CAPALONGA COLLEGE INC.

Brgy. Alayao, Capalonga, Camarines Norte

S/Y 2020-2021 1st Semester

MODULE 3:

“SYNTAX AND
SEMANTICS”
(Introduction to Linguistics)

Respectfully Prepared for:

________________________________
1st YEAR- BSED (English)

Respectfully Prepared by:

MARIA ELENA B. PLOPINO

Instructress

MODULE 3:
 SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS

INTRODUCTIONS
Every language has four components: (1) sound, which allows one to utter or speak so
that he can be heard and understood by the listener, (2) vocabulary or lexicon, (3)
grammar or structure and (4) semantics. In this module you will learn the concepts
about semantics and syntax, you will also understand the essence of semantics and
syntax in linguistics and English grammar. The activities that included in this module
require your skills in reading and literary texts and critical thinking in analyzing the use
of syntax and semantics in language. Let this module and the rest that will follow work
to your advantage. Good luck!

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this module, the students are expected to;
a. read concepts about syntax and semantics,
b. understands the essence of syntax and semantics in linguistic and;
c. practice language skills in using syntax and semantics in English grammar

LEARNING EXPERIENCES
Concepts about Syntax
A. In linguistics, syntax (/ˈsɪntæks/) is the set of rules, principles, and processes that
govern the structure of sentences (sentence structure) in a given language, usually
including word order. The term syntax is also used to refer to the study of such
principles and processes. The goal of many syntacticians is to discover the syntactic
rules common to all languages.

B. It is concerned with the ways words go together to form sentences and how the words
are related to one another. Syntax and morphology together make up the CORE of
GRAMMAR.
C. It is the arrangement of words in sentences, clauses, and phrases, and the study of
the formation of sentences and the relationship of their component parts. In
a language such as English, the main device for showing the relationship among words
is word order; e.g., in “The girl loves the boy,” the subject is in initial position, and the
object follows the verb. The meaning remains constant because the -um ending on the
form for “boy” indicates the object of the verb, regardless of its position in the sentence.
Sentences are constructed from phrases or groups of words that have a closer
relationship to each other than to the words outside the phrase. In the sentence “My dog
is playing in the yard” there is a closer relationship between the words “is playing,”
which together form the verb, than between the words “playing in the,” which form only
part of the verb and part of the phrase indicating the location of the playing.
The study of syntax also includes the investigation of the relations among sentences that
are similar, such as “John saw Mary” and “Mary was seen by John.” Syntax received
much attention after 1957, when the American linguist Noam Chomsky proposed a
radically new theory of language, transformational grammar (q.v.)
SENTENCE
- is the largest unit in a language that shows grammatical patterning.
-it is a group of words that expresses a complete thought.
-a sentence begins with a capital letter and ends with a punctuation mark.
- it has two main parts (subject and predicate), the subject is the one being talked about
in the sentence while predicate tells something about the subject.
CLAUSE
-a group of words containing a subject and predicate and functioning as a member of a
complex or compound sentence
-a separate section of a discourse or writing
-it has two kinds: dependent and independent clause

There are four kinds of sentences:

1. A declarative sentence makes a statement and ends with a period.
Examples:
Music is enjoyable.
The running water
2. An interrogative sentence asks a question and ends with a question
mark.
Examples:
Who is singing tonight?
 Isn’t Eddie a great singer?

3. An imperative sentence makes a command or a request and ends with a period.

Examples:
Come in, please.
Angela, don’t be late.
4. An exclamatory sentence expresses strong feeling and ends with
an exclamation point.
Examples:
What a great concert that was!
These distractions must end.

Types of Sentences according to structure:

1. Simple Sentence
Has one independent clause with no dependent clause.
Examples:
Oceanographers may help us find more food supplies
in the future.
The use of plastic should be totally avoided.
Everyone was happy to see her.

2. Compound sentence
Has two or more independent clauses joined by coordinating conjunctions.
Examples:
You should not look directly at the sun, or you will damage your eyes.
She tried her best to win the favor of her friends, but she failed and besides, it was
already too late.

