TALENT MANAGEMENT FRAMEWORK

Evidence-based Guidelines for Swiss Companies Operating in China

In co-operation with:
Editorial
Decision makers in multinational Swiss companies dealing with talent management are aware
of the versatile cultural environment and its challenges. Starting from a Western talent manage-
ment perspective, multinational Swiss companies often extend this perspective to a global talent
management. However, in their locations around the globe, the subsidiary companies face a
specific challenge by considering local situations. We did research in the Chinese subsidiary of
Georg Fischer AG to disentangle global and local Chinese talent management issues and to derive
concrete guidelines for Swiss companies operating in China.

This framework is the result of a close and mutually enriching research collaboration between
the University of Lucerne and Georg Fischer AG, with the support of EY. With this collaboration
and scientific methods we gained insight to answer practical questions such as “Why should
organizations do talent management?”, “What are the special local influencing factors in China?”
or “What about the negative side-effects on employees who are not in the talent pool?”. The
academic team of the University of Lucerne conducted interviews in Switzerland and in China,
and run data collections in China. Drawing on own research results and on results of the scientific
community, we are able to introduce this talent management framework.

The innovative result introduced in this framework is a “Talent Management Map”. The Talent
Management Map provides an overview of the complex talent management situation, including
different processes and phases, stakeholders and interests. From this dense network of inter-
actions and dependencies, we choose three paths to explore the cultural influence of China on
talent management and we derive concrete guidelines within these three paths for practitioners.

We hope that our research will help to reduce the complexity of global and local talent manage-
ment and invites you to further explore the talent management map with the three paths exploring
the cultural influence on talent management in China.

Prof. Dr. Bruno Staffelbach Peter Ziswiler Christine Vogel

President of the University of Lucerne Head Corporate HR EY Partner

Director of the Center for Human Georg Fischer AG People Advisory Services
Resource Management

University of Lucerne, October 2018

3
Executive Summary
Purpose:
The aim of this framework is to challenge and inspire existing talent management in Swiss com-
panies operating in China by:
• Giving an overview on the complexity of talent management;
• Exploring the cultural influence of China on talent management;
• Presenting guidelines on what to consider when doing talent management in China.

Method:
The content of this framework is based on interviews with 10 Swiss companies and an online
survey with Georg Fischer AG, a Swiss company from the machine-, electrical- and metal indus-
try (MEM) industry, which also has local production sites in China. Furthermore, relevant exist-
ing scientific literature completes the framework.

Findings:
• To specifically address Chinese aspects in talent management, a well-structured HR depart-
ment allows a cultural interface. For example, a Chinese talent manager who is familiar with
both the Western and Asian perspectives can help integrate them both.
• The conditions for talent management in China and in Switzerland differ. External factors,
such as the labor market situation or political decisions, influence the talent management
strategy and should be considered in the planning phase.
• Generically formulated identification criteria are interpreted differently in the Chinese culture.
Therefore, a specific description rather than generic terms is pivotal.
• Global identification criteria, such as mobility, need to be specified for China.
• From a Western perspective, an objective evaluation of performance and potential are pivotal,
whereas in China, the focus is on maintaining harmony and mutual benefits among the guanxi
network. Consequently, the importance of personal relationships, networks, and mobility con-
straints must be considered when identifying talents.
• To evaluate an organization’s talent management, key performance indicators (KPIs) that are
specifically interesting for talent management in China must be developed and applied.
• Cultural specificities, such as mianzi, lead to sensitive situations when discussing employee
performance, potential, and talent status, which is why careful communication in China is piv-
otal.
• Due to cultural concepts, removing talent nominations has significant impact in China and
thus must be kept to a minimum.  

4
Content
1 About the Framework.............................................................................................................6
1.1 Talent Management Map...................................................................................................................6
1.2 Three Paths Explored in this Framework......................................................................................8

2 About the Study......................................................................................................................8

3 Path I: Planning Phase...........................................................................................................9

3.1 Talent Management Strategy...........................................................................................................9
3.2 Benefits of Linking Talent Management and Strategy............................................................10
3.3 Definition of Talent Management and Talent.............................................................................11
3.4 Research Example: From Corporate Strategy to Talent Management Definition...............11
3.5 Guidelines Planning Phase.............................................................................................................13

4 Path II: Acting Phase............................................................................................................14

4.1 Talent Identification.........................................................................................................................14
4.2 Opportunities and Challenges of Selected Talent Criteria.......................................................15
4.3 Research Example: Talent Identification Criteria and Chinese Talent Characteristics.....17
4.4 Guidelines Acting Phase.................................................................................................................17

5 Path III: Monitoring Phase...................................................................................................18

5.1 Talent Management Effectiveness...............................................................................................18
5.2 Research Example: Internal Development and Promotion Rates and Sub-groups............18
5.3 Employee Reaction to Talent Management................................................................................20
5.4 Communication and Transparency for Talent Management in China...................................22
5.5 Research Example: Ensure Confidential Communication........................................................23
5.6 Guidelines Monitoring Phase.........................................................................................................23

6 Closing Remarks ..................................................................................................................24

7 Appendix ...............................................................................................................................25
References.........................................................................................................................................25
Tables and Figures...........................................................................................................................26
Contact...............................................................................................................................................27

5
1 About the Framework
Many books, articles, and publications deal with the topic of talent management. Although tal-
ent management has been a relevant topic for organizations for years, there are still major gaps
that have not been investigated yet. Especially, questions regarding cultural specificities and
cultural adaptations of talent management have been excluded from talent management re-
search, leading to a lack of knowledge about organizational practice. Therefore, this framework
highlights cultural aspects in talent management. Specifically, the framework focuses on Chi-
nese culture influencing talent management designed from a Western point of view.

