik
GrGmmar, roith lj)ecimens of the /angUGftl. Edinburgh:
llbir :md Pmnon, r868.
~ bamrun OP AnlCAN LANGUAGES AND CULTURJIS, AlphGbetsjor tM Efik,
Jio ~ Yorvb.r ~a, reeommnultld by the Education BoGTd, LGfOI. London:
•919-
T-. NoiiNOR'Iirii&UJICD'IliD'lniiW. Spu:imeru of LtmguGfes from Soutlann N¥!mG. London:

•-.ID& FbKri.oa • Son., 191+·

C.r. TMPiumnietmd Tonal Stnutureof Efilc. Cambridge: W. Heffer &: Sona,
Ltd.., 1933·
- - :&.. 'A Linguiatic Tour in SE. Nigeria'. AjrieG, 7, :z, Notea and Newa, p. 229.
Apriii1J34.
Li~Jcuistjc Tour in Southem Nigeria'. A,friea, 8, r, Jan. 1935, p. 90 ff.
- - J.. •A
--4- Comparative Vocabularies of Efik, Ibibio, Oron, Eket, Anans and Ibeno. (Un-
,-lillled MS.)
W-...., D. 1. DU WutlieMn SudalprG&Iam ruul lhr• Be.N/au"'f.,. ..,.,. BG11tu. Berlin:
"P7·
--a. 1'M ~c Situation and Vernacular Litei'Bture in Britiah West Africa' .
..... 2, .. Oct. 19:&9· pp. 338-9·
/
 ,.. - · •• , vu ,,_ ·u~•••••lluna prurl• of
11 1 I ' ' ' ' ... •
~ ..... ,•. -4'". '''"' 11 " • jl(4'"f • • •
\h. S1uo.J., 1 •• 1, J'l'\,, 6'\--R.,.
lnt~•roow-~r-nl •••011. ialion• ara:Jn8 th~

'
q lt- 'Ill th., ...:.imvn. Afi"po lbo, Africa, 25,
\. 111 n. l''"c,· 1-:N.

11 1 f 'IH·.RG, "imon. Double- dr•<·e-lll in a a lbo YillaF~aroup. ,,h lnt. C.onar.

~n(hn'l'· &. ~1hnol. S<:i., Phila.Jrlrhia, 1-9 Se-pt. 19%, 473·81.

,n·Tt·'IBt.R<J, Simoa. Jbo oracle-• and inl~tpour rrla1ioae. $,-W. J. Amhrop., 14,
\, •u(UIIlD 19~A, 29'5---,17, biblio8•• map.
oTTt.N8ERG, Sirnon. lbo rrc~ptiYity 10 chan8r• '" Cont.iouiry aDd chaose in
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p~RKINSON, John. Note• on tbe Aeaba people of tbe Niser. J. aotbrop, laot,, 36,
1906, 312·24, ill.
SHAW, Thurstan. Eacavatiooe at laobu-Ukwu. Eastern Nigeria: au interim repon.
\loo, 60, 210, Nov.l960, 161·4, ill.
SI.\IMONS, Dooald C. Notes oo the Aro. Niseriao Field, 23, 1, Jao,l958, 27•33.
II'IESCHHOFF, Heinricb A. Coocepl8 of abDOr-lio:y •moos the lbo of Niseria.
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Bth Conf, Rhodes·Livios8tone loat. for Soc. Rea., 1959, pp.121·36.