3. Complex sentence
Has one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses.
It uses subordinating conjunctions.
Examples:
It took me more than a week to finish my report because I
couldn’t find one reference material.
I feel sad whenever I remember my dead parents.
4. Compound-complex sentence
Has two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Examples:
The engineer submitted his proposal, but it was rejected because it was submitted
late.
Although he tried his best, Bernard lost the game, and he was disappointed.

Concepts about Semantics

A. Semantics (from Ancient Greek: σημαντικός sēmantikós, "significant") is the study of
meaning. The term can be used to refer to subfields of several distinct disciplines
including linguistics, philosophy, and computer science.
B. Semantics, also called semiotics, semology, or semasiology, the philosophical and
scientific study of meaning in natural and artificial languages..
C. The word semantics has ultimately prevailed as a name for the doctrine of meaning, of
linguistic meaning in particular. Semiotics is still used, however, to denote a broader
field: the study of sign-using behaviour in general.
D. Vocabulary or Lexicon is the collection of words which we put together in various
ways to form phrases, sentences, clauses, and longer stretches of meaning.
E. Semantics is about the meaning of words, phrases, sentences and longer stretches of
thought.
Varieties Of Meaning
The notion of linguistic meaning, the special concern of philosophical and linguistic
semantics, must be distinguished from other common notions with which it is
sometimes confused. Among them are natural meaning, as in smoke means fire or those
spots mean measles; conventional meaning, as in a red traffic light means stop or the
skull and crossbones means danger; and intentional meaning, as in John means
well or Frank means business. The notion of linguistic meaning, in contrast, is the one
exemplified in the following sentences:0000214229-wtfvid007-109
The words bachelor and unmarried man have the same meaning (are synonymous).
The word bank has several meanings (is ambiguous).
The string of words colourless green ideas sleep furiously is meaningless (anomalous).
The sentence all bachelors are unmarried is true by virtue of its meaning (is analytic).
Schnee ist weiss means that snow is white.

Vocabulary Update
Vocabulary is the largest component of a language and the most unstable, meaning that
it changes rapidly. Over the years, many words fall into disuse while others become
popular. It pays to have a rich vocabulary. It makes you a sharp reader and a smart
speaker. You grasp the exact meaning of what you read or hear without having to
consult a dictionary. It enables you to say and write what you mean in a colorful,
interesting way. So, as a student, you must sharpen your vocabulary skills because this
is one of the tools you will use to succeed in other subjects aside from English.

New Words in English

As stated earlier, vocabulary is the most unstable, fast changing component of language.
Many new words are added to the language day by day; and many become obsolete or
out of use. Thus, a student should be constantly alert to these changes.
The following words and definitions were taken from the World Almanac, 1998 edition.
 Channel Surfing- the act or practice of scanning through television usually by
means of a remote control.
 Chump Change- a relatively small or insignificant amount of money
 Ear Candy- music that is pleasing to listen to but lacks depth.
 Gender Bender- a person who behaves and dresses like a member of the opposite
sex
 Reality Check- something that clarifies reality, often by correcting a misconception
 Minibar- a refrigerator in a hotel room stocked with alcoholic drinks and snacks
for guests.

