CHAPTER FOUR

Basmati Rice in the Indian

Subcontinent: Strategies to
Boost Production and Quality
Traits
Gulshan Mahajan*, **, Amar Matloobx, Rajbir Singh{,
Vijai Pal Singh||, # and Bhagirath Singh Chauhan*, 1
*
The Centre for Crop Science, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation (QAAFI),
The University of Queensland, Gatton, QLD, Australia
x
Muhammad Nawaz Shareef University of Agriculture, Multan, Pakistan
{
ICAR-Agricultural Technology Application Research Institute (ATARI), Ludhiana, India
||
ICAR-Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India
#
Director (Crop & Research), All India Rice Exporters’ Association, New Delhi, India
**
Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana, India
1
Corresponding author: E-mail: [email protected]

Contents
1. Introduction 160
2. Biochemical Bases of Aroma in Basmati 164
3. Definition of Basmati Rice 166
4. Genetics and Breeding of Basmati Rice 169
4.1 Varietal Development of Basmati Rice in India 170
4.2 Varietal Development of Basmati Rice in Pakistan 173
4.2.1 Varietal Development Phase I (Before 1947) 175
4.2.2 Varietal Development Phase II (1948e72) 176
4.2.3 Varietal Development Phase III (1973e2004) 177
4.2.4 Varietal Development Phase IV (2005e16) 178
5. Trade and Emerging Market Trends 180
6. Agronomic Challenges and Techniques for Improving the Productivity and 184
Quality of Basmati Rice
6.1 Soil Factors 184
6.2 Age of Seedlings 185
6.3 Time of Transplanting 186
6.4 Role of Fertilizers in Influencing the Quality of Basmati Rice 190
6.4.1 Nitrogen 190
6.4.2 Potassium and Magnesium 191
6.4.3 Phosphorus and Zinc 192
6.4.4 Other Micronutrients 193
6.4.5 Organic and Biofertilizers 195

Advances in Agronomy, Volume 151

© 2018 Elsevier Inc.
j
ISSN 0065-2113
https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.agron.2018.04.002 All rights reserved. 159
160 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

7. Trade and Marketing 196

8. Pesticide Residues Related to Basmati Production and Marketing 197
9. Policy Issues to Promote Basmati Rice in India and Pakistan 199
10. Confirmation and Identification of Geographical Area 202
11. Conclusions and Future Prospects 203
Acknowledgment 204
References 204

Abstract
Basmati rice has long been popular in Asia due to its distinctive natural aroma and
characteristic elongation of grains after cooking. Demand for Basmati is increasing
worldwide, especially in the Middle East, Europe, and the United States. Basmati rice
from India and Pakistan earns almost three-times the price of high quality non-Basmati
rice in the domestic and the international markets. Despite this, the development of
high-yielding Basmati rice varieties has not kept pace with indica rice because of its
incompatibility with improved indica, resulting in highly sterile crosses of indica x
Basmati. Polygenic control over some of the quality traits in Basmati rice is another
limitation, complicating attempts to combine desirable traits such as high yield, supe-
rior cooking quality, and resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses. In this article, an
attempt has been made to review the historical development of Basmati quality and
aroma traits in the Indian subcontinent under different environmental and agronomic
conditions. Special emphasis is given to the problems and prospects of Basmati rice
breeding, with reference to trade, policy, marketing, and future research programs.

1. INTRODUCTION
Aromatic rice (Oryza sativa L.) varieties fetch high prices in agricultural
markets worldwide, particularly the Jasmine and Basmati varieties. Exquisite
aroma and unique cooking properties make Basmati rice a premium agricul-
tural commodity. Locally known as “scented pearls,” Basmati rice is
endemic to the Indian subcontinent, where it has been cultivated by farmers
for over 250 years (Nene, 1998; Singh and Singh, 2009; Siddiq et al., 2012).
Basmati rice occupies premier place as specialty rice cultivated in the Indian
subcontinent; thus, its production and improvement are of interest to the
region. It is an important commodity in the international market, prized
for its distinct and pleasant aroma, fluffy texture, palatability, easy digestibil-
ity, long shelf life, and volume expansion during cookingdwhich is charac-
terized by linear kernel elongation with minimum breadth-wise swelling
(Shobha-Rani et al., 2006). Basmati rice has a metallothionein-like protein
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 161

composed of a sulfur-containing amino acid (cysteine),which aids in iron ab-

sorption (Chaudhary and Tran, 2001; Salgotra et al., 2015). In India, Basmati
has been grown for centuries in the states of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, and Western Uttar Pradesh (Singh and
Singh, 2009). Similarly, Basmati rice plays an important role in the liveli-
hood of people in Punjab, Pakistan (Ashfaq et al., 2015). About 94% of
the rice grown in Pakistan is produced in the Punjab province, in the tradi-
tional Kalar tract located between the Ravi and Chenab rivers, comprising
the districts of Sialkot, Gujranwala, Hafizabad, Narowal, Mandi Bahauddin,
Lahore, and Sheikhupura.
The word Basmati is derived from two Sanskrit words, vaas (fragrance)
and matup (possessing). In north India, “va” is pronounced as “ba,” and hence
Vaasmati changed into Basmati (Bas means fragrance and mati means queen)
(Singh and Singh, 2009; Siddiq et al., 2012). Besides these unique features,
Basmati rice has a low glycemic index (Foster-Powell et al., 2002), but it is
rich in micronutrients such as iron and zinc (Gregorio, 2002). More than
90% of the Basmati rice produced in India is grown in the states of Punjab,
Haryana and Uttaranchal. In Pakistan, approximately 95% of Basmati rice is
produced in the Punjab province (Ashfaq et al., 2015).
Basmati rice is accepted as a specialty rice all over the world and be-
longs to a unique varietal group that became distinguished as a result of
natural and human selection (Siddiq et al., 2012). Unlike other types of
aromatic rice, the unique quality traits of Basmati rice are expressed
only when grown in the north-western foothills of the Himalayas (Singh
and Singh, 2009). Owing to the geographic specificity regarding the mani-
festation of its unique quality features, Basmati rice is now considered a
geographical indication (GI) of the Indian subcontinent. Until the
1960s, Basmati rice was grown as a strategic commodity by a small number
of farmers in the region due to its price advantage (Leaf, 1984). Basmati
rice, once enjoyed by the affluent class as a local delicacy, has transformed
itself into a large-scale commercial crop due to expansion and intensifica-
tion of irrigation facilities in the 1950s and 1960s. This transformation,
accompanied by trade liberalization, has made Basmati rice a global com-
modity with consumers in Europe, the Middle East, and the United States
(Singh and Singh, 2009).
Averaged over the period 2004e14, Basmati rice represented 43.7% of
total Indian rice exports (Satishkumar et al., 2016). Basmati rice from India
is mainly exported to the Middle East (Iran, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Kuwait, and
the United Arab Emirates). Iran and Saudi Arabia together account for over
162 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

Table 1 Export of Basmati Rice Over Years in India

Basmati Rice Total Rice
(MT ¼ Metric (MT ¼ Metric
Tons) Tons) % Basmati Export Price Value
Year (000 tons) (000 tons) Rice (USD) (Million USD)

2000e01 851.7 1534.5 55.50 556.7 474

2005e06 1166.6 4088.2 28.53 589.2 687
2010e11 2370.6 2471.3 95.92 1050.8 2491
2014e15 3702.3 11,976.3 30.91 1220.3 4518
2015e16 4045.8 10,412.3 38.85 859.6 3478
2016e17 4000.4 10,821.2 36.96 807.5 3230
Source: Data from APEDA, 2017. India Export of Agro Food Products: Product Group Report/
Country WiseeBasmati Rice.

50% of Basmati rice exports from India. Although the share of Basmati rice
by volume is about 6% of the total rice produced in India, it accounts for
57% of India’s total rice export. It is pertinent to mention here that Basmati
rice export, in terms of monetary value from India, has increased at a com-
pound annual growth rate of 27%, which has increased from USD 687 in
2005e06 to USD 4518 in 2014e15 (Table 1). In terms of quantity,
Basmati rice export from India increased by 370% during 2016e17 as
compared with 2000e01 (Table 1). During the same period, the export
price of Basmati rice increased by 45%, although it was highest during
2014e15. The percentage of Basmati rice to total rice export from India
was 95% during 2010e11; however, in recent years, it varied from 30%
to 40% (Table 1).
Basmati rice is also the main export item of Pakistan, accounting for
3.1% of value added in agriculture and 0.6% in gross domestic product.
Pakistan is the second largest exporter of Basmati rice in the world and
exports the bulk of its Basmati rice to the Middle East, North America,
and Europe. Traditionally, Basmati rice exports from Pakistan account
for 6% of the total annual export earnings. It is the second major export
commodity from Pakistan after cotton. The United Arab Emirates,
Malaysia, Bangladesh, Iran, Indonesia, and Saudi Arabia import Basmati
rice from Pakistan. In 1980, the rice export value was negligible and stood
at USD 385 million; however, the export value has since increased to USD
2.2 billion in 2010. Such a transformation was in part due to the evolution
of high-yielding Basmati rice varieties such as Basmati 385, the develop-
ment of the private sector in 1988, and strong expansion of the sector
starting in 1992.
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 163

Table 2 Export of Basmati Rice Over Time in Pakistan

Basmati Rice Total Rice
(MT ¼ Metric (MT ¼ Metric Basmati Export Value
Year Tons) (000 tons) Tons) (000 tons) Rice (%) Price (US$) (Million US$)

2000e01 347.1 2139.3 16.22 492.2 171

2005e06 742.0 3591.7 20.66 570.9 424
2010e11 1137.9 3701.6 30.74 837.2 953
2014e15 676.6 3731.3 18.13 1007.3 682
2015e16 503.0 4262.2 11.80 905.0 455
2016e17 428.9 3327.0 12.89 865.5 371
Source: REAP (Rice Export Association of Pakistan).

The price of Basmati rice is highly vulnerable to cyclical price fluctua-

tions. The high price of Basmati rice in the market in a particular season
encourages farmers to grow more Basmati rice in the next season, resulting
in increased supply and decreased price. This process sometimes discourages
farmers from Basmati cultivation because of its low yielding ability as
compared with coarse grain rice varieties. Therefore, Basmati rice is a profit-
able venture only if farmers get a high price for it.
Basmati export accounts for 13%e18% of total rice production in
Pakistan. The international market for Basmati rice in Pakistan was high-
est during 2010e11, and thereafter, it decreased sharply (Table 2). During
2005e06, the Indian and Pakistan Basmati export markets were valued at
USD 687 and 424 million, respectively. However, during 2016e17, the
Indian Basmati export market took a quantum leap, increasing to 4.7
times the value in 2005e06; conversely, the Pakistan Basmati export
market decreased during the same period. During 2015e16, Pakistan’s
Basmati rice export declined by 26% in quantity and 33% in terms of
monetary value as compared with 2014e15 (Table 2). This was mainly
due to the great demand for Pusa Basmati 1121, which captured a huge
market in the Middle East due to its characteristic elongation after
cooking.
The probability of retention with Saudi Arabia and Iran was found to be
93% and 85%, respectively; and these trends indicate that Iran and Saudi Ara-
bia were the most stable markets among major importers of Basmati rice from
India (Table 3). The probability of retention with United Arab Emirate, Iraq,
and Kuwait was found to be 66, 59%, and 18%, respectively, indicating that
these countries were also important Basmati import markets for India.
Recently, the demand for Indian Basmati rice has increased manifold in coun-
tries such as the Netherlands, Jordan, and Yemen (APEDA, 2017).
164 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

Table 3 Basmati Rice Export From India to Different Countries and Transitional
Probability Matrix
United Arab
Iran Iraq Kuwait Saudi Arabia Emirate Others

Iran 0.93 0.07 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

Iraq 0.41 0.59 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
Kuwait 0.00 0.00 0.18 0.00 0.82 0.00
Saudi Arabia 0.00 0.00 0.09 0.85 0.00 0.05
United Arab Emirate 0.56 0.00 0.05 0.00 0.66 0.23
Other 0.02 0.00 0.05 0.16 0.00 0.76
The row elements indicate the information on the extent of loss in trade while competing with other
countries. The columns element indicates the probability of gains in volume of trade from other
competing countries. The diagonal element indicates probability of retention of the previous year’s
trade volume by the respective country.
Source: Modified from Satishkumar, M., Harishkumar, H., Rangegowda, R., 2016. Growth, export
performance and competitiveness of basmati and non-basmati rice of India-an Markov chain approach.
Int. J. Agric. Environ. Biotechnol. 9, 305e311.