We explored talent management in China and developed guidelines for decision makers in Swiss
companies doing business in China. By presenting the findings and guidelines in this framework,
we aim to challenge and inspire existing talent management in organizations.

CORPORATE LEVEL
In the following, we first introduce the Talent Management Map that summarizes the current state
of research regarding talent management (Section  1.1), and then we explore three paths within
this Talent Management Map from the Chinese perspective (Chapters 3-5).

CONTEXT
1.1 Talent Management Map

The Talent Management Map is a summary of the cur-

rent state of talent management research and serves as
framework for orientation in the labyrinth of talent man-
agement. The Talent Management Map (see Figure 1.1)
structures talent management in three levels, which are
corporate, managerial, and individual, along the sequence
of plan, act, and monitor. Of course, every organization is

ra ra n o n
embedded in a specific context. However, this level is not

s t r p o M i r ti
c o f T id e
specifically represented on the map since the framework

te te
o s
n
co
obviously focuses on the Chinese context. As a decision

gy
maker regarding talent management questions, the read-
er might explore the different elements of talent manage-
Path 1

ment, the interdependencies between elements, and oth-

ta HR inv
er influencing factors.
M s
fo c t r
r T i ve
j e ea
ob cl

This framework does not explore all elements and paths

displayed in the map in detail. We choose three specific
Pa
th

paths, which contain core elements of talent manage-

1

ment, such as talent management objectives, identifica-

le & n
ta TM tio
i
of fin

tion criteria, and evaluation. However, the Talent Man-

nt
de

agement Map provides an orientation and an idea of

the dimensions of talent management beyond the three

N
paths explored in this framework.

PL A
Figure 1.1: Talent Management Map

6
 What do we mean by Talent Management?

When referring to talent management in this framework, we

think of key employees (talents) who contribute to the organi-
zational strategic objectives by demonstrating above-average
performance with high potential. Consequently, we focus only
on a specific segment of the workforce. Managing talents re-
quires specific structures, processes, and instruments for
­talent identification, communication, development, and reten-
tion. Thus, talent management is a part of general human re-
source management.
MANAGERIAL LEVEL

OR
INDIVIDUAL LEVEL

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7
1.2 Three Paths Explored in this Framework

Planning Phase (Chapter 3): The first path explores the steps that lead to defining talent. Ide-
ally, talent management is embedded in and supports the organizational strategy. Depending on
the strategy, the organization may define talent management based on the purpose for manag-
ing talent (e.g., enabling the development of human resources (HR) or succession planning). The
purpose of talent management again influences the definition and the policies and practices of
talent management.

Acting Phase (Chapter 4): The second path explores the steps included in talent identification
within the organization. Building on the talent (management) definition, organizations start look-
ing for employees who fit the talent definition. The identification of talents is based on pre-de-
fined criteria followed by development measures to support talent employees in achieving the
set objectives or the target position.

Monitoring Phase (Chapter 5): The third path explores methods for evaluating talent manage-
ment and the influencing factors.

2 About the Study

Survey method
The research findings in this framework are based on
three sources: a qualitative study (interviews), quantita-
The questionnaire contained previously vali-
tive study (survey), and relevant scientific literature.
dated questions translated from English to
Mandarin in a state-of-the-art back trans-
To conduct the quantitative study and part of the qualita-
lation process. It was distributed via email
tive study, Georg Fischer AG (GF), a Swiss company from
provided by the Georg Fischer’s HR Depart-
the MEM industry, which has local production sites in Chi-
ment. Unique identifiers allowed the re-
na, provided us access. GF is a multinational organization
search team to match data from question-
headquartered in Switzerland and employs over 16,000
naires with objective data obtained directly
people. It introduced and developed talent management
from the HR Department (e.g., the talent
in the Chinese production sites in the greater Shanghai
status of each employee). All participants
area using a top-down approach. Talent management is
were assured strict confidentiality.
currently rolled out on the four top employee levels (C-4).

We conducted an online survey in GF at the end of 2016 and end of 2017. The response rate in
2016 was 60%, and the response rate in 2017 was 76%. The survey sample represented the under-
lying population of employees well.

We conducted interviews with HR managers and business managers in 10 companies, most of

them from the MEM industry:

N= 18

8
3 Path I: Planning Phase
3.1 Talent Management Strategy

Why should organizations do talent management?

