MA8551 – Algebra and Number Theory Department of CSE / IT 2020-2021

UNIT–I GROUPS AND RINGS

PART A
1 Define a subgroup and give one proper subgroup of Z 6 , . [NOV/DEC 19]
Let G be a group and   H  G. If H is a group under the same binary operation of G then
H is a binary subgroup of G.
H  0,2,4 or K  0,3 are the proper subgroups of Z 6 , .
ab
2 Find the identity element under  defined by a  b  , for all a , b  R.
2
ae
a  e*a  a *e   e  2.
2
 ab 
1
3 Prove that a group is abelian if and only if  a 1b 1 a , b  G .
By closure property a, b  G  ab  G
Let x   ab  , then x(ab)  e
1

By associative property  ( xa)b  e

post multiply by b-1  ( xa )bb  eb
1 1

( xa )  b 1
post multiply by a-1  ( xa )a  b a
1 1 1

 x  b 1a 1
Assume that G is an abelian group
  ab   b1a 1  a 1b1
1
( Gis abelian) `
Conversely assume that  ab   a b a, b  G
1 1 1

To Prove : G is abelian


ab   ab     a b   b   a 
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
 ba .
Thus G is abelian
4 Prove that if every element of the group is its own inverse, then G is abelian.
If every element of the group is its own inverse, then a-1 = a for all aG
  ab   ab  a, b  G
1

 b 1a 1  ab  (ab) =b a 
-1 -1 1

 ba  ab  b =b and a =a 
-1 -1

Therefore G is abelian.
5 Define a group homomorphism with an example.
Let (G,*) and ( S , ) be two groups. A mapping f: G  S is said to be a group homomorphism
if for any a, b  G,
f(a*b) = f(a)  f(b).
Example: Consider f :  R ,.   R,   where f(x) = log10(x)


for any a, b R+ , f(ab) = log10(ab) = log10(a)+ log10(b) = f(a) + f(b).

Therefore f(x) is a group homomorphism.

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MA8551 – Algebra and Number Theory Department of CSE / IT 2020-2021

6 Consider two groups G and G where G={Z, +} and G={zm/m=0,± 1,± 2 ,± 3,...,  }. Let
 : Z  { z m / m isan integer} defined by   m   2m where mZ. Prove that  is
homomorphism.
  m   2m where mZ
  m  r   2mr  2m  2r    m   r 
Hence  is homomorphism.
7 Let f : (G , )  (G,  ) be an isomorphism. If G is an abelian group then prove that
G is also an abelian group.
Let a, b  G.
Then there exists a, b  G,such that f (a) = a & f (b) = b
a  b  f (a)+ f (b)  f (a  b) = f (b  a)  f (b) + f (a)  b  a
Hence G is an abelian group.
8 Let G =  Z12 ,  12  , Find the left cosets of H  [0],[4],[8] and show that the distinct
left cosets of H forms a partition of G.
Z12  [0],[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6],[7],[8],[9],[10],[11] ; H  [0],[4],[8]
[0]  H  [0],[4],[8]  H  [4]  H  [8]  H
[1]  H  [1],[5],[9]  [5]  H  [9]  H
[2]  H  [2],[6],[10]  [6]  H  [10]  H
[3]  H  [3],[7],[11]  [7]  H  [11]  H
 G  H  ([1]  H )  ([2]  H )  ([3]  H )
9 Define cyclic group.
A group (G,*) is said to be cyclic if there exists an element aG such that every element of G
can be written as some power of „a‟.
10 State any two properties of cyclic group.
1. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
2. Suppose that G is a finite cyclic group of order m. Let „ a‟ be a generator of G. Suppose j
∈ Z, then aj is a generator of G if and only if gcd(j, m) = 1.
11 Give an example for a cyclic group along with its generator. [NOV/DEC 19]
G  1,1, i,i is a cyclic group with generators i or  i .
12 Show that every cyclic group is abelian.
Let (G,*) be a cyclic group with „a‟ as generator
x, y  G  x  a , y  a  x  y  a  a  a m n  a n  m  y  x
m n m n
13 Prove that the multiplicative group Z 7  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} is cyclic and find its
*

generator.
The element 3 is a cyclic generator since
31 mod 7  3
32 mod 7  9 mod 7  2
33 mod 7  (32  3) mod 7  (2  3) mod 7  6 mod 7  6
34 mod 7  (33  3) mod 7  (6  3) mod 7  18mod 7  4
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MA8551 – Algebra and Number Theory Department of CSE / IT 2020-2021