EPONYMS
An eponym is a name based or derived from a person. This is how some words come to
be.
 Bloody Mary- a vodka and tomato juice drink, after the nickname of Mary Queen
of England I, notorious of persecution of Protestants.
 bloomers- a full, loose trousers, gathered at the knee, after Amelia Bloomer, a
social reformer, who advocated such clothing.
 boycott- to avoid trade or dealings with, as a protest; after Charles Boycott, an
English land agent, ostracized in 1830 for refusing to reduce rent
 Braille- a system of writing for the blind, after Louise Braille, the teacher of the
blind who invented it.
 Casanova- a man who is a promiscuous and unscrupulous lover, after Giovanni
Giacomo Casanova, an Italian adventurer.
  Cesarean Section- a surgical incision of the walls of the abdomen and uterus for
delivery of offspring; from the belief that Julius Ceaser was born this way.
 Chauvinist- excessively patriotic; after Nicholas Chauvin, a character in a 19 th
century play who is devoted to Napoleon
 Derby- a stiff felt hat with a dome-shaped crown and rather narrow rolled brim;
after Edward Stanley, 12th earl of Derby, who in 1780, founded the Derby horse
race, to which these hats are worn.
 Diesel- a type of internal combustion engine of a vehicle driven by it; after Rudolf
Diesel (1858-1913) who built the first successful diesel engine; also, the fuel which
makes this run.
 dulcinea- sweetheart; from Miguel de Cervantes’ novel, Don Quixote, where the
hero idealized the peasant girl of this name
 Frankenstein- a work or agency that ruins its originator/ a monster in the shape
of a man; from a character in Mary E. Shelley’s novel, Frankenstein, whose life is
ruined by a monster he creates.
 Gerrymander- to draw an election district in such a way as to a favor political
party; after Elbridge Gerry, who created 1812 just such an election district (shaped
like a salamander) during his governorship of Massachussetts.
 Guillotine- a machine for beheading; after Joseph Guillotine, a French physician
who proposed its use in 1798 as more humane than hanging
 Silhouette- an outline image; from Etienne de Silhoutte (1709-67) a close-fisted
French Finance minister.

IDIOMS: THEIR MEANING AND DERIVATION

An idiom is an expression of phrase in the language the meaning of which cannot be
taken from the combined meanings of its words.
1. Hands down: effortlessly, incontestably, from the way a jockey, sure of victory,
loosens grip on the reins.
2. In seventh heaven: in a state of perfect happiness; especially in Islamic beliefs,
heaven of heavens, home of God and highest angels.
3. Kiss of deaths: something that seems good but is in reality the instrument of one’s
downfall; from the earlier phrase, “Judas kiss”, betrayal of Jesus to the authorities.
4. Red-letter-day: a memorable day; from the custom of using red or purple colors to
mark holy days on the calendar
5. To buckle down: to adopt an attitude of effort and determination, probably from the
act of buckling one’s armor before battle.
6. To knuckle under: to surrender to another, as when one knelt down before a
conqueror putting “knuckles” of the knees (rounded part of the bone where the joint
is bent) on the ground.
7. To strike while the iron is hot: to seize the opportunity; from the blacksmith’s need
to swing the hammer while the metal on the anvil is going, to avoid having to start up
the forge again and reheat the iron.

FOREIGN WORDS AND PHRASES

Most foreign words and phrases are derived from Latin, French, Italian, and Spanish.
Sources are subjects like law, religion, literature, mythology, and history. To grasp the
full meaning of a foreign word or phrase, you must be familiar with the situation or
background where it was derived. Below are some common foreign words and phrases.
Bon appetite: have a good meal
Example: Dinner is served. Bon appetite!
Carte blanche: full authority to decide.
Example: The president of the company gave his vice president carte blanche to hire.
Bona fide: genuine, in good faith
Example: Voters are bona fide residents of the barangay.
Prima donna: a principal female singer in an opera; a temperamental person
Example: After getting starring roles in several movies, she started coming late for
rehearsals and snob fellow workers. She has become a prima donna.
Persona non grata: unwelcome person
Example: She went against her father’s wish about the choice of a husband. Since then,
she became a persona non grata in the family.
Status quo: existing order of things
Example: Don’t change the status quo if its advantageous for you.