Demographic change leads to a scarcity of the workforce

in many Western countries. Therefore, having talents in the
organization, retaining them, and recruiting new talents, be-
comes a critical success factor (Festing & Schäfer, 2014).
For a meaningful talent management, the organizational
environment needs to be considered. Thereby talent man-
agement should be defined and developed based on the
corporate strategy and the related objectives for talent man-
agement.

From our interviews in China we learned that, in Western

countries, it is a demographic change that leads to a short-
age of qualified employees, whereas the manufacturing in-
dustry in China faces different labor market issues. First,
competition increases from the fintech industry, which attracts a young and well-educated
workforce by new organizations with interesting jobs and attractive labor conditions. Further-
more, the former attractiveness of foreign multinational organizations has decreased, while the
attractiveness of private and state-owned Chinese organizations has increased. Second, dedi-
cated industry zones where many organizations have their offices and production sites next
to each other lead to low barriers for employees to change employers when offered a slightly
better contract. Third, new governmental regulations have led to changes in the labor market.
Due to an increase in the minimum salary in Shanghai, city politics (with a focus on the fintech
industry with the intention to establish them in Shanghai while banning the manufacturing in-
dustry from the city area), and new business opportunities, the organizations from the machin-
ing and construction industry move away, and the workforce now migrates from East to West.

Organizations have diverse reasons to do talent management. In the following section, we in-
troduce four strategic objectives for talent management (Bethke-Langenegger, Mahler, & Staf-
felbach, 2011).

Attraction and retention of talented employees: To attract talents from the internal or external
labor market and retain them, it is important that organizations understand the needs of the
employees and design and promote incentive systems accordingly. It is a global phenomenon
that some years ago employers guaranteed high job security in return for high performance and
engagement. However, today, job security is very scarce. Instead, employers offer development
opportunities and employability in exchange for employee loyalty and engagement (Dries, 2013;
Dries, Forrier, De Vos, & Pepermans, 2014).

Development of human capital: Developing talents in the process of talent management follows
the objective of qualitatively improving an organizations’ human capital. Development opportuni-
ties in an organization satisfy the needs of the talent for career opportunities and advancement.

9
Since the economic crises in China in 2016, employees have realized that they cannot rely on
their employer at all costs (i.e., regarding job security). Together with the changing expectations
of the younger workforce toward the employment situation, this leads to implicit agreements be-
tween employees and the organization. Talent management, employee development, and career
opportunities are a currency that organizations offer to gain employee engagement and loyalty
(Yi, Ribbens, & Morgan, 2010).

Succession planning: If an adequate talent pipeline is missing, it is difficult to fill strategic posi-
tions with suitable employees, and organizational growth is limited. Accordingly, an objective of
talent management is to ensure adequate talent succession by having the right number of peo-
ple with the right skills ready when they are needed.

Supporting the organizational strategy: Talent management supports organizations by imple-

menting their strategy. If talent management is recognized as part of the overall strategy and if
an organization-wide talent mindset is established, the employees feel valued and show higher
motivation and higher organizational commitment (Gandossy & Kao, 2004).

3.2 Benefits of Linking Talent Management and Strategy

How can the organization benefit from talent

management?

Talent management adds the most value to

the organization if it is linked to the organi-
zational strategy. In such situations, talent
management influences different business
factors (see Figure 3.1). For example, aligning
talent management with the corporate strate-
gy has a relevant effect on talents resulting in
appreciation, higher motivation, and stronger
commitment to the organization (human re-
source outcomes) (Gandossy & Kao, 2004).
Furthermore, organizations report higher finan-
cial outcomes (Bethke-Langenegger, 2013),
positive influence on organizational attrac-
tiveness, achievement of business objec-
tives, and customer satisfaction (organiza-
tional outcomes) (Bethke-Langenegger et al.,
2011). Therefore, independent of the organi-
zational scope in the local or global markets,
organizations need to have a consistent
strategy that is translated into clear talent
management.

Figure 3.1: How talent management influences

business outcomes (adapted from Bethke-Langenegger
et al., 2011)

10
3.3 Definition of Talent Management and Talent

Who is a talent?

Based on the corporate strategy, the organization defines talent management objectives, which
affect the definition of talent management and the definition of talent. Six different dimensions
need to be considered, when defining a talent (see Table 3.1). A dimension is conceptualized
as a continuum with extreme opposites at both ends, leading to different implications for talent
management policies and practices. While the first four dimensions focus on the individual level,
the last two dimensions focus on the corporate level. Dimensions on the corporate level primar-
ily address the question of how the organization can make use of employee’s talents (Cappelli &
Keller, 2014; Iles, Chuai, & Preece, 2010).

These definitions are not right or wrong. As there is no one-size-fits-all solution for talent man-
agement, every organization needs to develop its own perspective and agree on a talent defini-
tion during the planning phase, according to the corporate strategy and the objectives of talent
management.