2. BIOCHEMICAL BASES OF AROMA IN BASMATI

The aroma of Basmati rice is a key factor that drives its high price in
the market. Genetic and environmental factors influence the retention of
aroma. Khush and Dela Cruz (1998) suggested that aroma in Basmati rice
is a qualitative trait, as segregation was observed in crosses of indica and
Basmati rice. However, they postulated that the genotype x environment
component played a large role in the expression of aroma. Aroma develops
from a combination of more than 100 volatile compounds (Lewinsohn et al.,
2001). Among over 100 volatile compounds that constitute aroma in rice,
2-acetyl pyrroline (2-AP) is principally responsible for the unique popcorn
fragrance of Basmati rice cultivars (Buttery et al., 1983; Petrov et al., 1996).
The detection of this compound has been reported in different parts of rice
plants, except for the roots (Lorieux et al., 1996).
The structure of 2-AP consists of a reactive methyl ketone group and a
nonreactive pyrroline group (Nadaf et al., 2006). With the advent of molec-
ular maps and genomic sequences, a major gene for rice aroma was discov-
ered on chromosome 8 (Sakthivel et al., 2009). The allelic variation at badh2
(betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase homologue 2; a gene with 15 exons)
controls the aroma in Basmati rice (Bradbury et al., 2005; Sakthivel et al.,
2009). A full length of badh2 protein results in nonfragrance. An 8 base
pair deletion and three single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in exon
7, and a 7 base pair deletion in exon 2, is associated with fragrance in rice
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 165

grains (Chen et al., 2008; Shi et al., 2008). These functional polymorphisms
are conducive to truncation of the betaine aldehyde dehydrogenase enzyme
and are responsible for loss-in-function induced accumulation of 2-AP in
aromatic rice. This notion was supported by the recent work of Shao
et al. (2013). These authors genotyped 516 fragrant rice accessions and
reported that 80% of them possessed the badh2.7 allele. Although studies
have identified 2-AP as the major aroma compound in rice, with L-proline
acting as its precursor (Sakthivel et al., 2009), the biochemical pathway for
synthesis of 2-AP remains elusive (Fitzgerald et al., 2009). These results
indicate that genome editing of very high-yielding nonaromatic rice culti-
vars could be a powerful approach to convert nonaromatic rice into aromatic
rice.
According to Bradbury et al. (2008), the g-aminobutyraldehyde
(GABald) is an effective substrate for badh2, and its accumulation and spon-
taneous cyclization to form D1-pyrroline due to a nonfunctional badh2
enzyme is responsible for 2-AP accumulation in rice. Huang et al. (2008)
revealed the increased expression of D1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate synthetase
in fragrant varieties compared with nonfragrant rice varieties, as well as
concomitant elevated concentrations of its product, and concluded that
D1-pyrroline-5-carboxylate, usually the immediate precursor of proline
synthesized from glutamate, reacts directly with methylglyoxal to form
2-AP, with no direct role proposed for badh2. Loss of enzyme function lead-
ing to the development of aroma explains the recessive nature of this trait.
Nevertheless, this phenomenon could not be accepted as universal because
most of the varieties were still fragrant without mutation involving 8 base
pair deletions in badh2 (Sakthivel et al., 2009); so there are probably other
genes involved.
Most scientists believe that fragrance in Basmati rice is controlled by a sin-
gle recessive gene. The study by Sood and Siddiq (1978) revealed that aroma
in aromatic rice was a highly heritable trait and could be under the control of
one to four genes, depending on the population studied. But there is growing
evidence to suggest that this trait is controlled by quantitative trait loci
(QTLs). Three QTLs for aroma, one each on chromosome 3, 4, and 8,
have been identified in Basmati rice varieties (Amarawathi et al., 2008). It
seems that besides 2-AP, numerous volatile and semivolatile compounds,
either in association with a single predominant compound or a complex
mixture of several compounds, might be involved to produce the character-
istic flavor and strength of aroma in fragrant rice. Examples of such com-
pounds include alkanals, alk-2-enals, alka-2,4-dienals, 2-pentylfuran, and
166 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

2-phenylethanol. Jezussek et al. (2002) found several other compounds, such

as 2-amino acetophenone and 3-hydroxy-4,5-dimethyl-2(5H)-furanone
(found at high levels in Basmati 370).

3. DEFINITION OF BASMATI RICE

The region encompassing India and Pakistan is the ancient home of
Basmati cultivation, and the name Basmati is traditionally associated with
this specific geographical location (Bligh, 2000). Despite cultivation of
Basmati rice in Northern India and the Pakistani Punjab for millennia,
there was no legal definition of Basmati rice until it became a major export
commodity with consumer expectations and preferences, and new varieties
were released to boost production and export. The critical issue in this
regard was how to define a list of varieties that can qualify as “Basmati.”
A precise and legal definition might be that the name Basmati is used
only for genuine Basmati, differentiating Basmati rice from non-Basmati
aromatic rice varieties (e.g., Jasmine). After many meetings and much dis-
cussion by the Government of India, the Export Act 1963 was modified to
arrive at this precise definition of Basmati rice (notification 63, Export Act
2003):
Basmati rice is grown in the Indo-Gangetic Plains and has the following charac-
teristics: exceptional length of grain, which increases substantially after cooking,
the cooked grain has high integrity and high discreteness and distinctive aroma,
taste and mouth feel; it is a traditional variety or is an evolved variety. A traditional
variety shall mean land races or varieties of rice of uniform shape, size, and color
traditionally recognized as Basmati and evolved Basmati shall mean a variety
whose one of two parents is a traditional variety and which has been recognized
as a Basmati variety under any law for the time being in force (http://www.
eicindia.gov.in/eicold/eic/qc&i/enotfn-rice-68.htm).

This definition is now also accepted by the Government of Pakistan. Key

parameters to qualify rice as Basmati rice are given in Table 4. For Indian
Basmati, the variety should be either traditionally known as “Basmati” or
evolved through a breeding process. The idea is to qualify all varieties as
Basmati provided the genealogy contains a Basmati variety (whether tradi-
tional or evolved, as notified under the Seed Act 1966), to pass on the quality
genes of Basmati to a newly evolved variety. To be considered Basmati, one
of the parents must be a traditional variety. It is compulsory for each variety
to be tested and evaluated through National Basmati Trials (NBTs) as part of
the All India Coordinated Rice Improvement Project, Hyderabad, Indian
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 167

Table 4 Parameters for Defining Basmati Rice Variety in India

Parametersa Value

Minimum average precooked milled rice length 6.61

(mm)
Average precooked milled rice breadth (mm) 2.00
Minimum length/breadth ratio (L:B) of precooked 3.50
milled rice
Minimum average cooked rice length (mm) 12.00
Minimum cooked rice length/precooked rice length 1.70
ratio or minimum elongation ration
Average volume expansion ratio >3.5
Aroma Present (qualitative sensory
analysis as panel testb)
Texture of cooked grain for high integrity (without Present (qualitative sensory
bursting the surface), nonstickiness, tenderness, analysis as panel testb)
good taste, and good mouth feel
Amylose content range (%) 20e25
Alkali spreading value range (score) 4e7
Minimum brown rice recovery (%) 76
Minimum milled rice recovery (%) 65
Minimum head rice recovery (%) 45
a
The grain sample for analyses will necessarily have to be “aged” for 3 months under protocol
conditions at normal room temperature as milled kernel.
b
As per standardized protocol (Indian Institute of Rice Research, Hyderabad).
Source: The quality standards approved by Government of India and accepted in the global trade
(Anonymous, 1998. Quality standards of Basmati rice approved by Government of India. In: Proc. 33
Rd Annual Rice Group Meeting Held on 15e8 April, a Punjab Agriculture University, Ludhiana,
India, 1e1560; Anonymous, 2008. Result Cited from Progress Report 2008 (1) Varietal Improvement
AICRIP, DRR, Hyderabad, 1-1302).

Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), released/notified under the Seed

Act 1966 of India (54 of 1966) and amendment made therein (APEDA,
2017; Anonymous, 1998, 2008).
A similar approach prevails in Pakistan, where the only traditional variety
is Basmati 370 (developed through pure line selection), whereas the remain-
ing varieties evolved as part of the quest for higher yields but possess Basmati
quality genes. Pakistan filed an application for GI of Basmati as a collective
trademark under section 82 of the Trade Marks Ordinance 2001 in
December 2005, in the form of a regulation (Marie-Viven, 2008). Accord-
ing to this regulation, Basmati should have at least one parent of a historical
land race Basmati variety and must historically be cultivated in a designated
district of Punjab. Thus, the varieties claimed are Basmati 370, Basmati Pak
(Kernel), Basmati 198, Basmati 385, Super Basmati, Basmati 2000, and
168 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

Shaheen Basmati. Basmati is also defined according to its elongation ratio,

grain length, amylase content, length/breadth ratio, gel consistency, gelati-
nization temperature, aroma, shape, and appearance (Akram, 2009). Con-
cerning the innovation in varieties, the application mentions that Basmati
shall also include all other varieties of Basmati rice approved as such by
the relevant authority (Marie-Viven, 2008).
The variety should be suitable to be grown in the Indo-Gangetic Plains
(IGP) of India of GI of Basmati growing areas, recommended for cultivation
and for its denomination as a Basmati variety. For Indian Basmati, the variety
should be evaluated under NBTs for quality parameters with a minimum
aging of 3 months after milling by the identified laboratories, as an integral
data component involved in decision-making (Singh and Singh, 2009). The
sample for the testing would be direct harvest from the current seed batch
being used for the corresponding trial from the location specified by the
Indian Institute of Rice Research (IIRR) within the GI area. During eval-
uation and decision-making for promotion and identification/release, the
quality standard will have to be met and supported by a desirable range of
expression of other ancillary characters as mentioned in Table 4. It should
fulfill the quality parameters of primary and ancillary characters as a prereq-
uisite as mentioned above that has to be verified by one or more laboratories
identified by the IIRR, Hyderabad, ICAR, for the purpose. The variety
should be proposed for release/notification with the term “Basmati” in
the body of denomination of, along with its initial evaluation trial number
in parenthesis (Singh and Singh, 2009).
In Pakistan, Basmati varieties are registered under Section 8 of the Seed
Act of 1976 (amended in 2015). The candidate lines and varieties undergo
regional adaptability trials and national uniform rice yield trials. The Federal
Seed Certification and Registration Department (FSC&RD) and the
Pakistan Agriculture Research Council, under the umbrella of the Ministry
of National Food Security and Research (FSC&RD), appraise these Basmati
varieties regarding Value for Cultivation and Use and Distinctness, Unifor-
mity and Stability. The salient agronomic, botanical, and kernel quality traits
are recorded according to descriptions established by the FSC&RD and
compared with the existing commercial variety (check). The varieties found
acceptable are recommended to the National Seed Council for confirmation
of the registration. The registered varieties become eligible for quality con-
trol through the FSC&RD. On approval by the FSC&RD, varieties are
notified in the Official Gazette and entered into the National Register
with the issuance of a Registration Certificate (Anonymous, 2017a).
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 169

4. GENETICS AND BREEDING OF BASMATI RICE

There are 24 valid species that constitute the genus Oryza. Among the
24 species, Oryza sativa and Oryza glaberrima are the cultivated species and
were derived from Oryza rufipogon and Oryza longistaminata, respectively
(Vairavan et al., 1973). Since their origin and domestication, the Asian
cultivars have separated into three distinct ecogeographical subspecies, viz,
indica, javanica (tropical japonica), and japonica (temperate japonica)
(Vairavan et al., 1973; Singh et al., 2000; Siddiq et al., 2012). On the basis
of isozyme analysis, Asian cultivars have been differentiated into six varietal
groups viz, indica, ashina, aus, rayada, aromatic, and japonica. Recent
molecular characterization of the Basmati group reveals that it is related
to the japonica group, contrary to the belief that it is closely related to the
indica group by virtue of its grain shape (Garris et al., 2005; Kovach et al.,
2009). Further studies revealed that traditional Basmati varieties are distinct
from non-Basmati rice and might be derived from a Dehraduni Basmati or
Punjab Basmati common parent, and the small amount of genetic variation
in these genotypes could be the result of selection practiced over years.
Studies on genetics and breeding behavior of the key traits in Basmati quality
analysis revealed that all quality characteristics are polygenically controlled
except aroma. High kernel elongation after cooking is basically a genetic
trait but highly influenced by environmental parameters, aging, etc. Infor-
mation is very limited on the inheritance of kernel elongation after cooking
in Basmati rice. Kumar and Khush (1986) reported that variation in the
quantity of the amylose gene in the endosperm caused variation in amylose
content. Information about the factors influencing gel consistency is also
lacking for Basmati rice. Khush et al. (1979) suggested that gel consistency
is an important indicator of cooked texture, e.g., IR 5 and IR 8 had similar
amylose content, but in a panel test IR 5 was preferred to IR 8 due to its
softer consistency.
In 1926, systematic work on improving Basmati rice cultivars was started
by pure line selection at the Kala Shah Kaku Research Institute (KKRI),
now situated in Pakistan. The identification of Basmati 370 was the most
successful example of pure line selection in Basmati rice at KKRI, selected
from a locally adapted landrace by Sardar Mohammad Khan in 1933. The
pure line strategy went on to develop Dehradun Basmati, Taraori, and
Basmati 386 (Singh and Singh, 2009). These varieties, although superior
from a quality point of view, were poor yielders and were also tall and
susceptible to pests and diseases.
170 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