ACRONYMS
It is pronounceable words formed from first letters (or syllables) of other words. Many of
the abbreviations below are thus acronyms. Some acronyms are words coined as
abbreviations and written in lower case. Acronyms do not have periods. Abbreviations
may or may not have periods, but the latter is more common.
AD- Anno Domini (in the year of the Lord)
AIDS- acquired immune deficiency syndrome
ASAP- as soon as possible
AWOL- absent without leave
 BC- before Christ
CEO- chief executive office
COD- cash on delivery
DNA- deoxyribonucleicacid
FY- fiscal year
ZIP- Zone Improvement Plan

WORDS DEFINITIONS AND SYNONYMOUS CLUES

In giving the meaning of the words, the writers or authors may use or, also known as
called, refers to and sometimes enclose the meaning in parentheses. “In other words
definitions” or “synonymous clues” are usually given if the words used are not familiar to
the readers because these words are usually technical or scientific. Some of these words
have foreign origins.
Read the following unfamiliar sentences and their simple translations.
1. Scintillate, scintillate, astra minific
Translation: Twinkle, twinkle, little star.
2. It is fruitless to become lachrymose over precipitately decanted lacteal fluid.
Translation: Don’t cry over spilled milk.
3. Eleemosynary deeds originate intramurally.
Translation: Charity begins at home.

WORD PARTS
Another way of increasing your vocabulary is to know how words are formed. Many, if
not all words, consist of these parts: The root is the core of the word which can stand on
its own. Take the word literate. It is the root word which means educated. If the syllable
“il” is placed before literate, the word now becomes illiterate. The meaning changes from
educated to uneducated. Prefixes are syllables added before the root word that change
its meaning. The syllables added after the root word are called suffixes. The root word
“teach” is a verb, adding suffix- er the word changes to a noun teacher. Adding this
suffix to the root word produces a new word that belongs to another part of speech.
Latin and Greek Roots
Latin Roots Meanings English Examples
Agree, actus do, act, rouse agile, transaction
Alius other alien, inalienable
Ambulare walk (verb) amble, ambulance
Amicus friend amicable, amity
 Dormire sleep dormitory, dormant
Gratia a favor, kindness gratitude, ingratiate
Grex, gregis flock (noun) gregarious, congregate
Juvenis youth rejuvenate, juvenile

Greek Roots Meanings English Examples

Andros, Anthropos man anthropology
Autos self autobiography
Cosmos world cosmopolitan, cosmic
Ethnos race, nation ethnology, ethnic
Metron measure speedometer, metric
Neos new neophyte, neoplasm
Neuron nerve neurotic, neuritis
Penta five pentagon, pentameter

AFFIXES
-one or more sounds or letters occurring as a bound form attached to the beginning or
end of a word, base or phrase or inserted within a word or base and serving to produce a
derivative word or an inflectional form.
-to attach physically
PREFIX
-an affix attach to the beginning of a word, base or phrase and serving to produce a
derivative word or an inflectional form
-most of the prefixes used to form English words have more than one meaning
-the prefix “super” for example may mean “higher in rank than” as in supervisor, it may
also mean “surpassing” as in superfine
SUFFIX
-suffixes provide more clues to word meanings than prefixes do, most of these suffixes
appear in nouns and adjectives
-an affix occurring at the end of a word, base or phrase
-examples are: poetess, geographer, cashier, musician
INFIX
-a derivational or inflectional affix appearing in the body of a word
-to insert a sound or letter as an infix

SYNONYMS
Synonyms are words that have nearly the same essential meaning. While a few
synonyms may have exactly the same meaning, most synonyms do not. They are not
interchangeable like buttons on a coat. They have shades of difference in meaning.
Fast and rapid are generally interchangeable in expressing the idea of a relatively high
rate of movement or action, but fast more often refers to the person or thing that moves
or acts, and rapid to the action (a fast typist, a rapid transcription).
Swift implies great rapidity, but often connotes smooth, easy movement. Fleet suggests a
nimbleness or lightness in that which moves swiftly. Quick implies promptness of action,
or occurrence in a brief space of time, rather than velocity (a quick reply). Speedy
intensifies the idea of quickness, but may also connote high velocity (a speedy recovery,
a speedy flight). Hasty suggests hurried action and may connote carelessness, rashness,
or impatience.
Examples:
 Cease- perish, expire, vanish, die, disappear, fade, evaporate
 Circumstance- occurrence, occasion, event, incident, juncture
 Unintentional- unattended, unmeant, undersigned, unwitting
 Qualification- limitation, restriction, modification, specification
 Effect- result, upshot, outcome, fruit, offshoot, harvest, outgrow

