Topic 03: Elementary Analytic Functions

MA201 Mathematics III

Arup Chattopadhyay

August 6, 2021

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Topic 03: Learning Outcome

Elementary Analytic Functions

We learn
Exponential Function
Trigonometric Functions
Logarithm Function
Branch, Branch cut, Branch Point of Multiple Valued Functions
Complex Power Function
Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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Exponential Function ez

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Exponential Function ez
The real exponential function f (x) = ex is the unique function with the
following properties:
1 f (x) is a continuous real valued function for all x ∈ R with
f (0) = 1.
2 f (x1 + x2 ) = f (x1 )f (x2 ) for all x1 and x2 in R.
3 f 0 (x) = f (x) for all x ∈ R.
The complex function f (z) = ez can be characterized in much the
same way.
The exponential function is defined as the solution of the differential
equation f 0 (z) = f (z) for z ∈ C with the initial value f (0) = 1.

Obtain power series solution to the IVP: f 0 (z) = f (z) for all z ∈ C with
∞
X zn
f (0) = 1 as ez = for all z ∈ C (Recall: From MA102 Power
n!
n=0
Series Solutions to ODE).
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Alternative way of defining complex exponential
function

We know that the definitions and properties of following real valued

functions of real variable.

ex , sin x, cos x .

We know Euler’s formula: eit = cos(t) + i sin(t) for t ∈ R.

Combining the above information, the complex exponential function ez

can be defined by

ez = ex (cos(y) + i sin(y)) = ex eiy for z = x + iy ∈ C .

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Properties of Exponential Function

1 If z = x + iy then ez = ex (cos y + i sin y).

2 |ez | = ex and arg(ez ) = y where z = x + iy.
d z
3 ez is analytic everywhere in C and (e ) = ez for z ∈ C.
dz
4 ez1 +z2 = ez1 ez2 for any z1 and z2 in C.
5 ez+2πi = ez for any z ∈ C. It is a periodic function with period 2πi.
6 ez 6= 0 for any z ∈ C.
7 ez = ez for all z ∈ C.
8 |ez | ≤ e|z| for all z ∈ C and equality holds if z is a non-negative real
number.
∞
z
X zn
9 e = for all z ∈ C.
n!
n=0

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Mapping Properties of ez : Horizontal Lines
The function w = ez maps any

horizontal line {z = x + iy ∈ C : −∞ < x < ∞ and y = y0 }

on to the set

{w = reiy0 ∈ C : 0 < r < ∞} which is a ray θ = y0 emanating from the

origin but not including the origin.

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Mapping Properties of ez : Vertical Lines
The function w = ez maps any

vertical line {z = x + iy ∈ C : x = x0 and − ∞ < y < ∞}

on to the set

{w = ex0 eiy ∈ C : −∞ < y < ∞} which is a circle with center at the

origin and radius ex0 .

{z = x + iy ∈ C : x = x0 and a < y ≤ (a + 2π)} → one-to-one →

{w = ex0 eiy ∈ C : a < y ≤ (a + 2π)}.
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Mapping Properties of ez : Rectangular Regions
The function w = ez maps any

rectangular region
{z = x + iy ∈ C : a < x < b and c < y < d} where d > (c + 2π)

on to the set

annular region between the circles |z| = ea and |z| = eb .

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Mapping Properties of ez : Left Half-planes
The function w = ez maps any

(closed) left half plane {z = x + iy ∈ C : x ≤ x0 and − ∞ < y < ∞}

on to the bounded set

{w = reiθ ∈ C : 0 < r ≤ ex0 and − ∞ < θ < ∞}

which is the disk |z| ≤ ex0 but excluding the origin.