4.1 Varietal Development of Basmati Rice in India

After independence, the work on varietal improvement in Basmati rice in
India was initiated in the 1960s by Dr. M.S. Swaminathan at the Indian
Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi. Subsequently, other
universities started their own breeding programs for Basmati rice, mainly
Punjab Agricultural University (PAU), Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana
Agricultural University, and Govind Ballabh Pant University of
Agriculture and Technology. Traditional Basmati varieties were tall,
slow maturing, prone to lodging, very poor yielders, and susceptible to
bacterial blight and stem borers. Breeding efforts were undertaken to solve
these issues in Basmati rice (Siddiq et al., 2012). The major breeding
methodology has been hybridization followed by the pedigree method
of selection. A mutation breeding program for improving Basmati cultivars
has also been started but has so far remained unsuccessful. In the beginning,
improvement of Basmati rice was very slow due to F1 sterility, lack of un-
derstanding of Basmati quality characteristics, lack of reliable and rapid
methods of quality evaluation, and the polygenic nature of Basmati grain
and cooking characteristics (Khush and Juliano, 1991; Siddiq et al.,
2012). However, in recent years eight institutions in the northwestern
part of India have made significant improvements to Basmati cultivars.
Combining conventional and molecular breeding has opened the door
to incorporating a resistance gene against bacterial leaf blight (BLB) and
blast diseases in Basmati rice. With the help of marker-assisted selection
(MAS), bacterial blight (Xa 13, Xa 21), blast (Pi54, Pi9, Pita, Piz 5, Pib,
and Pi5), sheath blight (qSBR11-1), and brown plant hopper (Bph 21,
Bph 20, and Bph) resistant genes have been transferred into a number of
Basmati varieties, namely Pusa Basmati 1, Punjab Basmati 3, Punjab
Basamti 4, Punjab Basmati 5, Pusa Basmati 1121, Pusa Basmati 6, and
Pusa Basmati 1121 (Siddiq et al., 2012; Bhatia et al., 2011). With the devel-
opment of advanced breeding techniques, a major QTL for salt tolerance
(Saltol) has also been transferred to mega Basmati varieties, Pusa Basmati
1121 and Pusa Basmati 1(Krishnan and Singh, 2016), which are widely
grown in northwest India. It is worth mentioning here that 40% of
the rice-growing area in northwest India has problematic soils due to
brackish water used for irrigation, necessitating the development of salt-
tolerant varieties. Recently, MAS focused on transferring genes for
multiple biotic stresses has resulted in the development of a new Basmati
genotype, Pusa Basmati 1608, which has a number of disease-resistant
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 171

genes (Xa 13 and Xa for BB resistance; Pi 54 for blast resistance; and major
QTL qSBR11-1 for sheath blight resistance) (Singh et al., 2012).
Phosphorus is a costly fertilizer and efforts are being made to increase its
efficiency through breeding approaches. Pup1 (phosphorus, P, uptake 1), a
major QTL conferring tolerance to P deficiency in rice (Wissuwa et al.,
1998), has been fine mapped to the 130 kb region by International Rice
Research Institute (IRRI) scientists (Chin et al., 2010). Recently, it was
found that all Basmati/aromatic rice types have Pup 1, whereas nonaromatic
varieties lack Pup 1 (Singh et al., 2011a); so, this finding may be useful in
developing new Basmati genotypes with high P-use efficiency in future.
MAS is also being utilized for improving the milling quality of rice and
for increasing the grain numbers in panicles. Recently, a major QTL for
milled rice length was mapped on chromosome 3 of a population of Pusa
Basmati 1121, explaining 74% or phenotypic variance (Singh et al.,
2011a). A local genotype of Basmati was collected from Karnal and
promoted by IARI for improving quality traits in Basmati rice. At the initia-
tive of IARI, it was accepted as a quality check in Basmati trials. In 1996, the
same material was released as Taraori Basmati and Basmati 386 in Haryana
and Punjab, respectively. Basmati 370 and Type 3 were popular for trade
and in Basmati improvement (Singh and Singh, 2009). Since then, a large
number of Basmati varieties have been developed.
Accepted Basmati varieties include the traditional rice varieties Basmati
217, Basmati 370, Taroari Basmati (HBC-19, Karnal local), Basmati 386,
and Ranbir Basmati and the evolved group, Punjab Basmati 2, Punjab
Basmati 3, Pusa Basmati 1, Kasturi, Haryana Basmati 3, Yamini, Pusa
Basmati 1121, improved Pusa Basmati 1, Pusa Basmati 6, and Pusa Basmati
1509 (Siddiq et al., 2012). In the last two decades in India, the yield of
Basmati rice has doubled and milled rice kernel length increased from
6.89 in Basmati 370 to 8.61 in Pusa Basmati 1509. Linear cooked kernel
elongation has almost doubled (Table 5). This improvement has driven in-
creases in Basmati export from India and helped in doubling the income of
Basmati growers. The “Basmati revolution” is considered an established fact
by the ICAR.
To break the yield barriers in pure line Basmati varieties, research on
hybrid rice development was initiated at IARI, New Delhi. In this direction,
the world’s first superfine grained aromatic rice hybrid “Pusa RH 10” was
developed that was derived from the cross of Pusa Sugandh 2 and cyto-
plasmic male sterility (CMS) line Pusa 6 A. In 2001, the central varietal
release committee of India released this hybrid for the irrigated regions of
172 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

Table 5 Agronomic and Quality Traits of Popular Basmati Varieties in India

Milled Rice Kernel
Plant Growth Milled Rice Kernel Length
Height Duration Yield Kernel Breadth After
Cultivar (cm) (days) (t ha-1) Length (cm) (cm) Cooking

Basmati 370 170 145 2.50 6.89 1.70 11.50

Taraori 175 155 2.00 7.35 1.75 13.65
Pusa Basmati 1 95 135 5.40 7.66 1.70 16.65
Pusa Basmati 120 140 4.60 8.45 1.90 20.50
1121
Pusa Basmati 6 90 150 5.65 7.85 1.65 18.00
Pusa Basmati 90 125 6.25 8.60 1.85 21.00
1509
Basmati 386 156 142 2.60 7.90 1.62 15.0
Punjab 135 140 3.70 8.56 1.60 15.1
Basmati 3
Source: Data from APEDA, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India.

Haryana, Delhi, and Uttaranchal. Pusa RH 10 had higher yield (20%e30%)

as compared with Pusa Basmati 1, with little penalty of quality characteris-
tics. These days, Basmati hybrids are being attempted by using CMS lines,
that is, Pusa 6A, 7A, 8A, 9A, 10A, and 11A, in combination with several
Basmati-like restorers. Research has been initiated to develop a disease
and insect pesteresistant parental line for the development of additional
CMS lines. The IRRI has also developed few restores and CMS lines
from aromatic rice, such as IR67684A, IR68280A, IR68281A,
IR69617A, and IR70372A. These lines were identified with moderate to
strong aroma and higher grain elongation than Basmati 370 (Siddiq et al.,
2012).
To date, about 29 Basmati varieties have been notified in India and
these are being utilized for domestic purposes and international trade
(APEDA, 2017). An intensive program on Basmati rice breeding has led
to the development of a landmark rice variety, Pusa Basmati 1121, which
was developed by the IARI, New Delhi. This proved to be a high-yielding
unique Basmati rice variety with extra-long slender grains, exceptional
kernel length after cooking (22e25 mm), intermediate amylose content,
high cooked kernel elongation ratio (2.5 times), high volume expansion
after cooking (>4 times), and a strong aroma (Singh et al., 2002). These
unique properties of Pusa Basmati 1121 have caught the fancy of traders
worldwide. Currently, Pusa Basmati 1121 occupies 1.35 million ha,
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 173

comprising about 70% of the area under Basmati cultivation in India (Singh
and Krishnan, 2016). It was estimated that Pusa Basmati 1121 contributes
approximately 4 million tons to Basmati rice production annually in India.
With the recognition of Pusa Basmati 1121 as an evolved Basmati variety
during 2008, the forex earning due to trade of Pusa Basmati 1121 from In-
dia has risen from USD 0.67 million to USD 4.5 billion in 2014e15
(APEDA, 2017), which includes a contribution from Pusa Basmati of about
65%. This variety has not only revolutionized the international Basmati rice
trade but has also improved the livelihood of millions of Basmati growers in
India. The Basmati varieties notified by the Government of India are
depicted in Table 6.

4.2 Varietal Development of Basmati Rice in Pakistan

Breeding for short stature, early maturity, and higher yield remain the
major objectives of Basmati rice breeding programs in Pakistan. The intro-
duction of short duration varieties of rice led to a substantial increase in
productivity; nevertheless, the inferior grain quality of these varieties failed
to meet consumer preferences. Attempts to develop early maturing and
high-yielding Basmati rice varieties by incorporating genes from semidwarf
non-Basmati were difficult and slow due to genetic differences between
the two varietal groups (Rashid et al., 2003; Bashir et al., 2007; Siddiq
et al., 2012). In spite of immense genetic diversity, only a small fraction
of available germplasm has been exploited in coordinated breeding
programs. Consequently, high genetic similarity was observed in Pakistani
Basmati rice varieties. In Pakistan, out of seven commercial Basmati vari-
eties, five have Basmati 370 as one of the parents (Rabbani et al., 2008).
Zafar et al. (2004) postulated the need to broaden the genetic base of
rice crop by introgressing genes from diverse landraces. Conscious and
continuous selection by humans for an array of preferences is an important
aspect of genetic diversity and could be utilized in Basmati breeding
programs. Susceptibility to different biotic (insect pests and diseases) and
abiotic stresses (drought, salinity, and water logging) has been acknowl-
edged as a crucial factor for lower yield of Basmati varieties. To address
these issues, various approaches such as traditional breeding, mutation
breeding, somaclonal variation, wide hybridization, and plant transforma-
tion have been employed (Bashir et al., 2007). Traditional breeding
succeeded in developing a number of famous Basmati varieties. However,
six varieties developed through mutation breeding and one through soma-
clonal variation failed to contribute significantly to the national economy,
174 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

Table 6 Notified Basmati Varieties in India

S. No. Variety Notification No. and Date

1 Basmati 217 4045d24.09.1969

361 (E)d30.06.1973
2 Basmati 370 361 (E)d30.06.1973
786d02.02.1976
3 Type 3 (Dehraduni Basmati) 13d19.12.1978
4 Punjab Basmati 1 (Bauni Basmati) 596 (E)d13.08.1984
5 Pusa Basmati 1 615 (E)d06.11.1989
6 Kasturi 615 (E)d06.11.1989
7 Haryana Basmati 1 793 (E)d22.11.1991
8 Mahi Sugandha 408 (E)d04.05.1995
9 Taraori Basmati (HBC 19/Karnal 1(E)d01.01.1996
Local)
10 Ranbir Basmati 1 (E)d01.01.1996
11 Basmati 386 647 (E)d09.09.1997
12 Improved Pusa Basmati 1 (Pusa 1460) 1178 (E)d20.07.2007
13 Pusa Basmati 1121 1566 (E)d05.11.2005
After amendment 2547 (E)d29.10.2008
14 Vallabh Basmati 22 2187 (E)d27.08.2009
15 Pusa Basmati 6 (Pusa 1401) 733 (E)d01.04.2010
16 Punjab Basmati 2 1708 (E)d26.07.2012
17 Basmati CSR 30 1134(E)d25.11.2001
After amendment 2126 (E)d10.09.2012
18 Malviya Basmati Dhan 10-9 (IET 2817 (E)d19.09.2013
21669)
19 Vallabh Basmati 21 (IET 19493) 2817 (E)d19.09.2013
20 Pusa Basmati 1509 (IET 21960) 2817 (E)d19.09.2013
21 Basmati 564 268 (E)d28.01.2015
22 Vallabh Basmati 23 268 (E)d28.01.2015
23 Vallabh Basmati 24 268 (E)d28.01.2015
24 Pusa Basmati 1609 2680(E)d01.10.2015
25 Pant Basmati 1 (IET 21665) 112(E)d13.01.2016
26 Pant Basmati 2 (IET 21953) 112(E)d13.01.2016
27 Punjab Basmati 3 3540(E)d24.11.2016
28 Pusa Basmati 1637 3540(E)d24.11.2016
29 Pusa Basmati 1728 3540(E)ed24.11.2016
Source: Data from APEDA, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India.

and no variety was commercialized based on plant transformation (Bashir

et al., 2007).
In Punjab, rice varietal improvement work started in 1926 at Kala Shah
Kaku (KSK) in the famous Kalar Tract, led by the former Punjab Agriculture
College and Research Institute, Lyallpur. The pioneer work was focused on
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 175

Table 7 Agricultural-cum-Commercial Rice Groups in Pakistan

No. of No. of
Group Accessions Group Accessions

Bara or Hansraj 9 Muskan 50

Basmati 51 Palman 17
Begmi 9 Ratria 22
Dhan 27 Red Rice 21
Jhona Kasarwala 54 Santhi 13
Jhona 96 Sathra 24
Joni 17 Sone 42
Kharsu 13 Kangra Valley Rice 90
Source: Ahmad, C.M., Akram, M., 2005. Hand Book on Rice Varieties in Pakistan. Rice Research
Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, p. 66.

purification of the rice varieties available to the farmers. About 500 locally
grown rice varieties were collected from farmers’ fields and classified into
16 agricultural-cum-commercial groups on the basis of morphological traits.
Basmati was a major group comprising 51 pure lines (Table 7). Since then,
the Rice Research Institute (RRI) of KSK holds a prominent position in the
development of Basmati varieties for the region (Ahmad and Akram, 2005;
Bashir et al., 2007).
The varietal development program initiated in 1926 at KSK can be
divided into four distinct phases.