3.4 Research Example: From Corporate Strategy to Talent Management Definition

GF followed a strict strategy-driven approach to talent

management. Talent management is strongly anchored in
the board and was rolled-out from the top. This approach
“I personally believe that talent manage-
has the advantage that the managers became involved
ment has to be centralized and closely
and connected with the idea from the beginning. GF com-
linked with the corporate strategy. To ac-
municated talent management very carefully and only
knowledge the cultural difference between
limitedly.
regions, the HR structure needs an intel-
ligent setting. For example, we have some-
One of the strategic decisions in planning talent manage-
one in the position ‘Regional HR Asia’ who
ment is the communication strategy. Studies show that
knows the Asian as well as the European
only about one-third of the organizations discuss talent
culture. This is important to lead the talent
management (King, 2016). From the interviews we con-
management process in Asia and at the
ducted in different organizations, we found that the ex-
same time to integrate requirements from
tent and method of communication differs greatly among
the Asian culture with the European organi-
organizations.
zational criteria.”
About half of the interviewed organizations use the in-
Global head of HR in a global Swiss company in
tranet to inform their employees about talent manage-
the MEM industry
ment activities. Communication involves the existence of
a talent management program, the criteria for being a tal-
ent, information about the process, and the timeline. Fur-
thermore, line managers are involved in talent manage-
ment so they know the talent status of the employees
and the individual development plans and performance
ratings of the employees. Sometimes, employees them-
selves are involved in creating development plans.

11
Table 3.1: Overview of talent (management) definition (adapted from Dries, 2013; Iles et al., 2010)

Dimension Description of the dimension TM focus

Objective – Objective TM includes competence management

subjective A persons’ competences lead to talent. and knowledge management.
Identification and development of
specific competencies.
Subjective TM includes succession- and career
The individual is the talent. Identifi- management.
cation and development of talented
people are crucial.
Innate – Innate TM focuses on selection, assessment,
acquired Talent is given; it is not possible to and identification of talent.
Talent: Individual Level

learn it.
Acquired TM focuses on education, training,
Talent can be acquired. experience, and learning.
Input – Input TM focuses on motivation, ambition,
output Motivation and engagement and career orientation.
characterize a talent.
Output TM focuses on ability, performance,
Success characterizes a talent. success, and results.

Transferable – Transferable TM is transferable across situations.

context dependent Individual shows talent independent
of (work) context.
Context dependent TM is context dependent.
Talent is visible only under specific
conditions (situations, team constel-
lations).
Inclusive – Inclusive Same TM for all employees; difficult
exclusive All employees considered as talents. to differentiate from general good HR
The organization would not hire management.
someone who does not add value.
Exclusive TM for exclusive pool of employees
Talent: Corporate Level

Specific workforce segment is labeled only.

as «talents» and receives respective
development measures.
Position – Position TM is a form of human capital with
people Talent to be set on key position focus on key positions.
(i.e., strategically relevant functions).
People TM focuses on key people, on giving
Talents are key people; only most growth opportunities, which enable
promising talents have access to employees to perform high and to
talent pool. develop further.

12
The objective of GF was to use talent management for succession planning. Based on the organ-
izational strategy and the talent management objectives of succession planning, talent man-
agement was defined. Over time, the wording for the talent definition was adapted and refined,
leading to the following talent management definition:

“A talent has the potential to move to a position of

higher complexity/responsibility within 0-3 years.”

Georg Fischer AG presentation, 2016

3.5 Guidelines Planning Phase

• The conditions for talent management in China and Switzerland are not the same. External
factors, such as the labor market situation or political decisions, influence the talent manage-
ment strategy and should be considered in the planning phase.
• Linking the overall strategy with talent management is pivotal to ensure the involvement of
stakeholders across regions.
• The definitions of talent and talent management are specific to the organization. Therefore,
there is no one-size-fits-all solution, and every organization needs to create its own definition
based on the talent management strategy and objectives.

13
 4 Path II: Acting Phase
4.1 Talent Identification

What is the best way to identify a talent?

Closely linked to the definition of talent management and

talent is talent identification within the company. The ability
to identify talents is a core issue in talent management and
therefore is also considered the “holy grail” of talent manage-
ment (Church, 2015). This is probably why identifying talents
has emerged as one of the hottest areas of applied HR re-
search and practice (Church & Rotolo, 2013; Silzer & Church,
2009, 2010).

Talent identification is mostly done by the direct manager

(79%, according to a Canadian study; Slan-Jerusalim & Haus-
dorf, 2007), using the elements “personal experience with
the person” (100%), “performance appraisal” (97%), and “past
performance and results” (79%; Slan-Jerusalim & Hausdorf,
2007). Furthermore, many of our interview partners mentioned using a nine-box grid often
called a “talent matrix” to identify talent (Figure 4.1). The grid structures the workforce along
two dimensions: performance and potential. This leads to different groups, including talents.
However, whereas performance is a sufficiently clear criterion, the potential remains fuzzy. In
the following section, we show a selection of talent criteria, among them performance and po-
tential, and the Chinese cultural aspects.

Ranking is High
high Talents
unlikely performer
Performance

Potential
medium Change jobs Performers
Stars

Question Improve Ranking is

low
marks performance unlikely

low medium high

Potential
Figure 4.1: Talent matrix

14
4.2 Opportunities and Challenges of Selected Talent Criteria

What are the special local influencing factors in China?