ANTONYMS
Antonyms are words that express a meaning opposite to that of another word. The
antonym of happy is “unhappy” or “sad”. The antonym of timid is bold or courageous.
The term “antonym” properly applies only to things or qualities that are opposite.
Knowing antonyms improves your vocabulary and allows you to use precise words in
writing and speaking.
Examples:
 Join- disjoin, disconnect, separate, part, detach, uncouple
 Assemble- take part, take down, dismantle, unmake, undo
 Collect- scatter, disperse, disseminate, propagate, spread
 Competence- incompetence, inability, inadequacy
 Safe- unsafe, dangerous, perilous, risky, hazardous, unstable
 Answer- question, query, interrogation, challenge, issue
 Cold- hot, warm, tepid, scorching, blistering, ablaze
 Wet- dry, arid, waterless, dehydrated, unwatered
 LEARNING ASSESSMENT

ACTIVITY 1
Direction: Which of the following pairs of words are antonyms and which are synonyms?
Write S on the blank if the pair is synonyms, and A if the pair is antonyms. Cross-check
your answers with a dictionary.
_____________1. Belief, distrust
_____________2. Young, senile
_____________3. Factitious, genuine
_____________4. Comprehensive, restricted
_____________5. Ridicule, praise
_____________6. Evanescent, ephemeral
_____________7. Inimical, friendly
_____________8. Dexterity, incompetence
_____________9. Sever, sunder
_____________10. Alert, asleep

ACTIVITY 2
Direction: Read the letter below. Copy all the abbreviations and acronyms and opposite
each write the meaning.
March 14, 2005
Dear Mother,
Please ask Father to bring me ASAP P8,000 or a bigger amt. if available in my ATM
deposit. My ATM card and its PIN are in my cabinet, top shelf, right side, under the
manila paper lining.
I have been AWOL for 3 days now because of high fever and diarrhea. I take paracetamol
AM and PM, drink rehydration salts and have a sponge bath every 4 hrs; but it’s no use.
Vilma, Abel et.al told me to go to the hospital and be confined. Pls. send needed clothes
esp. my lounging robe. I also need hospital things, e.g. fresh towels, tissue paper, etc.
Your daughter,
Julia
P.S. Pls. don’t worry too much.
 ACTIVITY 3
Direction: Identify whether the following sentences are simple, compound, complex or
compound-complex. On the blanks, write S if it is a simple sentence, Cp if compound,
Cx if complex, and CC if compound-complex.
____________1. The travelers left behind their families and friends who waited anxiously
for
their return.
____________2. Which of these books belongs to you?
____________3. Birds fly after a raging storm.
____________4. Either the altitude or the weather defeated many
mountaineers.
____________5. The long, dangerous mission had finally ended.
____________6. How did you get here?
____________7. Dana collects old coins which is her hobby since she
was a child.
____________8. How soon can you get here?
____________9. The long, dangerous mission had finally ended.
____________10. Volleyball remains a favorite sport among the
young people.

ACTIVITY 4
Direction: What kind of sentence is each of the following?
_____________1. We’re late for dress rehearsal.
_____________2. Please stay calm, Anna.
_____________3. Couldn’t we start?
_____________4. How impatient you are!
_____________5. Never say good-bye.

ACTIVITY 5
Direction: What do these commonly used Latin words mean? Construct a sentence for
each sentence. Write your answers on the spaces provided.
1. Status quo
2. Habeas corpus
3. Modus operandi
4. In toto
5. Bona fide

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REFERENCES
 Fernando, Jovita N. (2004). New Perspectives in English One. Rex Printing
Company: Quezon City.
 Flores, Magdelene, et. Al (2001). Study Skills in English for A Changing World. Rex
Printing Company: Quezon City.
 Corbett, J. (2007). An Intercultural Approach to English Language Teaching.
Philippines: Anvil Publishing, Inc.
 Aarts, B. and McMahon, A. (n.d.) The Handbook of English Linguistics. Singapore:
Graphicraft Limited.