4.2.1 Varietal Development Phase I (Before 1947)

During this developmental phase, devoted efforts were undertaken toward
pure line selection. From the 16 identified agricultural-cum-commercial
groups, three promising varieties were released for general cultivation
(Table 8).
These varieties were tall statured with weak stems and hence were not
responsive to high nitrogen inputs. Out of these three varieties, only Basmati

Table 8 Rice Varieties Released for Cultivation From the Agricultural-cum-Commercial

Groups in Pakistan
Variety Year of Release Parentage Varietal Group

Basmati 370 1933 Pure line selection Aromatic

Muskan-7 1933 Pure line selection Aromatic
Muskan-41 1933 Pure line selection Aromatic
Source: Ahmad, C.M., Akram, M., 2005. Hand Book on Rice Varieties in Pakistan. Rice Research
Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, p. 66.
176 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

370 occupied a large acreage. Basmati 370 was high quality fine rice with
long grain size, a pleasant aroma, extreme grain elongation ratio, and soft
texture after cooking. Basmati 370 was the perfect example of success for
a pure line breeding strategy (Siddiq et al., 2012). This Basmati rice variety
became the most significant traditional rice in this category and resulted in an
export boom (Mann, 1987). This variety served as a bench mark for
future Basmati varietal development and remained popular with the farming
community and farmers until the 1980s (Shobha-Rani et al., 2006). Yield of
Basmati rice varieties released during this period was quite low and hence a
common problem. Therefore, pure line selection was not a quick solution to
this challenge. Hybridization, based on the phenomenon of heterosis, was
employed to improve yield and other agro-qualitative traits. The results
were far below that expected, due to narrow genetic variability in Basmati
germplasm at that time. The typical aroma of Basmati, being a recessive trait,
did not appear in the F1 generation unless both the parents were of Basmati
origin. In addition to high yield, the breeders’ aims were long slender grain
size, better milling recovery, aroma, and good cooking quality. This was
further challenged by the poor ability of Basmati rice varieties to combine
with pure lines valued for their aroma and other cooking characteristics. It
was not an easy task for the breeders to combine all these traits in a single
Basmati variety with the limited germplasm available, as germplasm
exchange with other countries was not very common during these early
days. These issues restricted varietal development in Punjab.

4.2.2 Varietal Development Phase II (1948e72)

A major breakthrough in rice productivity and total production was
made possible by the introduction of semidwarf, fertilizer-responsive, and
high-yielding varieties in the mid-1960s from the IRRI. The first variety
introduced was IR8, which was approved as IRRIePak. It was high
yielding but due to its inferior grain quality characteristics, it failed to catch
the attention of the farming community. However, another variety, IR6,
was approved for general cultivation in 1971. These introductions gave
momentum to the hybridization program and crossing work was intensified
to develop high-yielding Basmati and non-Basmati varieties. With the
objectives of early maturity, high yield, better grain quality, and resistance
against borers and blast, the first cross of Basmati 370 with Pulman 46 was
made in 1933. Material from other parts of the world (Australia, Egypt, Italy,
Japan, Russia, and Spain), mostly of japonica type, was also evaluated and
compared. The rice-growing period at KSK is characterized by long and
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 177

hot summer days, and consequently the exotic japonica germplasm did not
perform welldin part due to their photoperiod sensitivity. A total of 275
exotic lines were evaluated but they were not as adaptive as the local
germplasm. By 1959, rice breeders had developed and tested 620 indigenous
pure lines. The efforts to cross Indica (indigenous) and japonica (exotic)
were unsuccessful, largely due to highly sterile progeny. A project under
the umbrella of FAO was launched to develop early maturing, high-
yielding, stiff stem, and fertilizer-responsive hybrids for cultivation in
traditional Indica areas. At the Central Rice Research Station, Cuttack, In-
dia, the japonica varieties obtained from Japan (which failed to produce
desirable results under a tropical environment) were crossed with the Indica
varieties supplied by other participating countries to raise F1. The F2 was
tested in countries concerned (FAO projects) for the selection of desirable
plants. Seeds for various crosses were supplied by the Economic Botanist
to the Government of Pakistan and were tested at KSK. Since none of
the parents involved in such crosses were native to this province (Punjab,
Pakistan), good results were not achieved. Most of the plants did not
flower under the agroecological conditions of KSK. Later on, positive
results were obtained while crossing progenies with a Basmati parent as
recurrent one. In the 1960s, two fine grain varieties were released as a result
of the hybridization program. Later, Basmati 198 was released for general
cultivation in Punjab through introduction, acclimatization, and selection
(Table 9).

4.2.3 Varietal Development Phase III (1973e2004)

The research was gradually strengthened and efforts were devoted toward
high yield and better cooking quality. During this period institutional
access to the exotic germplasm was increased and well-equipped labs were
provided, with increased availability of technically trained staff. Four
Basmati rice varieties were released for cultivation (Table 10). World famous

Table 9 Rice Varieties Released for Cultivation During 1948e72 in Pakistan

Variety Year of Release Parentage Varietal Group

C-662 1964 Basmati 370  Muskan 7 Aromatic

Basmati Pak 1968 Pure line Aromatic
Basmati 198 1972 Basmati 3703  Taichung Aromatic
Native 1
Source: Ahmad, C.M., Akram, M., 2005. Hand Book on Rice Varieties in Pakistan. Rice Research
Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, p. 66.
178 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

Table 10 Rice Varieties Released for Cultivation During 1973e04 in Pakistan

Year of
Variety Release Parentage Varietal Group

Basmati 385 1988 Basmati 3704  TN1 Aromatic

Super Basmati 1996 Basmati 320  10486 Aromatic
Basmati 2000 2001 Basmati 385  4048-3 Aromatic
Shaheen Basmati 2001 Super Basmati  Basmati 385 Aromatic
Source: Ahmad, C.M., Akram, M., 2005. Hand Book on Rice Varieties in Pakistan. Rice Research
Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, p. 66.

Basmati varieties were released during this period, occupying a major

percentage of the rice-growing area and fetching significant foreign ex-
change earnings.

4.2.4 Varietal Development Phase IV (2005e16)

Attempts were made to break the yield barrier and confer resistance against
blast and other diseases. Four Basmati varieties, namely Basmati 515, Kissan
Basmati, Chenab Basmati, and Punjab Basmati, were released during the
period 2005e16. To overcome issues such as insect pests, diseases, salinity,
drought, and submergence and improve yield and quality traits of Basmati
rice, many crosses were made and successful crosses are being further
evaluated. Focused research work is underway for the development of
BLB-resistant Basmati varieties. Such work is being augmented by the
DNA fingerprinting of BLB-resistant Xa4, xa5, Xa7, and Xa21 genes.
Molecular screening for presence/absence of BLB-resistant genes in the
existing rice genotypes of the crossing block is being carried out at RRI,
KSK, Pakistan, and one line has been found to have the Xa21 gene. The
characterization and inheritance of aroma compounds in Basmati varieties
has also emerged as a major objective of the breeding program in Pakistan
(Ashfaq et al., 2015; Anonymous, 2016b). Scientists at RRI, KSK are
striving to develop high-yielding, early maturing, stiff-stem, and extra-
long grained varieties of Basmati rice that are resistant to biotic and
abiotic stresses such as stem borers, leaf folder, white backed plant hoppers,
bacterial blight, and drought (Bashir et al., 2007; Akhter et al., 2014;
Anonymous, 2016b). The important features of popular Basmati varieties
grown in Pakistan are described in Table 11.
Early released Basmati varieties such as Basmati 370 and Basmati Pak had
yield far below 3.0 t ha-1. In the late 1980s, Basmati 385 was launched,
which was a major success in terms of yield. The second breakthrough to
Table 11 Detail of Popular Basmati Varieties Grown in Pakistan
Year of Plant Yield
Basmati Variety Parentage Release Height (cm) Duration (t ha1) Comments

Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits
Basmati 370 Selection 1933 170 150 2.5 High quality, low in yield, weak stem
Basmati Pak CM7-6/Basmati 370 1968 170 150 2.5 Weak stem, extra-long kernel, tolerant
to poor soil conditions
Basmati 198 Basmati 3703  Taichung 1972 125 160 3.0 Released for Sahiwal area
Native 1
Kashmir Nafis Mutant of Basmati 370 1977 160 120 4.4 Cold tolerant, high yielding
Basmati 385 Basmati 3704/TN1 1988 133 142 4.0 Stiff stem, early maturing, high yielding
Super Basmati Basmati 320  10486 1996 115 150 3.2 Stiff stem, extra-long kernel, major
export Basmati variety
Khushboo 95 Mutation 1996 130 144 4.4 High yielding
Rachna Basmati Somaclonal variation of 1999 134 125 4.2 High yielding, moderately tolerant to
Basmati 370 diseases
Basmati 2000 Basmati 385  4048-3 2000 135 145 4.5 Stiff stem, high yielding
Shaheen Basmati Super Basmati  Basmati 385 2001 134 150 4.5 High yielding, salt tolerant
Basmati 515 Three way cross of F1 2011 125 154 4.5 Moderately resistant to
(Basmati 320 x 10486) bakanae/foot rot and blast
with 50021
Kissan Basmati Advance line RRI 7 2016 93 128 4.5 Early maturing, short stature, stiff stem,
extra-long rice especially for
parboiled rice
Chenab Basmati Advance line 2016 122 137 4.4 High yielding, stiff stem, early
PK 8431-1-2-1-2-4 maturing, extra-long kernel
Punjab Basmati Advance line 2016 107 132 4.3 High yielding, stiff stem, early
PK 8685-5-1-1-1-1 maturing, extra-long kernel
Source: Ahmad, C.M., Akram, M., 2005. Hand Book on Rice Varieties in Pakistan. Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku, p. 66; Bashir, K., Khan, N.M., Rasheed,
S., Salim, M., 2007. Indica rice varietal development in Pakistan: an overview. Paddy Water Environ. 5, 73e81; Akram, M., 2009. Aromatic rices of Pakistan. Pak. J.

179
Agric. Res. 22, 154e160; Akhter M., Akhtar M.S. and Rizwan M., 2014. Basmati-515: a new variety with extra long grain for productivity augmentation in Punjab,
Pak. J. Agric. Res. 52, 35e42; Anonymous, 2016b. Annual Abridged Report, 2015e16. Rice Research Institute, Kala Shah Kaku. Available at: http://aari.punjab.
gov.pk/info-desk/publications/annual-reports/462-rice-research-institute-kala-shah-kaku-annual-report-2015-16/file.
180 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

spur yield was in the mid-1990s, with the advent of Super Basmati that sur-
passed Basmati 385 (Table 11). Super Basmati is now the major Basmati rice
variety in cultivation (Erenstein, 2010) and dominates exports (Bashir et al.,
2007; Rangnekar and Kumar, 2010). This variety represents 70% of the total
Basmati rice area and production in Punjab and is a leading Basmati variety
in the international market (Javed et al., 2015). It has a strong aroma and is an
extra-long, fine-grained variety, with kernel length of 7.5 mm and breadth
of 1.7 mm. Its milling recovery is about 70% (Muhammed and Pirzada,
2005; Bashir et al., 2007; Akram, 2009). The country’s entire rice export
regime has traditionally been based on this variety, which gave it a natural
competitive edge in the world market. Certain geographical attributes
made it the most “sought after variety” and international buyers paid a pre-
mium for its natural traitsdtaste and aroma. Basmati 515 has a better milling
recovery and elongation ratio than Super Basmati and is gaining popularity
among Basmati growers. Other recently released varieties are in the phase of
adoption by farmers. Pusa Basmati 1 is an Indian variety introduced by busi-
ness-oriented Pakistani farmers and is very popular now. The remarkable
success of this variety can be attributed to its short duration and high yield
providing potential, saving water, and facilitating cultivation of a third
crop, and thereby enhancing famers’ profitability.

5. TRADE AND EMERGING MARKET TRENDS

In trade, the marketability of Basmati rice depends on milling and
cooking quality traits. The quality characteristics of Basmati rice desired
by farmers, millers, and consumers/buyers might be similar or different.
For example, farmers in general are interested in high yield and net profit
and millers are interested in high total recovery and head rice percentage.
Consumer preference varies in different countries and among ethnic groups.
Market quality is determined by physical properties such as length, breadth,
translucency, degree of milling, color, and age of milled rice (Singh et al.,
2008). Cooking and eating qualities are influenced by amylose content
and directly correlated with volume expansion and water absorption during
cooking, and with whiteness, hardness, and dullness of cooked rice (Singh
et al., 2011b; Yoshida, 1981). Quality preferences in Basmati rice are so spe-
cific that farmers continue to grow traditional low-yielding Basmati rice
because of its high price in the market. Improvement in grain quality along
with productivity enhancement would not only help in increasing the
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 181

export potential but also help in sustaining marketability. Aroma is a highly

important trait in Basmati rice. Cultivation of Basmati rice in India prompted
the open general license quota in 1980 that provided an outlet for Basmati
rice export (Siddiq et al., 2012). The aromatic rice market represents only
about w5% of the international trade in rice and is shared mainly by India
and Pakistan (Basmati), and by Thailand (Jasmine) to a lesser extent. India has
the major share of Basmati export, which is evident from the fact that pres-
ently exports Basmati to over 90 countries across the world (APEDA, 2017).
The large-scale export of Basmati started in the early 1970s with Taraori
Basmati, Basmati 386, and Dehradun Basmati, and Uttar Pradesh (now
Uttaranchal) became the first state to export Basmati rice to Arabian coun-
tries (Siddiq et al., 2012). Earlier Basmati rice cultivars were exported to
Europe and America.
In India, the area under cultivation of Basmati rice increased with
evolved Basmati varieties such as Pusa Basmati 1, Punjab Basmati 3, and
Pusa Basmati 1121. In the beginning, only Basmati 370 and Type 3
were popular among farmers, traders, and consumers (Singh and Singh,
2009). These cultivars have a kernel length of less than 7 mm. In the
mid-1970s, one of collections of Karnal germplasm was found with longer
milled rice kernel length (7.35 mm) and had all the quality characteristics of
Basmati 370. It was named Karnal Local. When its produce was brought to
the market, it fetched even higher prices than Basmati 370 and Type 3.
This opened up a new area for Basmati research (Singh and Singh,
2009). Karnal local then became the quality check for the NBT of the
IIRR, Hyderabad. IARI released Pusa Basmati 1, having kernel length
w7.5 mm (Singh and Singh, 2009; Shobha-Rani et al., 2009), and it
slowly replaced Basmati 370, Basmati 386, Type 3, and Karnal Local.
This validated that consumer preference is for longer grain. CSR-30, Tar-
aori, and Basmati 386 are very similar in look (size and shape), and it is very
difficult to differentiate the grain of these varieties in the grain market.
CSR-30 is generally preferred in sodic soils. In Haryana, Taraori Basmati
was slowly replaced by CSR-30 (Yamini). Efforts were then made to
develop still longer grain with high volume expansion. Then Pusa 1121,
which has a longer kernel length than CSR-30 and has better linear cooked
kernel elongation, replaced CSR-30 and Basmati 386. Pusa Basmati 1121
was released in 2003 by the Central Varietal Research Committee and by
2007 by PAU (Singh and Singh, 2009). Pusa Basmati gave 30%e40%
higher yield than Basmati 386 and fetched a high price in the market
due to its unique elongation. So, this variety was much appreciated by
182 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