Talent identification criteria are derived from the corporate strategy and thus are unique for
each company. However, certain criteria have generic relevance, for example performance and
potential, whereas others are heavily influenced by culture, for example networking and rela-
tionships. In the following section, the opportunities and challenges of five selected criteria are
discussed from a cultural perspective.

Performance: Hempel (2001) showed that per-

formance appraisal criteria differ across cul-
An example of how to ensure
tures. Chinese managers appear more likely
objective talent identification:
than Western managers to base performance
reviews upon personal characteristics, such
“In our organization, we discuss the per-
as loyalty and obedience, than upon refer-
formance appraisal in a meeting together
ence to outcomes. This difference is essential
with the other divisions’ group leaders. HR
since, from a Western perspective, ratings
business partners moderate the meet-
based on personal attributions are one pri-
ings and all leaders put their proposed
mary source of error in performance rating
employees on the table. The goal is to
(Hempel, 2001).
be as objective as possible, so that not
only one leader decides for his or her
Potential: Potential is a higher-order construct
own team. This platform enables us to ex-
and is difficult to measure. Silzer and Church
change and share feedback to and experi-
(2009) proposed that potential is a construct
ence with specific persons.”
made up of different types of components,
such as:
HR business partner of a multinational
• Fundamental components are stable and
MEM industry company
not changeable over a lifetime (e.g., person-
ality and cognition).
• Latent components need the right context
and support to express themselves (e.g.,
motivation).
• Intervening components influence the degree an individual can grow and develop in different
areas (e.g., openness to feedback).
• Evolving components are acquired by an individual through career experience (e.g., technical
knowledge).

Each organization defines its own potential criteria. Clearly defined and practically described cri-
teria help managers evaluate employee potential. For example, asking for leadership competen-
cies is less valuable than asking the manager if the employee would be able to lead a team with
seven employees and coach them in difficult situations, to develop KPIs for his or her team, or
to make a budget. Clear criteria help improve intercultural understanding. For example, “mobil-
ity” does not mean the same in China as in Switzerland simply because geographical distances
are different and do not have the same meaning.

Therefore, organizations might decide to have a few global criteria and to add specific local cri-
teria (e.g., in China, it might be a criterion that managers have a proficient level of English-lan-
guage skills, whereas in the United States, this is redundant).

15
Aspiration and commitment: Although indispensable for successful talent management, the will-
ingness to move into a key position and commitment to the organization are factors often ig-
nored in the catalog of talent identification criteria and therefore need explicit clarification.

Mobility: Chinese HR managers mention hukou, a Chinese social concept discriminating against
rural workers, as a barrier for talent management. It decreases employees’ willingness to move
into a different region within China (e.g., from Shanghai to Beijing) because their family and chil-
dren would be penalized (for further information on the topic, we recommend Zhang, Zhu, Dowl-
ing, & Fan, 2017). However, mobility is important in talent management in terms of acquiring
knowledge and filling in expert positions. There is no single best solution regarding how organi-
zations should deal with this situation. One option to deal with hukou is to ensure talent mobil-
ity in the early career stages before the employee has familial constraints. Another option is to
ensure local managerial education or relocation abroad.

Network and relationships: Personal relationships are an important, although implicit, tal-
ent identification criteria across the globe (Slan-Jerusalim & Hausdorf, 2007). In China, it has
a special meaning, as guanxi is a culturally specific, important concept of social connections
(dyadic relationships) in the business context and in private life. As talent management is also
influenced by different social relationships (e.g., the relationship between the employee and the
leader), this culturally specific concept is likely to be of relevance for talent management. From
the organizational perspective, guanxi is a kind of network, describing social capital developed
prior to engaging in transactions (rather than being an outcome of it) (Gibb & Zhang, 2017). Em-
ployees may have guanxi networks with external stakeholders, which make them important per-
sons within the organization. It is therefore important to recognize central business networks
and relationships and to know which employees are connected with these guanxi networks.
These employees should be retained, and development is one important retention factor in Chi-
na (Zhang et al., 2015). Thus, guanxi needs to be considered a talent identification criterion dur-
ing the identification process.

In addition to guanxi, another relationship concept is important in China: mianzi (face; Hempel,
2001), which is defined as “recognition by others, the employer in this case, of an individual’s
wisdom or social standing” (Wang & Seifert, 2017, p. 515). Through mianzi, the referring per-
son is viewed as a capable and respectable person. As response to guanxi (the social network),
employees who are referred to a position by a manager will show commitment and be a good
employee over a long time, so that the manager receives mianzi because his or her decision
to refer the employee was a good and wise decision. As this increases the referrers’ mianzi, he
or she might also press the referred employee to show high performance. Research shows that
employees recruited with guanxi stay up to twice as long in the organization and showed a low-
er risk of resignation over time. Finding harmony within the group may replace formal contracts
and regulations of employee work behavior (Wang & Seifert, 2017).

16
4.3 Research Example: Talent Identification Criteria and Chinese Talent
Characteristics

What skills, competences, and characteristics does a talent need to have?