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Mapping Properties of ez : Right Half-planes
The function w = ez maps any

right half plane {z = x + iy ∈ C : x > x0 and − ∞ < y < ∞}

on to the unbounded set

{w = reiθ ∈ C : r > ex0 and − ∞ < θ < ∞}

which is the exterior of the circle |z| = ex0

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Trigonometric Functions

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(Complex) Cosine and Sine Functions

According to the formulas

eix = cos x + i sin x, e−ix = cos x − i sin x for all x ∈ R ,

we have
eix + e−ix eix − e−ix
cos x = and sin x = for all x ∈ R .
2 2i
Motivated by these identities, we define the complex cosine and sine
functions for all complex numbers by the formulas

eiz + e−iz eiz − e−iz

cos z = and sin z = for all z ∈ C .
2 2i

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Properties of Cosine and Sine Functions

d
cos z is analytic everywhere in C and (cos z) = − sin z for z ∈ C.
dz
d
sin z is analytic everywhere in C and (sin z) = cos z for z ∈ C.
dz
sin2 z + cos2 z = 1 for all z ∈ C.
cos(z1 + z2 ) = cos z1 cos z2 − sin z1 sin z2 for any z1 and z2 in C.
sin(z1 + z2 ) = sin z1 cos z2 + cos z1 sin z2 for any z1 and z2 in C.
cos(z + 2π) = cos z and cos(−z) = cos z for any z ∈ C. Thus, the
function cos z is a periodic function with period 2π and is an even
function in C.
sin(z + 2π) = sin z and sin(−z) = − sin z for any z ∈ C. Thus, the
function sin z is a periodic function with period 2π and is an odd
function in C.

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sin z is unbounded in C

If z = x + iy then sin z = sin x cosh y + i cos x sinh y.

We know that sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 and cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1 for all t ∈ R.
q
| sin z| = sin2 x cosh2 y + cos2 x sinh2 y
q
= sin2 x cosh2 y + cos2 x (cosh2 y − 1)
q q
= cosh2 y − cos2 x = (1 + sinh2 y) − (1 − sin2 x)
q
= sin2 x + sinh2 y

which in turn implies

| sinh y| ≤ | sin z| .
Observe that as |y| → ∞, | sinh y| → ∞ and hence | sin z| → ∞.

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cos z is unbounded in C

If z = x + iy then cos z = cos x cosh y − i sin x sinh y.

We know that sin2 t + cos2 t = 1 and cosh2 t − sinh2 t = 1 for all t ∈ R.
q
| cos z| = cos2 x cosh2 y + sin2 x sinh2 y
q
= cos2 x cosh2 y + sin2 x (cosh2 y − 1)
q q
= cosh2 y − sin2 x = (1 + sinh2 y) − (1 − cos2 x)
q
= cos2 x + sinh2 y

which in turn implies

| sinh y| ≤ | cos z| .
Observe that
as |y| → ∞, | sinh y| → ∞ and hence | cos z| → ∞.

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Zeros of cos z and sin z

cos z = 0 if and only if z = π2 + kπ where k is any integer.

The function cos z has the same zeros as its real counter part
cos x.
sin z = 0 if and only if z = kπ where k is any integer.
The function sin z has the same zeros as that of the real function
sin x.
∞
X (−1)n z 2n
cos z = for all z ∈ C.
(2n)!
n=0
∞
X (−1)n z 2n+1
sin z = for all z ∈ C.
(2n + 1)!
n=0

Note that many more identities involving with the real functions cosine
and sine can be proved for complex functions cos z and sin z.

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Mapping Properties of sin z and cos z

For mapping properties of sin z and cos z, refer

Complex Analysis for Mathematics and Engineering by J. H. Mathews

and R. W. Howell.

Figures in Page No. 443 of Complex Variables and Applications by

J. W. Brown and R. V. Churchill.

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Other Trigonometric Functions
The other trigonometric functions are defined for complex variables in
terms of the cosine and sine in accordance with the real definitions as
follows:
sin z cos z
tan z = , cot z = ,
cos z sin z
1 1
sec z = , cosec z = .
cos z sin z
The hyperbolic functions cosh z and sinh z, called the hyperbolic cosine
and the hyperbolic sine, respectively, are defined by the formulas:
ez + e−z ez − e−z
cosh z = and sinh z = .
2 2
Clearly, the functions cosh z and sinh z are analytic everywhere in C,
and reduce to the familiar hyperbolic functions cosh x and sinh x when
z = x is real.
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Properties of Hyperbolic Sine and Cosine Functions

cosh2 z − sinh2 z = 1 for any z ∈ C.

cosh(iz) = cos z for any z ∈ C.
sinh(iz) = i sin z for any z ∈ C.
cosh(z + 2πi) = cosh z and cosh(−z) = cosh z for any z ∈ C.
sinh(z + 2πi) = sinh z and sinh(−z) = − sinh z for any z ∈ C.
If z = x + iy then cosh z =pcosh x cos y + i sinh x sin y.
Consequently, | cosh z| = sinh2 x + cos2 y.
If z = x + iy then sinh z =psinh x cos y + i cosh x sin y.
Consequently, | sinh z| = sinh2 x + sin2 y.
cosh z = 0 if and only if z = i k + 12 where k is any integer.

sinh z = 0 if and only if z = i kπ where k is any integer.