growers, millers, and consumers. This variety formed an export niche,

particularly in Arab countries (APEDA, 2017). Currently, Pusa Basmati
1121 is grown on around 1.4 million ha and accounts for around 75% of
India’s annual Basmati rice exports of around 3.5 million tonnes. Due to
the longer duration of Basmati cultivars, farmers in the riceewheat
cropping system faced a yield penalty in wheat due to delayed sowing of
wheat. Efforts were made to develop a suitable Basmati cultivar with
shorter duration. The IARI then developed a cultivar which was released
as Pusa Basmati 1509, with similar yield and quality to Pusa Basmati 1121
but which matures 15 days earlier. It is becoming more popular these days
and obtains a similar price to Pusa Basmati 1121. It fits well in intensive
cropping systems and has proved a boon for summer mungbean, potato,
and vegetable growers. Efforts were also made to shorten the height of Bas-
mati 386, which is prone to lodging. With the help of MAS, PAU released
Punjab Basmati 3 with 40%e50% higher yield than Basmati 386 and with
shorter height (110e115 cm) and improved resistance to bacterial blight
(Bhatia et al., 2011; Singh et al., 2014). This variety has a niche in the Eu-
ropean market and fetches a good price in the market. The percent share of
Basmati rice export to the total export of Indian rice is more than 58%.
Though the Indian export market is facing tough competition from
Pakistan, it is still sustaining its place of importance. It has been observed
that Asian countries accounted for a major share (w74%) of Basmati rice
imported from India, followed by Western Europe (w20%) (APEDA,
2017). Volume wise, the share of Basmati rice to the total rice export is
not very high in India, but it generates 3e4 times higher return over
non-Basmati varieties in the overseas and domestic market because of its
higher price (APEDA, 2017). Over one-half of Basmati rice is exported
as parboiled in the Saudi Arabia, followed by Kuwait, United Arab
Emirate, United Kingdom, and United States. With the opening of new
markets in countries such as Korea, Iran, Japan, China, and Indonesia under
the WTO regime, and with the removal of minimum export price by the
Government of India, the export volume of Basmati rice is expected to in-
crease in future. With a view to strengthen Basmati export in India, two
agri export zones (one each in Punjab and Uttaranchal) have been formed
by the Indian Government (Singh and Singh, 2009). In the past 4 years, In-
dia’s Basmati export has increased but Pakistan’s rice export has declined by
40%, reduced from 1.1 million tonne to 676,630 tonnes in 2015 (Rice
Exporters Association of Pakistan, 2016). This was due to high demand
for the Indian Basmati variety Pusa Basmati 1121 in Middle Eastern
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 183

countries, which has unique elongation after cooking. India entered the
rice market with a huge surplus, and 20% devaluation of its rupee, enjoying
an almost unbeatable comparative advantage against Pakistani exporters.
To make the competition even tougher, India withdrew the minimum
export price (Anonymous, 2017b). Scientists in Pakistan opined that
Basmati exporters from Pakistan experience high cost at each step of the
supply chain, i.e., farmeprocessingetransportation (Anonymous, 2016a).
According to the World Bank’s Logistics Performance Index, Pakistani ex-
porters lag behind India, Vietnam, and Thailand regarding international
shipments (ease of arranging competitively priced shipments) and logistics
competence (competence and quality of logistics) indicators (Anonymous,
2016a).
Pakistan exports to major markets like Iran in the Middle East have drop-
ped considerably, causing the total exports of the rice sector to plummet.
Consequently, the export volume and earnings of Basmati have spiraled
downward. Iran has been a traditional buyer of Basmati rice from Pakistan
but in the wake of the economic sanctions placed on Iran, the recent years
have seen rice exports to Iran decline sharply. Pakistan rice export has been
stagnant for many years, both in quantitative and value terms (Ashraf, 2017)
because of skyrocketing input prices, ever increasing cost of production,
debilitating energy crisis, a discouraging law and order situation, and
decreased commodity prices in the international market (International Pol-
icy Digest, 2015). Millers and exporters have to deal with challenges such as
inconsistent supplies, high cost of production and processing, access to few
Basmati varieties, lack of production data, price instability, and limited
storage facilities. Lack of innovation in research and development, an aggres-
sive marketing approach, and cultivation using old seeds with low viability
leading to low yields have contributed enormously to such regression
(Anonymous, 2016a). Since 1995, India has developed over 20 high-
yielding, disease-resistant, and extra-long varieties of Basmati, its hybrids,
and look-alikes. In Pakistan, it was not until recently that new high-yielding
Basmati rice varieties were released since the approval of Super Basmati in
1990s and Shaheen Basmati in 2001.
In recent years, parboiled rice has captured the preference of interna-
tional rice markets in Europe, Middle East, South Africa, and North
America due to improved nutritional aspects and superior processing
and cooking characteristics (Anonymous, 2016a). The two recent Indian-
developed varieties, Pusa Basmati 1121 and Pusa Basmati 1509, have
captured the increasingly parboiled-preferring global Basmati rice market.
184 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

The average grain length (AGL) of both of these varieties is 8.1e8.4 mm

with yield of 5.0e6.0 t ha1 compared with 7.0e7.4 mm AGL and 3.0
to 4.25 t ha-1 yield of Super Basmati (Ashraf, 2017). Against the backdrop
of parboiled rice, the superior aroma of Super Basmati becomes a trait of sec-
ondary significance as the aromatic compounds evaporate in the parboiling
process. On the processing side, India has secured a technological advantage
by developing mechanized parboiling technology, which ensures color con-
sistency and the absence of odor, which otherwise are major issues associated
with manual parboiling techniques.

6. AGRONOMIC CHALLENGES AND TECHNIQUES FOR

IMPROVING THE PRODUCTIVITY AND QUALITY OF
BASMATI RICE
The development of appropriate production technology is a prerequi-
site to exploit the yield potential of improved varieties. In Basmati rice,
production technologies such as optimum schedule of transplanting, age
of nursery, and balanced and efficient use of nutrients have played a very
important role in increasing Basmati rice production.

6.1 Soil Factors

Soil factors play a critical role in influencing the quality of Basmati rice. Soil
factors affect the aroma and other quality traits due to optimum supply of
nutrients to the crop and the interaction of nutrients with aroma concerning
volatile compounds, but few studies have been done using Basmati rice. The
study of volatile compounds for developing aroma in Basmati rice in relation
to different nutrients is an urgent research priority. Several farmers in the
eastern IGP have claimed that it was not only aroma but also the thickness
and length of grains, taste, and fluffiness, which were influenced by the field
in which the aromatic variety was cultivated. Few farmers noted a significant
difference in aroma of Basmati rice produced from two adjacent fields when
the crop was raised from the same seed lot (Singh, 1998). This means the
nutrient supply to the crop by the soil plays a key role in influencing aroma.
As per farmers’ perceptions, lighter soil and upland conditions favor aroma
formation. On the other hand, Basmati rice is mostly cultivated in flat and
bunded fields on terraces and in clayey soils of plains in high rainfall areas
or where irrigation facilities are available. A well-leveled field with sufficient
water supply is the prerequisite for growing good quality of Basmati rice
(Singh et al., 2002). In alkaline and poor soil conditions or if water supply
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 185

is limited, particularly at the grain filling stage, the grain showed excessive
abdominal whiteness, which adversely affects cooking qualities (Azeez and
Shafi, 1966). Soil texture is reported to affect grain quality (Hou, 1988)
and that is also true for Basmati rice. Bocchi et al. (1997) reported that
the highest grain content of volatile compounds in rice was correlated
with loose soils having high sand and low clay contents. These results suggest
that edaphic factors play a major role in influencing the quality of Basmati
rice; that is why Basmati rice exhibited high quality (greater elongation
and aroma) when grown in the GI areas of the Indian subcontinent.

6.2 Age of Seedlings

The correct age of seedlings at the time of transplanting is crucial for proper
stand establishment of Basmati rice (Sarwar et al., 2011). Seedling age in rice
is linked with vigor, survival, and mortality in the main field. Both above
and below ground attributes of rice plants in nursery as well as in the
main field are known to be influenced by the seedling age (Sarwar et al.,
2014). Tiller production, grain formation, yield, and related components
(Ashraf et al., 1999; Ahmad et al., 2002; Aslam et al., 2015) as well as quality
attributes (Brar et al., 2012) are affected by age of seedling. Transplanting
shock, a setback of growth due to uprooting and replanting of seedlings,
increases with an increase in age of seedlings. In addition, late nursery trans-
planting reduces the growing period of the crop, which not only reduces the
grain yield but also impairs the quality. Generally, transplanting is delayed
due to the manual method of nursery transplanting and because all the fields
cannot be simultaneously transplanted, which results in above-optimal age
of rice seedlings that produce lesser numbers of tillers per plant.
Rice seedlings at the 5e6 leaf stage (usually 25e30 days after sowing) are
used for transplanting. In Basmati, nursery age and transplanting time differs
with cultivars (Brar et al., 2012). Longer duration varieties, which are
photosensitive, are grown later in the season as compared with photoinsen-
sitive varieties. Longer stay of seedlings in the nursery bed results in node
formation, which reduces tillering and yield of Basmati varieties. Due to
shorter duration of Pusa Basmati 1509, it was recommended to transplant
25-day old seedlings to achieve high yields (Mahajan et al., 2016). The
minimum age of a seedling for transplanting is about 15e20 days. Younger
seedlings are difficult to establish and cannot cope with prevailing high
temperatures. However, the ideal seedling age is about 25e30 days; tilling
capacity is reduced if older (50 days) seedlings are transplanted, resulting
in 30%e40% yield loss (Anonymous, 2016c).
186 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

6.3 Time of Transplanting

Transplanting time is directly linked to cultivar. Varieties that are photope-
riod sensitive viz Basmati 370, Taraori, and Basmati 386 require a specific
day length at flowering, and if transplanted early, boost vegetative growth
leading to lodging, affecting yield and quality parameters. Photoperiod-
insensitive varieties viz Pusa Basmati 1 and Pusa Basmati 1121 and weakly
photosensitive varieties such as Super Basmati, Punjab Basmati 2, and Punjab
Basmati 3 are sown 15 days before the sensitive varieties. For better quality,
Pusa Basmati 1509 is recommended under late transplanting conditions, i.e.,
second fortnight of July in north India (Mahajan et al., 2016). In Pakistan,
photoperiod sensitivity is considered an important criterion to distinguish
a Basmati rice variety from a non-Basmati rice variety (Akhter et al.,
2007; Erenstein, 2010). Super Basmati is highly photosensitive, flowering
during the last week of September and first week of October irrespective
of its transplanting time, with optimum transplanting in the first half of
July (Rafiq et al., 2005; Akhter et al., 2007). All traditional Basmati varieties
in Pakistan are highly photoperiod sensitive for flowering (Safdar et al.,
2008). These authors determined that the photoperiod-insensitive rice
line 98410 was an exception, which they regarded as non-Basmati fine grain
rice. Photosensitivity in Basmati rice varieties is often considered an undesir-
able trait, such as tall stature, susceptibility to lodging, and low yield (Siddiq
et al., 2012). Continued reliance on photosensitive Basmati rice varieties also
limits enhancement of wheat productivity in the riceewheat rotation by
restricting timely wheat planting, especially in Pakistani Punjab (Erenstein,
2010).
Temperature at the time of flowering, grain filling, and maturity had a
great influence on quality traits of Basmati rice (Akhter et al., 2007). The op-
timum temperature required during the grain filling stage to produce quality
rice is reported to be 25 C (Jin et al., 2005). High temperature during the
grain filling and dough stages impairs kernel development and limits carbo-
hydrate in plants thereby reducing head rice recovery and other quality
traits. So, the time of transplanting has a great influence on Basmati rice as
it governs exposure of rice plants to prevailing environmental conditions
at reproductive and grain filling stages. It is accepted that low temperature
during the grain filling stage has a great influence on aroma retention and
formation, so for better quality, Basmati cultivars should be grown at the
recommended time. Akhter et al. (2016) reported that early transplanting
(5th May) was more detrimental to milling and cooking characteristics of
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 187