GF uses the same talent definition criteria globally: high performance and high potential, with
potential indicators, such as the capability to cope with change, flexibility, and agility, to have a
positive attitude, and to be a convincing and ambitious person.

Additionally, each region and business unit adds specific requirements. An additional identifica-
tion criterion to move into upper management positions for the China region is that a potential
talent speaks English. This is to ensure communication across different regions. Furthermore,
an employee’s willingness to be mobile is an important criterion. As there are limited promotion
opportunities at each location, an employee might be required to move to a different location
within China or abroad to acquire the necessary knowledge or to fill in a higher-level position.

Based on the survey we conducted in China, we

derived a model (see Figure 4.2) with four fac-
tors that characterize talents in GF in China. Per-
sonality, relationships, attitudes, and behaviors
are important to be a talent. Specifically, talents
are more often positive, emotionally balanced,
and show more trust in their capacity to solve
problems than other employees (personality). Ad-
ditionally, talents are more similar to their direct
managers in the way they solve problems, and
they have closer relationships with their manag-
ers than other employees (relationship). Talents
also have slightly higher job embeddedness and
organizational commitment than other employees
(attitude). Furthermore, talents stay longer with
their employer and show better performance than
Figure 4.2: 4-factor model other employees.

In addition, we found a higher promotion rate among talents (17% vs. 3% for other employees) as
well as a lower voluntary turnover rate (6% vs. 9% for other employees) (behavior). These find-
ings support the talent management objective (succession planning) of GF.

4.4 Guidelines Acting Phase

• To specifically address Chinese aspects in talent management, a well-structured HR Depart-

ment allows a cultural interface (e.g., a Chinese talent manager who is familiar with both the
Western and Asian perspectives is better able to integrate them).
• Generically formulated identification criteria might be interpreted differently in the Chinese
culture. Therefore, a specific description of talent is used rather than generic terms. For ex-
ample:
• Generic term: Good communication skills
• Specific description: The talent is fluent in oral and written English or in German. Further-
more, the talent is able to express his or her ideas, critiques, and concerns with a posi-
tive attitude. Additionally, the talent is able to give constructive feedback to followers,
peers, and managers.

17
• Global identification criteria, such as mobility, need to be specified for China. For example:
• Global description: If an employment opportunity arises abroad, the talent is willing to
take the chance and move abroad within 6 months.
• Specific description for China: If an employment opportunity arises in China or abroad,
the talent is willing to take the chance to move from the home location in China to any
other place within China (e.g., from Suzhou to Kunshan or Beijing) or abroad within 6
months.
• From the Western perspective, objective evaluation of performance and potential are piv-
otal, whereas in China, the focus is on maintaining harmony and mutual benefits among the
guanxi network. The importance of personal relationships, networks, and mobility constraints
(guanxi, mianzi, and hukou) should be considered when identifying talents to determine how
to deal with this.

5 Path III: Monitoring Phase

5.1 Talent Management Effectiveness

How can organizations evaluate their talent management?

Regularly analyzing the talent management shows whether

it supports the organizational strategy and whether the or-
ganization identified the right employees as talents. There-
fore, organizations need key performance indicators (KPI) to
evaluate talent management effectiveness. Table 5.1 lists a
selection of possible KPIs for monitoring talent management.
To define KPIs, clear talent management objectives are cru-
cial. The objectives of talent management again depend on
the organizational talent management strategy.

5.2 Research Example: KPIs

GF had the strategic intention and talent management objective of having a sustainable succes-
sion planning. The relevant KPI to evaluate the talent management is the internal development
rate (objective: 70% internal development rate). Reviewing the data of GF, we saw that the inter-
nal development rate improved in all divisions since introducing talent management. Two of the
three divisions achieved the set target of the 70% internal development rate. Furthermore, we
also examined the retention and promotion rate to evaluate talent management. The findings
show that talents have a lower probability to leave the organization than other employees and a
higher probability of being promoted.

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Table 5.1: Selection of KPIs to measure talent management effectiveness
Internal development rate: Rate of positions filled with internal candidates instead of external hirings.

number of positions filled with internal candidates

Internal development rate =
total number of filled positions

Retention rate: Share of employees staying with the organization.

Retention rate = 1– turnover rate

number of employees who left within one year

Turnover rate = ( )
number of all employees in the organization at end of the year

Comparison of retention rates of different groups. E.g., retention rate of talent groups should be higher than retention
rate of other employees.

Retention rate (talents) = 1– (turnover rate (talents))

>
Retention rate (other employees) = 1– (turnover rate (other employees))

(Talent) Promotion rate: Rate of employees (talents) who are promoted.

number of employees who were promoted within one year

Promotion rate =
all employees at end of the year

Comparison of promotion rates of different groups. E.g., promotion rate of talents should be higher than promotion
rate of other employees.

Promotion rate (talents) > Promotion rate (other employees)

«False nominations»: Employees who were not confirmed as talents in the next cycle (see also Figure 5.1).