LINGUISTIC

CARNOCHAN, J. Vowel harmooy in lsbo. Afr.laopase Srod., 1, 1960, 15So63,

CARNOCHAN, J. The caresory of oumber ia Jsbo IP"•mmar. Afr, laosu•se S111d., 3,
1962, 110..15.
DAYRELL, Elphioatooe. Further DOtea oo 'Naibidi' aisoa, wicb tbeir meaoioao, froiD
the lkoOD diaaict, S, Nisetia. J, roy. aatbmp. 1DIIt., 41, 1911, 521·40, ilL
DENNIS, Thomaa }., tO..d olhftrs. [1923,] Dictionary of the lbo laopase, Eosllab-
lbo. Pp.l89. Lasoa: C.M.S. Bookahop,
GANOT, A. 1899. Gra~mDAire Ibo [wicb FreDCh•lbo aod ~Preoch vocabulary].
Pp. 209. On.itaha: Niser Catholic Mi•aina.
GANOT, A. 1904. EosJiah, lbo aod Preoch dictiooary. Pp.306. Salzbors, Auuia:
Miaoiooary Priatios OffU:e of the Sodallo:y of Sr. Peter Ct..,.,.,
GREEN, Marsarer M. 1949. lsbo •peWa1 : •• esplao•"''Y .....,...., ... Pp. 7.
Loodoo: C.lllbridse Uoiv. Pre••·
GREEN, Maraarer M. Say ins• of the oAio!Mo aocieo:y of the 1a~•pe•kias people.
BulL Scbool orieot. •od A&, Stud., 21, 1, 1958, 157•73.
MACGREGOR, J .K. So""' ootea oo -lbldl. J. roy, aotbtop. la•t., 39, 1909, 20~19,
ill.
OGBALU, F. Chldozie. 1959. labooE..,U.h dictiooary. Pp.49. Pon Han:01111:
African Lie. B•eau.
SPENCER, Jull.,., 1924[ht ed. 1916]. Aa ele""'omry ...- . o f cbelbo t..._se,
reviaed by T,J, Deoola, Pp... W+ll6. l.oodoo: S.P.C.K.
"IVESTERMANN, Dledrleh H. Daa lbo lD Sad-Niprieo. Seloe S•ll-. ioaetbalb der
K-·Sprachea. ("IVeatlrUdaolacbe Smdlea, 2.) Wla. Se• od-r. Spo., 29 (3), 1926,
1·31.
 1"-· • .. ,, . . . . . . . .... .... . .

'~'-' ht

I "l'

Ill I ..... t "'"'"' , •• ,, I 'JI 1- 11) , t

1~,, '· I I '·C ....

}fHKF\'. \1.0. n.~ng eh lbo r•·~h~ J~d ~tod· \fr. Srud., 13, J, \br. 19'54,
:c;....u.\ 111.
}l ffRf\~, \t.D. Th~ Umu nJrl cr aJi rion of ori~in. -\fr. Sru..l., 15, 3, S~pt . 1956,
JlQ..'l,
)O 'E!:!, G. I. Ec l<>,:y nd soci 1 stru tw~ among the north eas te r n l bo . A fr i ca , 31 ,
:!, \ pr. 1'-ltol, 11--H.
J . ES, G. I. lbo age organization wi ch special reference ro ch e C r oss R jve r n n d
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MO"'-'\EFO, F rank. The iba house in Oni tshn. igerin '.fog., 72, Mo r. J 962 , 1 ~25,
ill •
. .,.,.:a. ~ i u~Uon..s •• i geri n, 54. 1957, 273- SR, ill.
N.,_... A -: ..,.., ol soaitb• (by J. 0. N.). Niaeria, 61, 1959, 136-56, ill.
NZEI[YU, J.O. o..iuha. Niania, 50, 1956, 20().23, ill.
NZEI:YU, J.O. Ofal• feoci•al. Niaeria, 61, 1959, 104-22, Ut.
NZEK.WU, OollOI'a. lbo daaciaa. Niaeri• ~•8•• 73, June 1962, 3~43, ill.
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ORAK1VUE, Jeny L 1953. Oaitab• cu•.:om o( l:ide·t•kina. Pp. 83, ill. 0Dil•ha:
Aud>C>r.
OTTENBER.G, Pboebe V. The cbaaaiaa ecooomic po•ldoa of womea amoaa the
Alikpo lbo. I• Coati.auiry aad ch•aae io Afticaa cultures; •d. W.R~ Bascom •ad
li.J . Henlw•ito, 1958, pp. 205-23.
tJTTENBERG, Siam. The de•elopr~~eat of YiUaae 'meeti.aa•' a moo• .:he Afikpo
peoplr. W. Aft. la•t. eoc. 11 ecoa. Re••• &DD. Coat., Sociol. eecc., Mu. 1953. 186·205.
 ,
:"
......
...... ·····- •···. I lo L ""'• • """., '"" "'"'I' ., '"'""'"· t.'lRu, .....
11.
,,_ ........ . I 1.1• . I ' ' " ' " ' " " , ,.,.j, ,,I.,, ••n•l "'" ... ""'· 'o,-'1!, 1- Aullol'•l··, 11, I,
'" •I H

\f\''\'"' 11,.,,,. I. I I I J,.. .\o 1·•• llo>U .,f I' ·'IIM""''' 1111 I· 111.-IJ,j),,., '"'""'" 10, '-t111o, !tl, 1 ~~
~~\11, 1• ., -:. I .... 'tl, d I.