Basmati rice than late transplanting (10th July). For Basmati varieties, a
transplanting time of 18th June recorded the maximum head rice recovery
in Pakistan; however, in northwest India, the optimum time for Basmati
transplanting is the first fortnight of July. Another disadvantage of an early
transplanted rice crop is panicle sterility induced by high temperature leading
to inferior quality rice from a milling point of view (Hassan et al., 2003). In
the Pakistani Punjab, the rice transplanting time is regulated by the time of
nursery sowing, which itself is governed by the Punjab Agricultural Pest
Ordinance, 1959. According to this Ordinance, the sowing of nursery
before 20th of May is prohibited to control multiplication of notorious
stem borers (Scirpophaga incertulas and Scirpophaga innotata)dthese insects
become active from the end of March or start of July) on early sown rice
nurseries, which may exert greater pressure on the seasonal rice crop. Conse-
quently, the Provincial Agricultural Department discourages sowing of rice
nursery earlier than 20th of May each year. Hence, the recommended time
of nursery sowing and transplanting of Basmati varieties is 1-20th June and
1-20th July, respectively, in the core rice area (Anonymous, 2016d).
Basmati rice requires relatively cool temperatures for retention of aroma,
that is, 25/21 C-day/night temperature during crop maturity (Juliano,
1972; Mann, 1987). The study by Mahajan et al. (2015) on Basmati rice
in India revealed that the time of transplanting in Basmati rice significantly
affected the chalky rice percentage, head rice percentage, alkali spreading
value, protein content, and grain amylase percentage. Therefore, the time
of planting plays a great role in influencing the quality of Basmati rice.
The second fortnight of July is the best time for transplanting of traditional
Basmati cultivars (Basmati 386, Basmati 370) and the first fortnight of July is
the best transplanting time for Pusa Basmati 1121 and Pusa Basmati 1509
from a yield and quality perspective (Mahajan et al., 2016).
Basmati sowing and transplanting are critical for ensuring high yields and
better quality. Sowing nursery in the first week of June is ideal in western
Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Rajasthan, and Jammu and Kashmir. However, in
the Indian Punjab, raising nursery during the second fortnight of June
ensures strong aroma and high yields. In Haryana, although late sowing
has been the practice in the past to ensure quality, early June sowing is
now standard practice to ward off blast disease (Siddiq et al., 1997). Basmati
rice is harvested toward the end of October and in November.
Mahajan et al. (2009) observed that the best quality Basmati rice is pro-
duced when planting was done during the first fortnight of July in Punjab,
India. In general, temperature during crop ripening correlates negatively
188 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

with amylase content and positively with gelatinization temperature

(Li et al., 1989; He et al., 1999). In one study on rice, Asaoka et al.
(1985) reported that ambient temperature during crop ripening not only
affected the amylose content but also influenced the fine structure of
amylose and amylopectin. A study by Dela Cruz et al. (1989) revealed
that amylose content decreased with an increase in temperature, whereas
gelatinization temperature and gel consistency did not show any response
to temperature. Later, Dela Cruz et al. (1991) conducted a similar study
in a phytotron and observed that gelatinization temperature of Basmati
370 was not affected when plants were grown at 33/25 C day/night tem-
perature regime. An increase in temperature decreased the amylase content
in grains; and thus, it affected the grain appearance as it caused a decrease in
translucency of grains. In another study, Li et al. (1989) confirmed that
environmental factors such as temperature, relative humidity, and photope-
riod had little effect on the length, width, and length:width of rice grains
compared with that of chalkiness, gelatinization temperature, amylose con-
tent, and gel consistency. However, they also opined that effects may vary
with cultivars and characteristics. The study by Dela Cruz (1991) observed
maximum grain elongation when the crop received 25/21 C day/night
temperatures during ripening. So, grain elongation is strongly influenced
by environmental factors, especially temperature at the time of ripening.
This explains the difference in elongation of rice when Basmati is grown
in Punjab and Dokri (Sind, Pakistan); rice grown in Punjab was more
elongated than rice grown at Dokri due to prevailing high temperature
(Khush et al., 1979). Late planting, facilitating flowering, and maturity dur-
ing cooler weather enhanced the grain quality of Basmati rice, but reduction
in grain yield under later transplanting depended on the cultivars (Singh
et al., 1995; Rao et al., 1996; Thakur et al., 1996; Chandra et al., 1997;
Mahajan et al., 2015).
Environmental temperatures during kernel development played a great
role in fluctuations in rice grain quality (Cooper et al., 2006). Historical
analyses have indicated that high nighttime temperature during the growing
season decreased yields in rice (Downey and Wells, 1975; Peng et al., 2004).
Other historical analyses have likewise determined that high nighttime
temperatures during kernel development also decreased head rice yield
(Cooper et al., 2006). High nighttime temperatures have been related to
decreased panicle mass (Ziska and Manalo, 1996) and an increase in the
number of chalky kernels (Yoshida and Hara, 1977). Yoshida and Hara
(1977) noted that kernel dimensions decreased with increased nighttime
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 189

temperature. Sun and Siebenmorgen (1993) and Siebenmorgen et al. (2006)

showed that head rice yield is influenced by the thickness distribution
pattern of a population of rice kernels. By altering the thickness distribution
of kernels, an increase in nighttime temperature could potentially reduce
head rice yield. In a japonica cultivar, high nighttime temperatures during
kernel development caused an increase in amylose content (Resurreccion
et al., 1977). Counce et al. (2005) observed that as nighttime temperatures
increased, head rice yield decreased, while the proportion of long chains
of amylopectin decreased. This suggests that head rice yield could be related
to the cellular structure of the starch containing molecules within rice ker-
nels and that this structure, and thus HRY, could be temperature sensitive.
They further revealed that for all tested hybrids and cultivars, increasing
nighttime temperatures decreased the brown rice kernel width. These au-
thors also found that kernel width in Cypress and LaGrue cultivars decreased
significantly when nighttime temperature increased from 18 to 24 C. How-
ever, Counce et al. (2005) did not find a significant difference in kernel
thickness when observing effect of night temperature.
The above studies revealed that variations in growth temperature
played a great role in quality variation in rice. An earlier study of the effects
of temperature on kernel development also indicated that higher temper-
atures during the grain filling stage results in decreased grain weight and
grain dimensions and a high number of chalky grains (Yoshida and Hara,
1977; Tashiro and Wardlaw, 1990). Lower growth temperatures control
the amylose content in rice grains, increase the amylose content in rice cul-
tivars having low amylose content, and decrease the amylose content in
rice cultivars having high and intermediate amylose content, sometimes
changing the cultivar’s amylose class depending on the temperature treat-
ment (Resurreccion et al., 1977; Paule et al., 1979). Most research studying
the effect of temperature on rice quality has been performed using
controlled temperature chambers in advanced countries and at IRRI.
This approach has limitations in that it does not necessarily reproduce field
conditions. It would be useful to use field data to study the effect of tem-
perature on head rice yield, especially for Basmati rice cultivars that are
usually photoperiod sensitive in nature. High nighttime temperatures
could possibly increase respiration during the night and subsequently cause
the loss of carbohydrate from the grain. Peng et al. (2004) found that
increased nighttime temperatures throughout the growing season were
directly correlated to decreased rice crop yield. In a controlled temperature
study, Counce et al. (2005) found that an increase in nighttime
190 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

temperatures during the grain filling stage resulted in a decrease in head rice
yield and a decrease in the long B chains of amylopectin in rice starch
granules. Early transplanting impairs cooking quality as grains are
extremely opaque or exhibit abdominal whiteness between starch mole-
cules (Ali et al., 1991; Azeez and Shafi, 1966; Singh et al., 2014). These
studies suggest that the optimum transplanting time of photoperiod-
sensitive and photoperiod-insensitive varieties of Basmati determine the
night temperature during the grain filling stage and thereby influence
the grain yield, milling, and cooking characteristics by changing the
biochemical constitution and functional properties of grains.

6.4 Role of Fertilizers in Influencing the Quality of Basmati

Rice
In general, Basmati varieties are low nitrogen (N) responsive. High N
application results in excessive vegetative growth, thereby making the
crop prone to lodging and attack by insect pests and diseases leading to
low yield. Furthermore, the time of N fertilizer application is also very
important. Fertilizer should be applied on the basis of soil tests. High N doses
in Basmati may cause false smut and neck blast diseases in Basmati, which
may impact quality characteristics. A blanket recommendation of N for
Basmati cultivars in Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, Western Uttar Pradesh, Uttar-
anchal, and Jammu and Kashmir is 40, 60, 120, 120, 100, and 30 kg N ha1,
respectively (Anonymous, 2014). In Basmati rice, application of P and K is
done on the basis of soil tests.

6.4.1 Nitrogen
Soils low in N generally produce better quality grains. Perez et al. (1996)
observed that late N application at the time of flowering improved the
nutritional and milling quality of rice grain. So, split applications of N are
necessary for obtaining high grain yield and improved quality (Hou,
1988; Perez et al., 1996; Kumar et al., 2014). Likewise, in Pakistan, applica-
tion of N at 100 kg ha1 in the form of urea to Super Basmati in three equal
splits [one-third at transplanting, one-third at 50% tillering (8e12 tillers
hill1) and the remainder at panicle initiation] improved its 1000-kernel
weight and paddy yield over the control (whole of the N applied at trans-
planting) (Manzoor et al., 2006). In Pakistan, a high amount of N is applied
to Basmati rice for yield enhancement (150e175 kg hae1), but this amount
adversely affects cooking and eating qualities (Singh et al., 2011b). Suwanarit
et al. (1996) reported that the whiteness, softness, aroma, stickiness, and
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 191

glossiness of cooked milled rice of KDML 105 were inversely related to the
increase in applied dosages of N. However, the increased application of N
did not adversely affect alkali value, volume expansion, and water uptake
(Ghosh et al., 1971). N application at higher dosage increased the amylase
content of long slender varieties such as Kasturi, Pakistani Basmati, and
Basmati 370 by 3%e9.9% (Rao et al., 1993). Grain protein content was
increased with an increase in the rate of N application (Ghosh et al.,
1971; Umetsu et al., 1990; Singh et al., 2011b). The study of Youssef
et al. (1980) revealed that different quality traits such as water uptake, vol-
ume expansion, and alkali value were not adversely affected by application
of high N rates; however, high doses of N decreased the head rice recovery
and increased amylase content of long slender grain varieties such as Basmati
370, Kasturi, and Pakistani Basmati (Rao et al., 1993).
Mahajan et al. (2010) reported that with an increase in N supply from
20 kg ha1, the length of Pusa Basmati 1121 distinctly increased, resulting
in a reduction in head rice recovery (%) at higher N levels (40 and
60 kg ha1). The L-B ratio for Pusa Basmati 1121 and Punjab Basmati 2
was at par, but significantly higher than Punjab Mehak 1 (IR-75483).
Amylose content (%) was highest at 20 kg N ha1 and thereafter at higher
levels of N, it decreased significantly in all the cultivars. They also reported
that Punjab Mehak 1 gave strong aroma only in the unfertilized plots and it
became mild with N application, whereas strong aroma was exhibited at all
levels of N up to 60 kg ha1 in Punjab Basmati 2 and up to 40 kg ha1 in
Pusa Basmati 1121.
In another study, Singh et al. (2011b) revealed that milled rice from
Basmati grown with N application showed lower gruel solid loss and water
uptake ratio during cooking and higher cooked grain hardness, cohesiveness,
and chewiness. Starch from Basmati rice grown with application of N
showed lower amylose content and higher pasting temperature, gelatiniza-
tion transition temperatures, and enthalpy of gelatinization. Principal
component analysis further indicated that cooked grain hardness and cook-
ing time were closely associated with amylose content and protein content,
respectively.

6.4.2 Potassium and Magnesium

Eating and cooking qualities are highly influenced by potassic fertilizers.
Application of potassium fertilizers at high dosage not only improved
the grain glossiness, whiteness, and softness but also increased the aroma
(Suwanarit et al., 1997). Potassium (K) fertilizers increased the starch and
192 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

carbohydrate content of grain, irrespective of the stage of application,

whereas its application at the grain filling stage increased the amylase content
(Vil’gel’M, 1986). Oh et al. (1991) observed that K deficiency increased
chalkiness, and the cooking and eating qualities of chalky kernels were infe-
rior to perfect kernels. Application of K increased gel consistency and grain
protein content but did not significantly affect gelatinization temperature or
kernel amylose content (Bahmaniar and Ranjbar, 2007). Besides its role in
kernel quality, K fertilization is known to improve stem strength and yield
of Basmati rice (Zaman et al., 2015). These authors evaluated the response of
two Basmati rice cultivars, i.e., Super Basmati and Basmati 515, to two levels
of K, one with deficient (Kd) and the other with recommended (Kr), and
three levels of N, i.e., deficient (Nd), half of recommended (Nhr), and
recommended (Nr). P and Zn were applied at the recommended dose. K
fertilization resulted in improved K content of rice stem, basal internode
space, cellulose contents, and stem fiber contents. Likewise, paddy yield
and Si content of stem was also increased. Recently, Wakeel et al. (2017)
postulated that K use for Basmati rice in aerobic production systems may
expand its adaptability as an alternative to flooded rice production systems
in Pakistan.
Economic use of K fertilizer in K-deficient soils is especially important
for Basmati growers, as K prices are continuously on the rise and its
deficiency in plants impairs the quality of grains and increases plants’
susceptibility to disease. The response of rice to N fertilizers has been well
documented; however, the effects of N interaction with K application rates
on yield and quality of Basmati rice are lacking and require systematic study.