False nomination = (Number of talents (t – 1) – Number of talents (t)

– Number of promoted talents (t) – Number of talent turnover (t))

Culture and Diversity: Share of specific employee groups among talents. E.g. Culture KPI: share of Chinese
­man­agers, level of English skills among Chinese talents, share of Chinese employees in global functions, number
of Chinese managers with working experiences abroad. E.g. Diversity KPI: share of females among talents.

number of specific talent group

Share of specific talent group = ( )
all talents

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Dividing the workforce into the sub-groups talents and other employees enables further analysis
(see Figure 5.1 and Figure 5.2). The sub-group of talents whose talent status was not confirmed
the following year are called “false nominations” and are of special interest because they re-
veale relevant information on the talent management process.

Figure 5.1: Development of talent pool over time

5.3 Employee Reaction to Talent Management

What about the negative side-effects on employees who are not in the talent pool?

Taking up the concern of raising expectations through talent management, we compared differ-
ent groups of employees in China. The effectiveness of talent management is also dependent
on its effect on employees with no talent status. Do the experiences of employees with talent
status and those without talent status differ?

As shown in Figure 5.2, we distinguished the survey participants depending on their talent sta-
tus along two axes: talent or other employees and the stability status over time. The interrela-
tion of the segments in the matrix is interesting for monitoring talent management. For example,
the share of new talent and of unconfirmed talents must be balanced for a sustainable talent
pipeline. Furthermore, the unconfirmed talents segment should be rather small, as organizations
should avoid “false nominations.” While new talents and confirmed talents may have high moti-
vation and confirmation of their good work, “false nominations” may be demotivated and frus-
trated, although they are important employees showing high performance (Swailes & Blackburn,
2016).

20
Based on the premises of guanxi and mianzi, we assume that false nominations have a critical
effect not only on employees who were identified as talents and then last talent status but also
on their leaders or referrers. Suggesting someone as a talent who turns out to be unsuitable
may lead to a bad impression of the referrer who initially suggested the talent, leading to a losing
face situation. Therefore, for the sake of harmony, false nomination needs to be addressed care-
fully and it is best to avoid this at all.

When comparing attitudes and behaviors of employees in GF who were talents (“talents” and
“new talents”) and those who were not talents (“other employees” and “not confirmed talents”),
in our survey, we find only a few differences between the groups in China. Results show that
the employability (i.e., the perceived ease of finding a new job on the external labor market) was
lower for talents than for their colleagues without talent status. This result may be triggered by
the economic downturn in China in 2016, which would be a barrier to seeking new employment
opportunities on the market, especially for highly qualified people. Moreover, the results for job
satisfaction, organizational commitment, and turnover intention do not show a statistically sig-
nificant difference (p > .05) between talents and other employees.

Figure 5.2: Segmentation of employees in different talent groups along two-axis talent status and
status change.

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5.4 Communication and Transparency for Talent Management in China

Why should organizations be transparent about talent management?

After selecting employees in a talent pool, the relationship between the employee and employer
and the implicit expectations of the employees toward the employer and vice versa (i.e., psy-
chological contract) must be re-balanced (King, 2016; Sonnenberg, van Zijderveld, & Brinks,
2014). For example, organizations expect that employees with talent status show higher job
satisfaction, higher engagement, and lower turnover intention and achieve development and
performance objectives (Bethke-Langenegger, 2013). However, research shows that, while or-
ganizations expect talents to increase their performance, the identified employees do not feel
obliged to do so. This leads to an imbalanced psychological contract (Dries et al., 2014). To
avoid false expectations, the benefits and costs of being a talent must be communicated and
managed well.

In practice, organizations chose different strategies to communicate talent management to their

employees (see Figure 5.3). For example, although GF decided to invest in talent management,
it is an ongoing concern not to raise employee expectations too high. Therefore, GF hesitates to
communicate about talent management broadly. The current communication is almost equiva-
lent to no communication, although the employees identified as talents will notice a change (in-
vitation to development assessment centers, etc.).

Interviews with different organizations reveal that transparent communication of talent manage-
ment seems to be important for credibility. Many talent managers perceive it as important to
consider talent management communication as culturally sensitive. As expectations (from em-
ployees as well as from managers) are involved in talent management, caution will be needed
when delivering the message. Some think that directly discussing talent management will not
work in China and that line managers need to let employees know in informal conversations.
Communication should not involve any worries about disclosing confidential information, as HR
managers have a professional discretion obligation about talent identification.

Transparent communication
Talent management is used for employer branding purposes
and employees can apply for it by selfnomination. Communication
involves existence of talent management programm, criteria for
being a talent, information about process and timeline.

Partial communication
Caution is needed in «delivering the message». Line
managers know talent status and performance ratings of
their employees. Employees may be involved in creating
development plans.

No communication
Talents know implicitly that organization has plans with them
(invitations to development assessment centers, ect.)

