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1. enumerate the stylistic devices and expressive means of the

phono-graphical level. What are the purely phonetic stylistic
devices? What are the purely graphic stylistic devices and
expressive means?

A stylistic device is a literary model in which semantic and

structural features are blended so that it represents a
generalised pattern. Prof. I. R. Galperin calls a stylistic device
a generative model when through frequent use a language
fact is transformed into a stylistic device. Thus we may say
that some expressive means have evolved into stylistic
devices which represent a more abstract form or set of forms.
A stylistic device combines some general semantic meaning
with a certain linguistic form resulting in stylistic effect. It is like
an algorithm employed for an expressive purpose. For
example, the interplay, interaction, or clash of the dictionary
and contextual meanings of words will bring about such
stylistic devices as metaphor, metonymy or irony. The nature
of the interaction may be affinity (likeness by
nature), proximity (nearness in place, time, order, occurrence,
relation) or contrast (opposition).
Poetry abounds in some specific types of sound-instrumenting, the
leading role belonging to alliteration-the repetition of consonants,
usually in the beginning ot words, and assonance-the repetition of
similar vowels, usually in stressed syllables. They both may produce
the effect of euphony (a sense of ease and comfort in pronouncing or
hearing) or cacophony (a sense of strain and discomfort in
pronouncing or hearing).
 To create additional information in a prose discourse sound-
instrumenting is seldom used. In contemporary advertising, mass
media and, above all, creative prose sound is foregrounded mainly
through the change of its accepted graphical representation. This
intentional violation of the graphical shape of a word (or word
combination) used to reflect its authentic pronunciation is called
graphon.

Graphon proved to be an effective means of supplying

information about the speaker's origin, social and educational
background, physical or emotional condition, etc. Reader obtains not
only the vivid image and the social, cultural, educational characteristics
of the personages. On the other hand they may show the physical
defects of the speakers-the stumbling of one and the lisping of the
other.

Graphon thus individualizing the character's speech. At the same

time, graphon is very good at conveying the atmosphere of authentic
live communication, of the informality of the speech act. Some
amalgamated forms, which are the result of strong assimilation,
became cliches in contemporary prose dialogue: "gimme" (give me),
"lemme" (let me). Graphical changes may reflect not only the
peculiarities of pronunciation, but are also used to convey the
intensity of the stress, emphasizing and thus foregrounding the
stressed words. To such purely graphical means, not involving the
violations, we should refer all changes of the type (italics, capi-
talization), spacing of graphemes (hyphenation, multiplication) and of
lines.

According to the frequency of usage, variability of functions, the first

place among graphical means of foregrounding is occupied by italics.
Intensity of speech (often in commands) is transmitted through the
multiplication of a grapheme or capitalization of the word, Hyphena-
tion of a word suggests the rhymed or clipped manner in which it is
uttered as in, O'Connor's story -"grinning like a chim-pan-zee".