6.4.3 Phosphorus and Zinc

Suwanarit et al. (1997) observed that aroma, softness, whiteness, and gloss-
iness in grain is dependent on P content in grain and not on P content in
the plant. High dose P application to the crop produced lower quality
grains. Application of P increased the grain protein content. In another
study, Chen and Fan (1997) reported that Zn application enhanced the
amylase content. Many authors have reported that Zn application, partic-
ularly at low levels of N, increases grain length in Basmati. Shivay et al.
(2007) reported that zinc fertilization had no deleterious effect on the qual-
ity of Basmati rice; it even increased hulling percentage and produced
longer and better grains.
Pooniya et al. (2012) revealed that application of 2% zinc-enriched urea
(ZEU) as ZnSO4$H2O resulted in higher grain yield (3.8 t ha1), and this
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 193

increase was to the extent of 12.8%, 2.4%, 3.3%, 5.7%, 7.0%, and 5.3%
over the control (only N), 2.0% ZEU as ZnO, 5 kg Zn ha1 as
ZnSO4$H2O, 5 kg Zn ha1 as ZnO, 0.5 kg Zn as ZnO slurry, and
1.0 kg Zn ha1 through 0.2% foliar spray, respectively. Zn deficiency is
the most prevalent micronutrient deficiency in humans, affecting 2 billion
people and causing more than 0.8 million deaths annually (Black, 2003).
Basmati varieties are generally rich in Zn; however, in Zn-deficient soils,
biofortification through Zn supplementation could be a sustainable strat-
egy to make it a specialty rice.
After N, Zn is the second most yield-limiting nutrient in rice (Quijano-
Guerta et al., 2002). Basmati rice in Pakistan is traditionally cultivated on
highly alkaline calcareous soils with high clay content (Qadar, 2002; Ali
et al., 2014). These soil conditions lead to most of the Zn being adsorbed;
and hence, very little is recovered by the rice crop. High soil pH and
impaired conditions following flooding/submergence are responsible for
Zn deficiency. Hasnain and Ali (2013) found that Zn fertilization had a sig-
nificant influence on quality traits of Super Basmati. Application of Zn at
14 kg ha1 was effective in reducing spikelet sterility and percentage of
abortive and opaque kernels. Zn fertilization also increased kernel length
and protein and amylose contents. Another study reported that combined
application of N (120 kg ha1) and Zn (14 kg ha1) improved kernel
dimensions, water absorption ratio, and protein content of Super Basmati
grown at two sites, Sheikhupura and Sargodha (Ali et al., 2014). However,
both N and Zn treatments had no significant effect on kernel amylose
contents at both sites. Nadeem et al. (2013) recorded the highest Zn con-
centration in grain and straw of Super Basmati under P þ Zn application at
20 days after transplanting, while the minimum Zn concentration was
observed in all treatments where P was applied alone. Saleem et al.
(2014)found that Zn fortification of Super Basmati during parboiling was
found to increase Zn content of grains (126%e347%), Zn retention
(80%),and bioaccessibility (53%), representing a pragmatic approach to
combat Zn deficiency.

6.4.4 Other Micronutrients

In aromatic rice cultivars, Boron (B) application increased the alkali score,
thereby enhancing the stickiness of grains (Rashid et al., 2004). B deficiency
has been acknowledged as an important and widespread limiting factor in
rice-growing areas of Pakistan (Shah et al., 2011). B deficiency in rice is
responsible for low yields (Rashid et al., 2002a) and inferior grain quality
194 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

(Rashid et al., 2004). Basmati rice varieties are often more sensitive to B defi-
ciency than coarse varieties (IR-6) for yield reduction (Rashid et al.,
2002a,b). Nevertheless, cultivar sensitivity to B deficiency is not necessarily
associated with grain length/fineness (Rashid et al., 2002b). Milling return
and head rice recovery was significantly enhanced in Super Basmati due
to B nutrition of rice plants. Improvements in other desirable quality traits
such as quality index (L/B ratio), kernel elongation on cooking, bursting
on cooking, and alkali spreading value were also observed (Rashid et al.,
2009). Panicle sterility due to B deficiency has emerged as a major challenge
for water-saving Basmati rice production. Supplementing B through seed
priming (0.1 mM boron), foliar spray (200 mM boron), or soil application
(1 kg boron ha1) had a positive effect on kernel yield, kernel length, and
kernel B contents in Shaheen Basmati, while panicle sterility was signifi-
cantly reduced by 60% (Rehman et al., 2016). Combined foliar application
of Silicon (Si) at 1.5% and B at 1.0% promoted kernel yield and protein con-
tent of Basmati rice (Ahmad et al., 2012). Calcium present in calcareous soils
is antagonistic to B, limiting its availability and inducing B deficiency. In
alkaline calcareous soils, rice would be expected to respond to B application
as its soil availability tends to decrease as the pH exceeds 7. Application of B
at 2 kg ha1 to a saline-sodic soil (ECe: 5.32 dS m1, pH: 8.52, and SAR:
18.87) resulted in the maximum 1000-kernel weight and grain yield of Su-
per Basmati. The B concentration in rice grains also increased in response to
B treatments, and the B content of grains was positively associated with rice
grain yield (Hyder et al., 2012). Foliar application of B (0.32 M) has been
reported to improve panicle fertility, yield, and biofortification in Basmati
rice (Rehman et al., 2014). Molybdenum (Mo) application had a favorable
effect on grain length. However, application of iron (Fe) decreased the grain
length, besides reducing the grain width. Foliar application of Si at 0, 0.25,
0.50%, and 1.00% to Super Basmati (after 4 weeks of transplanting) had a
nonsignificant effect on plant height, harvest index, number of kernels,
and percentage of opaque kernels. However, paddy yield and grain starch
contents were increased in plots foliar sprayed with 1.0% Si (Ahmad et al.,
2013). Suwanarit et al. (1997) reported that moderate application of S fertil-
izer to S-deficient soil increased the aroma, softness, whiteness, stickiness,
and glassiness of boiled milled grains (Khaw Dauk Mali-105), but rates higher
than the optimum S dose decreased these quality parameters. Jiang et al.
(2007) examined the relationship between mineral element contents and
cooking quality traits and showed that gel consistency was significantly
correlated with K, copper (Cu), and manganese (Mn) contents of rice.
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 195

Amylose content was significantly associated with K, sodium (Na), magne-

sium (Mg), copper (Cu), and Mn contents. The alkali spreading value was
positively related with Ca, Mg, and Mn contents. In addition, eight mineral
element contents had obvious correlations with different amino acid con-
tents. Mg, Ca, and Zn contents were significantly correlated with most of
the 17 amino acid contents, but Na content did not correlate with amino
acid contents except aspartic acid. Application of 45 kg N in three equal
splits, 30 kg P2O5, 30 kg K2O, and 37.5 kg ZnSO4 ha1 was found to be
the best rate to achieve high grain yield of good quality Basmati rice with
low kernel degradation (alkali score) and high aroma score, the properties
that are considered the most important for table purposes. There are limited
studies on the interaction of multi micronutrients on milling and functional
properties of Basmati rice. The study of these aspects might also provide cues
for developing Zn- and Fe-efficient Basmati varieties in future.

6.4.5 Organic and Biofertilizers

As per farmers’ observations, grain, eating, and cooking qualities of rice
produced organically are better than those produced using chemical fertil-
izers. Organic farmers use sesbania as green manure or farm yard manure
(FYM) to supplement N. The study of Latchumanan et al. (1979) revealed
that application of N along with a mixed coculture of blue green algae and
azotobacter increased the protein content in grains. The best aroma score
was recorded under 100% FYM application, followed by 75% recommen-
ded N dose. Quyen et al. (2002) observed that rice quality parameters, that
is, milling percentage, kernel length (KL), kernel breadth (KB), and L:B ratio
before cooking of rice, were not affected by different sources of nutrients,
but the head rice recovery, kernel length, kernel breadth, and L:B ratio after
cooking showed an increasing trend with the application of organic sources.
Pooniya and Shivay (2015) revealed that green manuring of Basmati rice
resulted in significantly superior grain breadth after cooking compared
with the summer fallow treatment, indicating that green manuring plays a
significant role in quality improvement of Basmati rice.
Mahajan et al. (2012) reported that Basmati rice yield increased
with organic source of nutrients as compared with the recommended
level of N (40 kg N ha1) and the untreated control (without N).
Green leaf manuring(5 t ha1) þ vermicomposting(2.5 t ha1), green leaf
manuring(10 t ha1), and neem cake(2.5 t ha1) caused 20.2, 16.7%, and
15.2% higher grain yield than the recommended level of N, respectively.
However, various studies also demonstrated that integrated nutrient
196 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

management in Basmati rice improved the grain yield and quality of

aromatic rice. Singh et al. (2017) reported that integration of 100% recom-
mended fertilizer along with blue green algae þ phosphorus solubilizing
bacteria performed best in achieving higher growth, productivity, and prof-
itability in Basmati rice. Aulakh et al. (2016) revealed that green manuring in
Basmati rice or use of FYM supplemented with 50% chemical fertilizer
improved the head rice recovery (%) and protein content in grains.

7. TRADE AND MARKETING

In India, the Basmati Export Development Foundation (BEDF) is
tasked with improving the productivity and quality of Basmati Rice,
managing research and promotional aspects, disseminating the latest tech-
nologies for the improvement of Basmati, and infrastructure development
with respect to Basmati rice (Siddiq et al., 2012; APEDA, 2017).
The mandate of BEDF is to strengthen the supply chain through diverse
activities of stakeholders such as millers, traders, farmers, and exporters.
BEDF also takes care of various quality parameters for Basmati rice,
including DNA fingerprinting. BEDF caters for the needs of Basmati
growers by imparting training and demonstrating the latest agronomic tech-
nologies that suit their agroecological regions, in consultation with state
agricultural universities and extension personals. BEDF supply foundation
and certified seeds to the Basmati growers. During the Basmati rice season,
BEDF organized at least 15 workshops with Basmati growers, traders, and
exporters and guided the growers to cultivate according to optimum man-
agement practices to have better quality produce for export (APEDA, 2017).
As Basmati rice is a registered GI product of India, it has been decided by
the Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Au-
thority (APEDA) that exporters of Basmati rice must be a member of the
All India Rice Exporters Association. This would facilitate participation of
all exporters in trade consultations, besides providing a forum for increased
trade discipline, resulting in a better brand image for Indian Basmati rice in
the international market.
For promotion of Basmati exports in retail packs with Indian brands,
APEDA launched a campaign recently in key markets such as Saudi Arabia
and Iran. APEDA works with different agencies to launch their promotional
strategy with the expectation of boosting the shipments of Basmati rice
(Singh and Singh, 2009). Basmati rice accounts for close to a fourth of the
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 197

total value of Indian food exports. Recently, APEDA has also started to
promote Indian Basmati rice by setting up hoards of Basmati rice at interna-
tional airports in India. Earlier, APEDA promoted Basmati rice via trade fairs
and conferences in the international markets.
In Pakistan, until 1987e88 the Rice Export Corporation of Pakistan
was the sole agency managing the country’s export market. In 1987e88,
the government allowed export through the private sector as well. After
rice export was allowed for the private sector, a new body of people
emerged in the shape of rice exporters (Aurangzeb, 2006; Paracha,
2014). A platform was lacking from where rice exporters could interact
with the government. Hence, the Rice Exporters Association of Pakistan
(REAP) was established in 1988e89 under the patronage of the Ministry
of Commerce, Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestock, and the
Planning Division of the Government of Pakistan (Aurangzeb, 2006;
REAP, 2016). REAP played a significant role in defining rice standards
in Pakistan. Consequently, Pakistan Rice Standards were established in
1992 for the first time, with the support of the Pakistan Standards
Institution (Paracha, 2014). Pakistan fully privatized exports in 1996. In
1998e99, REAP became a registered body with the Director of Trade Or-
ganization, Ministry of Commerce. Also in 1998e99, membership of
REAP became compulsory for all rice exporters.
The charter of REAP includes certification and accreditation of its
members. The association also facilitates exporters’ access to buyers and
potential export markets by organizing and participating in various trade fairs
(Anonymous, 2016a). With about 1900 members, REAP is the country’s
second largest business association. The managing committee of REAP is
divided into north (11 members) and south (12 members) zones (REAP,
2016). No permit is required to export rice from Pakistan, but only
registered members of REAP can engage in rice export. Registration is a
one-time process, and membership is renewed annually by the payment
of a membership fee. Exporters are given a REAP membership certificate,
along with a membership number, which they use when engaging in export
activities (Anonymous, 2016e).