Figure 5.3: Communication steps

22
Interestingly, a study of Yi and colleagues (2015)
showed that when comparing employees in China with An example of what can
those in the United States, employees in China demand be communicated about
and expect less of their managers than US employees. talent management:
Chinese take more control when it comes to their career
than most literature would predict. Men take more initia- “Talent management is designed as a dy-
tive to initiate career-related changes than women. Even namic process in which many things can
when Chinese employees seem to complain less about happen. In general, we exclude no one from
their managers than US employees, it would be wrong to the talent management process. However,
assume that they would less proactively manage their over time, some employees do not meet
career. In the US, the younger employees seem to have the organizations requirements and others
different values compared to other age cohorts, while realize that they do not want to follow fur-
in China, these values are stable across generations. ther career development because they are
“Therefore, rather than looking for ways to motivate the happy with their current position. Both is
younger generations of Chinese employees, MNC man- legitimate and an important insight for fur-
agers might want to pay more attention to the Chinese ther planning in talent management.”
culture that has been powerfully and consistently influ-
encing the work place attitudes and career perceptions Global head HR of a global Swiss company in the
of the Chinese employees across different generations” MEM industry
(Yi, Ribbens, Fu, & Cheng, 2015, p. 76).

5.5 Research Example: Ensure Confidential Communication

GF, as mentioned, values limited communication to keep information about talent management
and an employee’s talent status as confidential as possible. Therefore, they developed commu-
nication cards with the most important information about the talent management process and
definition on one side for managers and the guidelines for managers to communicate with their
talented employees on the other side. Do’s and don’ts were on the cards as well as general
communication guidance, starting with advice to talk to talents and to clarify expectations and
closing with advice regarding where to ask for support if needed.

5.6 Guidelines Monitoring Phase

• In addition to the obvious talent management KPIs, such as promotion rate, evaluation points
are specifically interesting for talent management in China, for example, the share of Chinese
managers at the top levels in China, share of Chinese employees in global functions, number
of Chinese managers with working experience abroad, and level of English skills among Chi-
nese employees and talents.
• Communicate carefully about talent management in China. Cultural specificities, such as mi-
anzi, lead to sensitive situations when discussing employee performance and talent manage-
ment and managing expectations well through transparent communication, considering em-
ployee aspirations.
• Keep false nominations to a minimum, as the consequences of removing the nomination are
more significant in China due to cultural concepts, such as guanxi and mianzi.

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6 Closing Remarks
The present framework presents an overview of the talent management topic and provides
guidelines to approach three different phases of talent management in the cultural setting of
China. We used a mixed-method approach, including scientific literature, expert interviews,
and quantitative research to develop a Talent Management Map. So far, to our knowledge, this
framework is the first attempt to depict a broader view on talent management which shows the
interrelations between its different phases and stakeholders.

We hope that this talent management framework serves HR decision makers and practition-
ers as an orientation on the topic and supports the definition of a talent management process
which includes global as well as culture-specific elements. Therefore, this framework’s intention
is to function as starting point for discussions.

During the course of the underlying research project, we discovered further areas of research
that we intend to explore in the near future. If you would like to stay in contact and to receive
information on our research projects, please have a look at the website of the Center for Human
Resource Management (CEHRM) of the University of Lucerne www.unilu.ch/cehrm. We will keep
exploring different aspects of talent management and talent identification.

Acknowledgements

We sincerely thank our project partner GF for the opportunity to investigate their talent man-
agement in China, which enabled academia to learn more about the identification of talents, the
processes of talent management, and the attitudes and behaviors of talents. Furthermore, we
greatly appreciated the open discussions with HR managers, talent managers, and other experts
from academia and practice, as well as with our research team at the CEHRM.

The underlying research project was funded by the Commission for Technology and Innovation
(CTI), Grant no: 18560.1 PFES-ES.

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7 Appendix
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Tables and Figures

Figure 1.1: Talent Management Map..............................................................................................................7

Figure 3.1: How talent management influences business outcomes..................................................10
Table 3.1: Overview of talent (management) definition........................................................................12
Figure 4.1: Talent matrix.................................................................................................................................14
Figure 4.2: 4-factor model.............................................................................................................................17
Table 5.1: Selection of KPIs to measure talent management effectiveness...................................19
Figure 5.1: Development of talent pool over time....................................................................................20
Figure 5.2: Segmentation of employees in different talent groups.....................................................21
Figure 5.3: Communication steps.................................................................................................................22
 

26
Contact

University of Lucerne
Center for Human Resource Management (CEHRM)
Lucerne, Switzerland
[email protected]
www.unilu.ch/cehrm

The Study Authors

Lea Rutishauser, PhD

Center for Human Resource Management (CEHRM), University of Lucerne
[email protected]

Sandra Furrer, MSc

Center for Human Resource Management (CEHRM), University of Lucerne
[email protected]

Anna Sender, PhD

Center for Human Resource Management (CEHRM), University of Lucerne
[email protected]

Prof. Dr. Bruno Staffelbach

Center for Human Resource Management (CEHRM), University of Lucerne
[email protected]

Imprint

Publisher University of Lucerne

Center for Human Resource Management (CEHRM)
Frohburgstrasse 3
P.O. Box 4466
6002 Lucerne
Switzerland

Authors Lea Rutishauser

Sandra Furrer
Anna Sender
Bruno Staffelbach

Front Image iStock

Layout/Graphics Maurus Bucher

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