What are the purely phonetic stylistic

devices
The existing models of organizing speech or sounds can be
divided into two groups: versification and instrumentation.
Versification is from latin “versus” – стих, “facio” – делаю.
Versification is the art of creating poetry according to the rules
of a certain language and poet’s practice (varieties of poetic
feet and metres, rhymes and rhyming patterns).
Instrumentation is the some of speech sound selection and
combination message foregrounding the utterance thus
creating expressive and emotive connotations (euphony -
благозвучие, cackophony – неблагозвучие, alliteration,
assonance, onomatopheia).
Onomatopheia is a combination of speech sounds, which
aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea,
thunder), by things (machines or tools), and by people
(laughter, sighing, patter of feet).
+Ку-ка-ре-ку – cock-a-doo-dle-do; мяу – mew; тик-так - tick-
tack.
Things falling into the water: a coin - “plop”; smth larger (dog)
– “splash”; human body – “splosh”.
Balloon (пробка от шампанского) – “pop”, “bang”.
Alliteration is a figure of speech which consists in the
repetition of consonants (especially initial) in words in close
succession.
Assonance is a figure of speech based on the repetition
sounds or diphthongs without reguard of consonants, the kind
of vowel rhyme.
e.g. How sad and bad and mad it was (Browning).
Graphical stylistic devices
The existing models of organizing speech or sounds can be
divided into two groups: versification and instrumentation.
Versification is from latin “versus” – стих, “facio” – делаю.
Versification is the art of creating poetry according to the rules
of a certain language and poet’s practice (varieties of poetic
feet and metres, rhymes and rhyming patterns).
Instrumentation is the some of speech sound selection and
combination message foregrounding the utterance thus
creating expressive and emotive connotations (euphony -
благозвучие, cackophony – неблагозвучие, alliteration,
assonance, onomatopheia).
Onomatopheia is a combination of speech sounds, which
aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea,
thunder), by things (machines or tools), and by people
(laughter, sighing, patter of feet).
+Ку-ка-ре-ку – cock-a-doo-dle-do; мяу – mew; тик-так - tick-
tack.
Things falling into the water: a coin - “plop”; smth larger (dog)
– “splash”; human body – “splosh”.
Balloon (пробка от шампанского) – “pop”, “bang”.
Alliteration is a figure of speech which consists in the
repetition of consonants (especially initial) in words in close
succession.
Assonance is a figure of speech based on the repetition
sounds or diphthongs without reguard of consonants, the kind
of vowel rhyme.
e.g. How sad and bad and mad it was (Browning).
Graphical stylistic devices
They serve to convey in the written form the effects which in
the oral type of speech are expressed by intonation and
stresses.
We refer here the emphatic use of the punctuation and
deliberate change of the spelling of a word.
Graphon is the intentional vacation of the graphical shape of a
word (word combination) used to reflect its authentic
pronunciation.
Graphons indicate irregularities, carelessness of
pronunciation, foreign accent.

2.What is understood by the notion

‘onomatopoeia’? What variants of
onomatopoeia exist?Provide examples
Onomatopoeia is the process of creating a word that
phonetically imitates, resembles, or suggests the sound that it
describes. Such a word itself is also called
an onomatopoeia. Common onomatopoeias include animal
noises such as "oink", "meow" (or "miaow"), "roar" and "chirp".
Some other very common English-language examples are
hiccup, zoom, bang, beep, moo, and splash. Machines and
their sounds are also often described with onomatopoeia:
honk or beep-beep for the horn of an automobile, and vroom
or brum for the engine.
What variants of onomatopoeia exist?
Provide examples
There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect.

Direct onomatopoeia  is contained in words that imitate natural sounds,

as ding-dong, buzz, bang, cuckoo, tintinabulation, mew, ping-pong, roar .

These words have different degrees of imitative quality. Some of them

immediately bring to mind whatever it is that produces the sound. Others
require the exercise of a certain amount of imagination to decipher it.

Onomatopoetic words can be used in a transferred meaning, as for

instance, ding-dong,  which represents the sound of bells rung continuously,
may mean 1) noisy, 2)  strenuously contested.

a ding-dong struggle, a ding-dong go at something.  In the following

newspaper headline:

DING-DONG ROW OPENS ON BILL,  both meanings are implied.

I n d i r e c t onomatopoeia  is a combination of sounds the aim of which is to

make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense. It is sometimes called
"echo-writing".

'And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain where the
repetition of the sound [s] actually produces the sound of the rustling of the
curtain.

Indirect onomatopoeia, unlike alliteration, demands some mention of what

makes the sound, as rustling  (of curtains). The same can be said of the
sound [w] if it aims at reproducing, the sound of wind. The word wind  must
be mentioned, as in:

"Whenever the moon and stars are set,

Whenever the wind is high,

All night long in the dark and wet

A man goes riding by." (R. S. Stevenson) "-

 Indirect onomatopoeia is sometimes very effectively used by repeating words
which themselves are not onomatopoetic:

"Silver bells... how they tinkle, tinkle, tinkle" and further

"To the tintinabulation that so musically wells

From the bells, bells, bells, bells,

Bells, bells, bells—

From the jingling and the tinkling of the bells."

Alongside obviously onomatopoetic words as tinkle,

tintinabulation  and jingling  the word bells  is drawn into the general music of
the poem and begins to display onomatopoetic properties through the
repetition.

Here is another example:

"Mostly he moved in urgent, precise, clipped movements—go, go, go—and

talked the same way—staccato sentences."