,J\t"'''''• Pt•nr~\,)l. 0..,.--.u,,l ltlo·, •II"IIBII(•, ar~ol olailollu"''' ••nun111 tlar l·.li!.. Ah 1,
JO, :, ,,.,. ,.,"n. 1 '\-•·"·
111

, 1 \tMtlN~. ll'"'"l'l (. j)r'"' l''""rrh ... Air. ~~tu.l,, 19, \, I 1H.. J, JU,·\7,
,)\1\lllNS, llunalol (., Ana~ly .. i"" ul • ultur .. lrrflr• tinn• in I·Jill lulll 1alr11. J, Arur,
,,\•h•rr, 7.C, 1'11, Apr.- J unc- 19(,1, I )Co--11 •
1
. 1 M~I(lNS, llonald (., An Fli&. Ju~l•u pl•y: 1hf!' mrtanu,rJ,ho•i• of an and•n• hfllr
!'o 1,. 1acmy imo a N~w Vf!'IH's 1-:vr t·rl~hr•tiun nnd • Jwi•• pl•y, Ni1rrlan field 26
):(y 11)61, JOJ .. JQ, ill,
1 1 1
I

rAI.AOT, Prrcy A. Land of the lbihios. Geo,.. J., 44, 1914, 28(j·30~, ill., IMp,
(]JlOII, G.ll. 1958. lhibio folklore and u-a.tlilion• (• •implc auide to lheU collecd 00 )
Pr• }0. Uyo: Modern Auaine a a Pre ••· •

rATT, Jamf!'s. Norea on t:he old Cala.bar dlatrict or Southern Nlaeria. Man. 3. 57,
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156-68; 12, 1, Jan,1947, 23-34; 13, 2, Ocr.1948, 61-67. '
ADAMS, R.F.G. 1952, 1953(3rd ed.). Englioh-Efik dicrioDllry. Efik·Englioh
dictionary. 2 vols. Pp. 161, 279. Liverpool: Philip.
c;oLDIE, Hugh. 1874, Dictionary of the Efik language in two pano: E6k aad
Eoslish, English and Efik. Pp.671. Glasgow: Dunn & Wtigbt,
GREEN. Mara&ret M. The classification of Wear African tone laaguagea: lgbo aDd
Erck· Africa, 19, l, July 1949, 2H-19,
JEFFREYS, M.D.W. 1935, Old Calabar and notes on the lbibio language, Calabor.
sJMMONS, Donald C. Specimens of Efik folklore. Folklore, 66, Dec.1955, 417·24.
SIMMONS, Donald C, Erotic lbibio tone riddles. Mao, 56, 78, J""" 1956, 79-82.
SIMMONS, Donald C, Oroo verb morphology. Africa, 26, 3, July 1956, 250-64.
siMMONS, Dooald·C, Efik riddles. Nigerian Field, 21, 4, Oct.l956, 168-71.
SIMMONS, Donald C. lbibio verb morphology. A&. Smd., 16, 1, 1957, 1-19.
SIMMONS, Dooa.ld C. lbibio tone riddles, Nigerian field, 25, 3, Joly 1960, 132-4.
WJNSTON, F .0.0. The 'mid tone' in Efik, A&. language Stud., 1, 1960, 185-92.

180
ACHEBE, Chinua. 1958. Things fall apart [a novel set among the lbo, by •
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Pp. 274. [MS, Copy at W, Afr. Inst. sac & ecoo, Res., lbadao.l
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24, 2, Apr.1954, 85•99·
ARDENER, Edwio W. Lineage and locality amoos the Mba·lse lbo. A&ica, 29, J
Apr.l959, 113•33, nap.
, ........ ,............ ,,. ......... ,. ...... ''
UP """ ' " t .... t•M "lltt•u

••
l••rll t' .......... I '••••

... ,........... "''"'"•·- .... .

ltltlll

"' ... tl t·U1 l1o11o1. • .-. ........... , . "''•••••. 'lt, t•nt. tilt to,, Ill

I ' \a.l•l: . . . . I U.•a.a .. ,.., • .-,., ..... •~-- ·•I ,a. .. ~a • ,.., .• ,... Nl•"•••u I· a.. I•• , 1~. 4,

tt" ' I t..a... IM

t••ht:. ,..._~u tt.41
t.,_ •-•••• -'•"•• Ill, 1w11, llt·lt..
1¥\e. ~~~~ ueJ.n .,, n~.t f •l•b.,. ~ .. aa.ualn 1 'lh• ·h•r.- "'
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . tU~ •lllh5 U•JI ... • blaf wl 1I1C Clahlll561d.. 1 CUIW)', lllll-lhlll •llll •h
. ,............ h. •IN .. • ..... ..-. l.r h. !'tl•._.•• •"J ••• ta•••t "u Jl,s. t~uhU&.•I ur~t•~.tl••

.......... .... ...... .....

'"- wl •li.J 1 ....... ._, 11.1. lw••· ...... !oa, l..rt..llul·• .... p. lt.u&J..,u. lldurJ llnh •

lt.ttMt,•. 11111 t IM "''~·I,.,~~~ .,,..,. llluu'tll~t~h• '"'"""""""'· Nt••uen

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