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Other Hyperbolic Trigonometric Functions

With cosh z and sinh z, the other hyperbolic functions are defined by

sinh z
tanh z = ,
cosh z
cosh z
coth z = ,
sinh z
1
sech z = ,
cosh z
1
cosech z = .
sinh z

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Logarithm Functions log z

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Complex Logarithm

Recall:
ez is not an injective function as ez+2πik = ez , k ∈ Z.
ez is an onto function from C to C∗ = C \ {0}. Take w ∈ C∗ then
w = |w|eiθ where θ ∈ (−π, π]. If we define z = log |w| + iθ then

ez = elog |w|+iθ = elog |w| eiθ = w.

If we restrict the domain of the exponential then it becomes

injective. If H = {z = x + iy : −π < y ≤ π} then z → ez is a
bijective function from H to C \ {0}.

Question:What is the inverse of this function?

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Complex Logarithm

Definition: For z ∈ C∗ , define log z = ln |z| + i arg z.

ln |z| stands for the real logarithm of |z|.
Since arg z = Argz + 2kπ, k ∈ Z it follows that log z is not well
defined as a function. (multivalued)
For z ∈ C∗ , the principal value of the logarithm is defined as
Log z = ln |z| + i Argz.
Log : C∗ → {z = x + iy : −π < y ≤ π} is well defined (single
valued).
Log z + 2kπi = log z for some k ∈ Z.

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Complex Logarithm

If z 6= 0 then eLog z = eln |z|+i Argz = z (What about Log (ez )?).
Suppose x is a positive real number then
Log x = ln x + i Argx = ln x.
Log i = ln |i| + i π2 = iπ
2 , Log (−1) = ln | − 1| + iπ = iπ,
Log (−i) = ln | − i| + i −π iπ
2 = − 2 , Log (−e) = 1 + iπ (check!))
The function Log z is not continuous on the negative real axis
R− = {z = x + iy : x < 0, y = 0}.
To see this consider the point z = −α, α > 0. Consider the
1 1
sequences {an = αei(π− n ) } and {bn = αei(−π+ n ) }. Then
limn→∞ an = z = limn→∞ bn but
limn→∞ Log an = limn→∞ ln α + i(π − n1 ) = ln α + iπ and
limn→∞ Log bn = ln α − iπ.

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Complex Logarithm

z → Log z is analytic on the set C∗ \ R− . Let z = reiθ 6= 0 and

θ ∈ (−π, π). Then Log z = ln r + iθ = u(r, θ) + iv(r, θ) with
u(r, θ) = ln r and v(r, θ) = θ. Then ur = 1r vθ = 1r and vr = − 1r uθ .
The identity Log (z1 z2 ) = Logz1 + Log z2 is not always valid.
However, the above identity is true if and only if
Arg z1 + Arg z2 ∈ (−π, π] (why?).
Branch of a multiple valued function: Let F be a multiple
valued function defined on a domain D. A function f is said to be
a branch of the multiple valued function F if in a domainD0 ⊂ D if
f (z) is single valued and analytic in D0 .
Branch Cut: The portion of a line or a curve introduced in order to
define a branch of a multiple valued function is called branch cut.
Branch Point: Any point that is common to all branch cuts is
called a branch point.
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Computing Principal Value of logarithm
Find log(1) and Log(1).
log(1) = ln |1| + i arg(1) = 0 + i 2kπ = 2kπ i where k ∈ Z.
Log(1) = 0.
Find log(−1) and Log(−1).
log(−1) = ln | − 1| + i arg(−1) = 0 + i (2k + 1)π = (2k + 1)π i
where k ∈ Z.
Log(−1) = π i.
Find log(−i) and Log(−i).
log(−i) = ln | − i| + i arg(−i) = 0 + i (4k+3)π
2 = i (4k+3)π
2 where
k ∈ Z.
Log(−i) = −π i
2 .
Find log(1 + i) and Log(1 + i). √
log(1 + i) =ln |1 + i| + i arg(1 + i) = ln( 2) + i π4 + 2kπ =