8. PESTICIDE RESIDUES RELATED TO BASMATI

PRODUCTION AND MARKETING
Traces of pesticides left in or on the treated products are termed
“residues.” The highest permissible limit of such residues in or on the
198 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

food or feed products is called as the maximum residue level (MRL). The
amount of such residues found in food stuffs/products must be within a safe
range for consumers and must be kept as low as possible. A list of pesticides
and their residue limit for Basmati rice that is causing detentions in India,
the United States, and Europe are depicted in Table 12. Tricyclazole is a
commonly used fungicide by Indian farmers to control leaf and neck blast
in Basmati rice varieties. Recent regulation (EU) 2017/983 published on
June 10, 2017, has amended the MRLs for this fungicide in or on certain
products (Table 12). The main change regarding MRL was for Basmati
rice, for which the MRL has been changed from 0.01 mg kg1 to
1 mgkg1. The export of Basmati rice from India to the United States
has plunged because many Indian firms come under an import alert by
the US authorities, leading to detailed scrutiny of grain for pesticide residue
(APEDA, 2017). Systematic studies have been conducted at research farms
to analyze pesticide residue contents in Basmati rice. Arora et al. (2014)
conducted a study of pesticide residue in Basmati rice from 2008 to
2011, by comparing integrated pest management (IPM) and non-IPM tri-
als in Basmati rice. The study revealed that grains from IPM trials were safe
for consumers as the residues of insecticides were either not detected or
were below the MRL, and these results were consistent with earlier
work (Arora et al., 2008; Mukherjee and Arora, 2011). Out of 109 soil
samples collected from IPM and non-IPM fields of Basmati rice, a few

Table 12 List of Pesticides and Their Limit That Are Causing Detentions in India,
United States, and Europe
Indian MRL Europe MRL US MRL
S.No Pesticide (mg kg1) (mg kg1) (mg kg1)

1 Tricyclazole 3 1 3
2 Buprofezin 0.05 0.5 1.5
3 Isoprothiolane 0.1 5 e
4 Carbendazim 0.5 0.01 e
5 Acephate 0.07 0.01 e
6 Tebuconazole 0.05 1 e
7 Triazophos 0.05 0.02 e
8 Propiconazole 0.05 0.05 7
9 Chlorpyrifos 0.05 0.05 e
10 Thiamethoxam 0.02 0.01 0.02
11 Primiphos-methyl 0.5 5 e
MRL, Maximum residue level.
Source: APEDA, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India.
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 199

contained traces of chlorpyrifos (0.001 mg kg1). So, IPM practices are be-
ing promoted by APEDA to increase Basmati exports.
Basmati rice is a major export product for Pakistan (Akram, 2009), and
injudicious use of pesticides (Tariq et al., 2007) is making shipment
clearance difficult due to pesticide residues (Munshi et al., 2011). One
thousand rice samples were collected during 2005 and 2006 from different
containers representing different geographical origins within the country.
Residues of 37 chlorinated hydrocarbon compounds were detected
including dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and hexachlorocyclo-
hexane (HCH). The DDT and HCH residues were detected in 30% and
45% of the samples, respectively. Imran et al. (2016) carried out studies
to detect the concentration of four pesticides (L-cyhalothrin, malathion,
monocrotophos, and cartap) using high performance thin layer chroma-
tography of 106 rice samples collected from mills in specified areas. The
average concentration of pesticide residues ranged from 0.08 to
0.1 mgL1, and they were statistically insignificant in all rice-growing areas
and for all varieties of rice. Interestingly, the mean detected levels of all
pesticides were below the standard lethal doses. Ahmad et al. (2008)
documented similar findings for these pesticides. These authors concluded
that pesticide residues were detected in both husked and unhusked rice of
Basmati 385. On the other hand, a recent study carried out in major rice-
growing districts of Punjab, Pakistan, revealed that samples from Narowal,
Sialkot, and Gujranwala contained imidacloprid residues in excess of the
permissible limit (1.5 mg g1) set by the European Union (Niaz et al.,
2016).

9. POLICY ISSUES TO PROMOTE BASMATI RICE IN

INDIA AND PAKISTAN
Recently, a satellite survey conducted by National Aeronautic and
Space Administration revealed that the groundwater table in northwest
India is declining at a rate of 0.33 m per year (Rodell et al., 2009). There
was a net loss of 109 km3 of groundwater, double the capacity of India’s
largest surface reservoir, indicating judicious use of groundwater in this
region critical. Rice cropping consumes a lot of water in this region. Diver-
sification of rice with alternative crops such as soybean and maize is being
promoted but farmers are unwilling to alter their cropping system due to
the advantages of assured marketing, highly mechanized systems, and stable
200 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

production in rice (Hira, 2009). However, diversification within Basmati

rice is possible and farmers are very receptive in this direction. As the
planting time of Basmati rice coincides with monsoon, its cultivation could
help in saving of irrigation water. However, there are concerns that if the
entire rice production area of this region came under Basmati rice cultiva-
tion, it could create a glut because of limited export demand. Under such
a scenario, the farmers would be susceptible to exploitation by the millers.
So, research is being conducted into value adding in Basmati, so that
more Basmati could be utilized within the country, ensuring farmers’ prof-
itability. Basmati varieties suitable for making value-added products need to
be identified and promoted. In recent years, some useful chemicals have
been extracted from Basmati rice bran, such as oryzanols, tocopherols, and
tocotrienols, which confer several health benefits to rice consumers such
as reduction in blood cholesterols and triglyceride levels, antitumor and anti-
cancer activities, and protection against cardiovascular diseases (Zubair et al.,
2012). Among the popular cooking oils, rice bran oil is the only type that
contains oryzanols, and this needs to be promoted. Preliminary studies on
Basmati cultivars revealed that Basmati varieties are rich in Fe and Zn.
Generally red pericarp varieties are rich in iron. The pericarp of the popular
variety Pusa Basmati 1121 is also red but information on functional proper-
ties of grains is limited in this direction. Ranbir Basmati and Basmati 386
were reported with high iron contents of 27.9 and 24.3 mg kg1, respec-
tively. Similarly, Ranbir Basmati was also reported with high Zn content
of 73.8 mg kg1 (UshaRani, 2009; Siddiq et al., 2012). These varieties could
be explored for special niches. Due to higher living standards, the demand
for organic rice is increasing as people become more conscious about
diet and health. In this direction, organic Basmati could go a long way.
As Basmati is responsive to low-nutrient inputs, with the use of green
manuring or FYM, good harvest of Basmati can be obtained. Due to
fragrance in Basmati, Basmati varieties can also be explored for making
wines. Till date, no information is available on products such as Basmati
wine and Basmati perfumes. Ready-to-eat value-added/processed foods
are popular in the modern diet of humans. A variety of processed products
are made from rice, which includes beaten, puffed, and popped rice,
noodles, desserts, and idli/dosa powder. The physicochemical properties
of Basmati varieties must be explored and, in particular, the type of starches
that decide its suitability for making a particular processed product. For
instance, “Newrex” is a long slender-grain rice with superior processing
quality developed in the United States. It is dry and fluffy when cooked
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 201

and is suitable for manufacturing canned, quick cooking, and frozen type
rice products. Basmati varieties must be explored for beaten/flattened rice.
Beaten rice is a popular form of parboiled brown rice, and in rural areas it
is popular for breakfast. Basmati varieties are unique in volume expansion,
so these can also be explored for making puffed rice. Popped rice may
also be obtained from Basmati. Popped rice is obtained when a paddy is
roasted in hot sand, such that the grains burst due to presence of water vapor
splitting open the husk. Fresh harvested paddy with a moisture percentage of
20e24 and heavy grain type without chalkiness, sun crack, or fissures gives
large popped volume. These types of traits are unique in Basmati rice.
Popped rice is also fried to make a crispy dish. These types of products
made with Basmati varieties need to be promoted, as they consist of whole
kernel and have a long shelf life. It is high time that policy and research issues
for value-added products in Basmati cultivars are addressed.
The Basmati rice export industry functions according to market-
oriented principles in Pakistan. Government intervention and assistance
in this sector has been limited. Pakistan needs to adopt a brand-based
approach regarding its Basmati rice to maintain its uniqueness and survival
in the international market. Successful retail brand development will not
only increase the market share but can also help increase the value of
exports. Rice exporters are urged to carry out international market research
to determine the preferences of the consumer (Anonymous, 2016a).
Investment in market research seems indispensable to gauge consumer
preferences regarding product and price. Such research has a good return
on investment because it provides a much-needed baseline to develop
branding and marketing campaigns. To cope with the increasing demand
for parboiled rice, and to capture its lucrative market, millers in Pakistan
should equip themselves with recent technological advancements to
deliver standard quality product. Future variety development processes
should also complement parboiling, as is the case with recently released
Kissan Basmati (Anonymous, 2016a,b).
Harmonious collaboration between all the actors in the value chain, at all
stages spanning from production to export, seems imperative. Development
and implementation of a Basmati rice export marketing strategy in
collaboration with REAP and Pakistan Commercial Trade Attaches in the
target export markets seems a promising strategy for Pakistan (Anonymous,
2016e). REAP has decided to prepare a road map to explore and enter new
markets in a bid to boost exports. REAP will focus on long-term planning
with short-term targets to enhance Basmati exports, with an initial target to
202 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

increase exports from US$ 2.5 billion to US$ 3.0 billion (Memon, 2013).
Developing better varieties, improving farming practices, refining processing
techniques, and introducing brand marketing are urgently needed to in-
crease the export potential of Pakistan.

10. CONFIRMATION AND IDENTIFICATION OF

GEOGRAPHICAL AREA
As Basmati expresses its unique quality characteristics in the
native area, confirmation of the place of origin is important for export.
Isotopic and multielement analysis of rice varietal samples can solve this
problem. Analysis for carbon 13/12 and oxygen 18/16 ratios along
with concentrations of elements such as tungsten, selenium, rubidium,
magnesium, gadolinium, holmium, and boron helps in identifying a
geographical area. Concentrations of these elements and isotope from
the samples compared with database value from authentic rice grown in
India/Pakistan, United States, and Europe are available. But this
technique failed to distinguish mixtures of Basmati and long grain Basmati
rice that are commonly used in adulteration. In such situations, SNP and
informative molecular markers, for instance, microsatellite DNA markers,
can differentiate admixture of Basmati and long grain rice (Siddiq et al.,
2012).
Although traditional Basmati varieties have unique quality characteris-
tics, they are also prone to lodging due to tall stature. Low yield and
photoperiod sensitivity are other undesirable traits in Basmati. To increase
the yield level in Basmati, traditional Basmati varieties were cross bred with
high-yielding varieties, resulting in proliferation of many evolved
Basmati varieties, which fall short of quality characteristics earmarked for
true Basmati varieties (Siddiq et al., 2012). Thus, these varieties have
been given a different price grading in the domestic and international
market. The European Union is giving zero percent import duty for
six notified traditional Basmati varieties; and this concession has encour-
aged some growers to continue growing traditional Basmati varieties in
some pockets of the Himalayan foothills. Zero percent duty and the
attractive price of traditional Basmati varieties has encouraged traders to
adulterate the pure product with evolved Basmati varieties or long grain
rice to gain more profits. This practice necessitates the development of
precise methods/protocols to differentiate traditional Basmati from
Basmati Rice in the Indian Subcontinent: Strategies to Boost Production and Quality Traits 203

evolved Basmati varieties, which will also quantify the amount of adulter-
ation. Basmati importing countries permit a certain limit of mixtures (5%e
15%) under the assumption that some inadvertent mixture during posthar-
vest or processing is the usual phenomena.

11. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS

Due to improving living standards, Basmati rice earns an attractive
price in the domestic and in the international markets. In the past 5 year,
the area under Basmati in India has increased manifold. Taking advantage
of low water requirement, premium price offered, increasing demand,
and the tariff concession from the European Union, there is ample scope
to increase the area under Basmati cultivation and to increase the profit-
ability of farmers, forex earnings, and export volume. However, to sustain
the export potential and farmers’ profitability, governments guarantee a
minimum support price for Basmati rice. The area under Basmati rice should
be fixed according to the cultivar niche based on the demand position in the
domestic and in the international markets. On the other hand, Pakistan is
gradually retreating from a developing global Basmati market due to lack
of varietal development in recent years, lack of adoption of latest processing
technologies, loss of competitiveness resulting from productivity and price
crisis, lack of product adaptation, poor marketing techniques (selling in
bulk quantity instead of value adding and branding), and ethos. Although
Pakistan is striving hard at various forums and through promulgation of
legislation on GI will preserve its natural heritage of Basmati cultivation,
the commercial extinction of indigenous Basmati varieties would render
such protection meaningless. Registration alone may not be the only solu-
tion for Pakistan to recapture its lost share of the international Basmati rice
trade.
Future research in Basmati rice should be focused on value adding for
Basmati and evolving stress-tolerant and nutritionally rich Basmati varieties.
Basmati rice, although being an important item of export from the
Indian subcontinent, has not been systematically studied for its special
quality traits, especially low glycemic index and residue in grains. The
correlation of sensory quality particularly pesticide residue in rice with
instrumental techniques has not been attempted so far and deserves attention
from researchers. Systematic studies are needed on Basmati rice aroma,
cooking, and eating quality traits with respect to varied environmental
204 Gulshan Mahajan et al.

conditions, especially in this era of climate change. Efforts are needed to

develop Basmati cultivars with resistance against insects (brown plant
hopper), pests, and disease (blast, bacterial, and sheath blight), reducing
the need to use chemical pesticides and thus strengthening export prospects.
Basmati is being grown in the riceewheat cropping system of the IGP, so
more focus should be on developing varieties with shorter duration
that could fit into the riceewheat cropping system with lower water
requirement. More effort is needed to develop cultivars with high grain
number panicle (>150 grains per panicle), high brown rice percentage
(>80%), and high head rice recovery (>50%) in all the elite lines of Basmati.
It is also important to discover why Basmati varieties with similar amylose
content, gelatinization temperature, and gel consistency show different
cooking behavior, sticky nature, and time of aging. What are these factors?
Again, a challenging task for Basmati rice breeders.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We would like to acknowledge the help of Dr. Darshan Brar (Former Head, International
Rice Research Institute, Philippines) in providing comments on the manuscript. We would
also like to acknowledge APEDA and REAP for allowing us to use the data.

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