The onomatopoetic effect is achieved by the repetition of the

unonomatopoetic word 'go' the pronunciation of which is prompted by the
word 'clipped', suggesting short, quick, abrupt motions. One seems even to
hear the sound of his footsteps.

3.What types of deliberate repetition of

phonemes do you know? What is the
purpose of their usage ? Give examples
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ассонанс)
One important way of promoting a morpheme is its repetition. Both
root and affixational morphemes can be emphasized through repetition.
affixational morphemes which normally carry the main weight of the
structural and not of the denotational significance, when repeated
they come into the focus of attention and stress either their logical
meaning (e.g. that of contrast, negation, absence of a quality as in
such prefixes like a-, -anti-, mis-; or of smallness as in suffixes -ling
and -ette); their emotive and evaluative meaning, as in suffixes
forming" degrees of comparison; or else they add to the. rhythmical
effect and text unity.

The second, even more effective way of using a morpheme for the
creation of additional information is extension of its normative
valency which results in the formation of new words They are not
neologisms in the true sense created for special communicative
situations only, and are not used beyond these occasions. This is why
they are called occasional words and are characterized by freshness,
originality, lucidity of their inner form and morphemic structure.

In case of repetition a morpheme gains much independence and bears

major responsibility for the creation of additional information and
stylistic effect.

Repetition is an instance of using a word, phrase, or clause

more than once in a short passage—dwelling on a point.
Needless or unintentional repetition
(a tautology or pleonasm) is a kind of clutter that may
distract or bore a reader. (The baseless fear of repetition is
humorously called monologophobia.) 
Used deliberately, repetition can be an effective rhetorical
strategy for achieving emphasis.