1 (8k+1)π
2 ln(2) + i 4 where k ∈ Z.
1
Log(1 + i) = 2 ln(2) + i π4 .
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Complex Exponents/ Complex Powers z a

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Complex Exponents/ Complex Powers

Using logarithm function, we can define complex powers of z.

Define the complex power function by

z a := ea log z for all z ∈ C \ {0} ,

where a is any complex constant and log z is the complex logarithm.

Since log z is multiple valued, it follows that z a is in general

multiple valued.
If a is an integer, then z a is single valued.
If a is a rational number (and not an integer), z a takes finitely many
values.
In all other cases, z a takes infinitely many values.

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Examples
Find all the values of (−2)5 .
Since log(−2) = ln 2 + i(π + 2kπ) where k ∈ Z, we have
(−2)5 = exp(5 log(−2)) = e5 ln(2) ei 5(2k+1)π = −25 .
Find all the values of (−2)1/7 .
Since log(−2) = ln 2 + i(π + 2kπ) where k ∈ Z, we have
 
1/7 1 1 (2k+1)π
(−2) = exp log(−2) = e 7 ln(2) ei 7 .
7
(2k+1)π
The distinct values of (−2)1/7 are given by 21/7 ei 7 for k = 0,
1, · · · , 6.
Find all the values of (−2)i .
Since log(−2) = ln 2 + i(π + 2kπ) where k ∈ Z, we have
(−2)i = exp(i log(−2)) = e−(2k+1)π ei ln(2)

where k ∈ Z.
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Principal Branch of z a
By specifying a branch of the logarithm, we obtain a single valued
branch of complex power function from ea log z . In particular, if we
choose the principal logarithm Log z, we obtain the principal value of
z a as:
Principal value of z a = ea Log z for z 6= 0 .
The principal branch of z a is ea Log z and it is analytic in
D∗ = {z = reiθ : r > 0, −π < θ < π}. We have
d  a Log z  d a
e = ea Log z (a Log z) = ea Log z for z ∈ D∗ .
dz dz z

Note: We remark that the above equation can be written in the more
d a
familiar form (z ) = a z a−1 with the proviso that the branch of
dz
logarithm used in defining z a is the same as the branch of the
logarithm used in defining z a−1 .
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Inverse Trigonometric Functions

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Inverse of Sine Function: sin−1 (z)
We know that sin z is periodic function of period 2π. The domain of
definition of sin z is C and its range is infinite number of copies of C.
For each z ∈ C, find all w such that sin w = z.
sin w = z
iw −iw
(e −e )/(2i) = z
iw −iw
e −e − 2iz = 0
2iw iw
e − 2ize −1 = 0 (by multiplying by eiw )
It is a quadratic in eiw and solving it, we get
p
eiw = iz + 1 − z 2
 p 
w = (−i) log iz + 1 − z2

 p 
arc sin (z) = sin−1 (z) = (−i) log iz + 1 − z 2 for all z ∈ C .

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For the multiple valued function sin−1 (z), first choose a branch of the
square root function and then selecting a suitable branch of the
logarithm, we can show that

d 1
sin−1 (z) = √


for all z ∈ C \ {±1}
dz 1 − z2
where the choice of the square root on the right must be the same as
that used in the branch of sin−1 (z).

Similarly,

 p 
arc cos (z) = cos−1 (z) = (−i) log z + z2 − 1 for all z ∈ C

d −1
cos−1 (z) = √


for all z ∈ C \ {±1}
dz 1 − z2

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arc tangent function

   
−1 i i+z i 1 − iz
tan (z) = log = log for z ∈ C \ {±i}
2 i−z 2 1 + iz

d 1
tan−1 (z) =


for all z ∈ C \ {±i}
dz 1 + z2

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