35 mod 7  (34  3) mod 7  (4  3) mod 7  12mod 7  5

36 mod 7  (35  3) mod 7  (5  3) mod 7  15mod 7  1
whereas the element 4 is not a generator but only generates a the cyclic subgroup {1, 2, 4} of
Z 7* since
41 mod 7  4
4 2 mod 7  16 mod 7  2
4 3 mod 7  ( 4 2  4) mod 7  ( 2  4) mod 7  1
Since every element of Z 7*  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} can be written in powers of 3, Z 7*  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}
is a cyclic group.
14 Define Ring.
A ring  R, ,   is a non-empty set R with two binary operations + and  , normally called
addition and multiplication, defined on R such that R is closed under + and  , that is for
a, b  R , a  b  R and a  b  R , and where the following axioms are satisfied for all
a, b, c  R :
1. R1 :  R,   is an abelian group, that is
a. (a  b)  c  a  (b  c) (Associatively under + is satisfied)
b. For each a  R , there exists an identity 0  R were
a0  0a  a (R has an additive Identity)
c. For each a  R , there exists an  a  R where
a  (a)  (a)  a  0 (Each element in R has an additive inverse)
d. a  b  b  a (Addition is commutative)
2. R 2 : (ab)c  a(bc) (Associativity under  is satisfied)
3. R3 : a(b  c)  ab  ac (Left and Right Distributive laws are satisfied)
(a  b)c  ac  bc
In short, An algebraic system  R, ,   is called a ring if it satisfies the following properties
(i)  R,   is an abelian group
(ii)  R,   is a semi group
(iii) R satisfies distributive law
15 Define a Commutative ring.
A commutative ring is a ring R that satisfies ab  ba for all a, b  R (it is commutative
under multiplication). Note that rings are always commutative under addition.
16 Define Zero divisors of a ring with example.
A ring (R, +,  ) is said to be ring with zero divisors, if there exists non zero elements a, b in
R, such that ab=0.
Example: 0,1,2,3,4,5,  , is a
6 6
ring and 2 6 3  0. However 2  0 & 3  0.
2 and 3 are zero divisors of the ring.
17 Define Subrings with example.
Let (R, +,  ) be a ring. A non – empty subset S of R is called a subring of R , if (S, +,  ) is a
ring.
Example: The ring of rational numbers is a subring of the ring of real numbers.
18 Define Integral Domain.
A commutative ring R with a unit element is called an integral domain if R has no zero
divisors.
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MA8551 – Algebra and Number Theory Department of CSE / IT 2020-2021

19 Define (a) Unit of a ring (b) Division Ring.

(a) Let R be a ring with unity 1  0 . An element u  R is a unit of R if it has a multiplicative
inverse in R. That is, for u  R , there exists an element u 1  R where u  u 1  u 1  u  1  R
.
(b) If every non-zero element of R is a unit, then R is a division ring.
(OR)
A ring R with unit element having atleast two elements is called a division ring, if every non-
zero element of R possesses their multiplicative inverse.
20 Define field in an algebraic system with example.
A commutative ring (F, +,  ) which has more than one element such that every nonzero
element of F has a multiplicative inverse in F is called a field.
(OR)
A commutative division ring is called a field.
Examples:
The set of real numbers R and set of rational numbers Q under the operations of addition +
and multiplication  are fields.
However, the set of integers Z under addition + and multiplication  is not a field since the only
non-zero elements that are units is -1 and 1.
For example, the integer 2 has no multiplicative inverse since ½ Z.
PART B
1i) Let G be the set of all rigid motions of a equilateral triangle. Identify the elements of G.
Show that it is a non-abelian group of order six. [NOV/DEC 19]
Consider an equilateral triangle with vertices named as 1, 2, 3.
Let 0, 1 , 2 denote the rotations of the triangle in the counter clockwise direction about an
axis through the centre of the triangle and perpendicular to the plane of the triangle for an
angle of 120, 240, 360 respectively.
These rotations are called rigid motions of the triangle and are given by
1 2 3  1 2 3  1 2 3
 0    ,  1    ,  2    .
1 2 3  3 1 2  2 3 1