Types of Rhetorical Repetition With

Examples
 Anadiplosis
Repetition of the last word of one line or clause to
begin the next.
"My conscience hath a thousand several tongues,
And every tongue brings in a several tale,
 And every tale condemns me for a villain."(William
Shakespeare, "Richard III")
 Anaphora
Repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of
successive clauses or verses.
"I want her to live. I want her to breathe. I want her
to aerobicize."("Weird Science," 1985)
 Antistasis
Repetition of a word in a different or contrary sense.
"A kleptomaniac is a person who helps
himself because he can't help himself."(Henry
Morgan)
 Commoratio
Emphasizing a point by repeating it several times in
different words.
"Space is big. You just won't believe how vastly,
hugely, mind-bogglingly big it is. I mean, you may
think it's a long way down the road to the chemist's,
but that's just peanuts to space."(Douglass Adams,
"The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy," 1979)
 Diacope
Repetition that is broken up by one or more
intervening words.
"A horse is a horse, of course, of course,
And no one can talk to a horse of course
That is, of course, unless the horse is the famous
Mister Ed."(Theme song of 1960s TV program "Mr.
Ed")
 Epanalepsis
Repetition at the end of a clause or sentence of the
word or phrase with which it began.
"Swallow, my sister, O sister swallow,
How can thine heart be full of the spring?"(Algernon
Charles Swinburne, "Itylus")
 Epimone
Frequent repetition of a phrase or question; dwelling
on a point.
"And I looked upwards, and there stood a man upon
the summit of the rock; and I hid myself among the
water-lilies that I might discover the actions of the
man. ...
"And the man sat upon the rock, and leaned his head
upon his hand, and looked out upon the desolation. ...
And I lay close within shelter of the lilies, and
observed the actions of the man. And the man
trembled in the solitude;—but the night waned, and
he sat upon the rock."
(Edgar Allan Poe, "Silence")
"The man who stood, who stood on sidewalks, who
stood facing streets, who stood with his back against
store windows or against the walls of buildings, never
asked for money, never begged, never put his hand
out."(Gordon Lish, "Sophistication")
 Epiphora
Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of several
clauses.
"She's safe, just like I promised. She's all set to marry
Norrington, just like she promised. And you get to die
for her, just like you promised."
(Jack Sparrow, The Pirates of the Caribbean)
 Epizeuxis
Repetition of a word or phrase for emphasis, usually
with no words in between.
"If you think you can win, you can win."
(William Hazlitt)
"Will you ever be old and dumb, like your creepy
parents?
Not you, not you, not you, not you, not you, not
you."(Donald Hall, "To a Waterfowl")
 Gradatio
A sentence construction in which the last word of one
clause becomes the first of the next, through three or
more clauses (an extended form of anadiplosis).
"To exist is to change, to change is to mature, to
mature is to go on creating oneself endlessly."(Henri
Bergson)
 Negative-Positive Restatement
A method of achieving emphasis by stating an idea
twice, first in negative terms and then in positive
terms.
"Color is not a human or personal reality; it is a
political reality."(James Baldwin)
 Ploce
Repetition of a word with a new or specified sense, or
with pregnant reference to its special significance.
"If it wasn't in Vogue, it wasn't in vogue."
(Promotional slogan for Vogue magazine)
 Polyptoton
Repetition of words derived from the same root but
with different endings.
"I hear the voices, and I read the front page, and I
know the speculation. But I'm the decider, and
I decide what is best."(George W. Bush, April 2006)
 Symploce
Repetition of words or phrases at both the beginning
and end of successive clauses or verses: a combination
of anaphora and epiphora.
"They are not paid for thinking—they are not paid to
fret about the world's concerns. They were not
respectable people—they were not worthy people—
they were not learned and wise and brilliant people—
but in their breasts, all their stupid lives long, resteth
a peace that passeth understanding!"(Mark Twain,
"The Innocents Abroad," 1869)
4. What are main concepts of
versification?
Versification is the art of writing verses. It is
the imaginative expression of emotion, thought,
or narrative, mostly in metrical form and often
using figurative language. Poetry is actually the
earliest form of literature, and was creat-ed
precisely to be spoken - in the days before many
could read. In the English language the basic
system of versification is known as accentual-
syllabic. In this system the constituents of the
fundamental pattern of versification are the
number of syllables to the line of verse and the
arrangement of these syllables according to
whether they are pronounced with a greater or
lesser degree of energy–that is, whether they
are accented or unaccented. Thus, in English
poetry of almost all periods, the verse structure
is created both by the fixed or varying numbers
of syllables per line and by the constant
alternation of accented and unaccented syllables
in definite, recurring sequences within each line.
The main concepts of versification are rhyme
and rhythm. Rhyme is the accord of syllables in
words: fact - attract, mood - intrude; news -
refuse. Such an accord is met at the end of two
parallel lines in verses. Rhyme is a sound
organizer, uniting lines into stanzas. Rhyme is
created according to several patterns. Vertically,
there are such rhymes: adjacent (aa, bb), cross
(ab, ab) and reverse (ab, ba). According to the
variants of stress in the words being rhymed,
rhymes are classified into male (the last syllables
of the rhymed words are stressed), female (the
next syllables to the last are stressed) and
dactylic (the third syllables from the end are
stressed). Rhythm is a recurring stress pattern in
poetry. It is an even alternation of stressed and
unstressed syllables. Lines in verses are built
with poetic feet. A foot is a combination of one
stressed and one or two unstressed syllables.
The most popular poetic feet are trochaic foot,
iambus, dactyl, amphibrach, and anapest, stanza
(when the pattern of rhymes, or rhyme scheme,
extends beyond two or sometimes three lines,
the entire group of rhymed lines is called a
stanza).

5.What is graphon? Name the types and

functions of graphon.
Graphon-  Graphical fixation of phonetic peculiarities of
pronunciation with the violation of the accepted spelling. Used
to indicate blurred, incoherent or careless pronunciation,
caused by temporary (tender age, intoxication, ignorance of
the discussed theme, etc.) or by permanent factors (social,
territorial, educational, etc. status). 

All types of punctuation can be used to reflect the emphatic

intonation of the speaker. Such ‘emphatic’ punctuation is used
in many syntactical SDs: aposiopesis (break-in-the-narrative)
[You’ll just come home, or I’ll …], rhetorical questions,
su’spense etc.
The changed type (italics, bold type) or spelling multiplication
(laaarge) are used to indicate the additional stress on the
emphasis word or part of the word.
There is no direct connection between the graphical SDs and
the intonation they reflect, for their choice is too inadequate
for the variety and quality of emotions recurrent in intonation.

6. What are the purpose of the usage of different kinds of

print in the text ?Give examples. What is achieved by the
graphic imagery?