Let r1, r2 , r3 denote the reflections of the equilateral triangle along the lines joining vertices
3,1,2 and the mid-points of the opposite sides.
Each reflection is a 3-dimensional rigid motion.
 1 2 3 1 2 3   1 2 3
r1    , r2    , r3   
 2 1 3   1 3 2   3 2 1 

Let G = {0, 1 , 2, r1, r2 , r3}.

Define binary operations on G as follows
 1 2 3
 1r1    = r3G
 3 2 1
Cayley‟s table for G is given by

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0 1 2 r1 r2 r3
0 0 1 2 r1 r2 r3
1 1 2 0 r3 r1 r2
2 2 0 1 r2 r3 r1
r1 r1 r2 r3 0 1 2
r2 r2 r3 r1 2 0 1
r3 r3 r1 r2 1 2 0
From the table it is clear that G is a group.
Note that  2 r1  r2 and r1 2  r3
  2 r1  r1 2 , G is not an abelian group of order six.
1ii)  0 1
Show that (M , .) is an abelian group where M={A, A2, A3, A4} with A    and
  1 0
“.” is the ordinary matrix multiplication. Further prove that (M , .) is isomorphic to the
abelian group (G , .) where G={1, -1, i, -i} and “.” is the ordinary multiplication.
 0 1  1 0  3 0 1 1 0 
A   ; A2    ; A   ; A4   I
 1 0   0 1 1 0  0 1 
For all 1≤ m, n ≤ 4, Am. An = Am+n = Ar where 1< r < 4 and m + n  r (mod 4).
Thus . is a closure. Thus . is a closure operation. Since matrix multiplication is associative
so is „.‟.
1 0 
A4     I is the identity.
0 1 
1 0 1
A1     A3
1 1 0 

 
1 1  1 0 
A2    A2
1  0 1

 
1 1  0 1 
A3   A
1  1 0 

 
1 1 1 0 
A4    I  A4
1 0 1 
For all 1≤ m, n ≤ 4, Am. An = Am+n = An+m = An. Am, so „.‟ is communicative.
(M , .) is an abelian group .
Define f: M → G such that f  A   i, f (A 2 )  1  i 2 , f (A3 )  i  i3 , f (A 4 )  1  i 4
f is 1-1 and onto
Since i3 = -i = f(A3) = f (A.A2) = f(A) f(A2) = i.i2 = i3 = -i
Hence f is isomorphic from M to G.
2i) Let G be a group subgroups H and K. If |G|=660, |K|=66 and KHG, what are the
possible values of |H| ? [NOV/DEC 19]

O(K) < O(H) < O(G) and O(K) divides O(H) and O(H) divides O(G).
O(K ) = |K| = 66 = 2311.
O(G) = |G| = 660 = 223511.
|K| divides |H| and |K| < |H|
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MA8551 – Algebra and Number Theory Department of CSE / IT 2020-2021

|H| = x |K| = x (2311), with x > 1

|H| divides |G| and |H| < |G|
|G| = y |H| = y x (2.3.11), with y > 1
660 = y x (2.3.11)
22.3.5.11 = y x (2.3.11)
2.5= y x ,with x > 1, y > 1
 x = 2 or x = 5
When x = 2 |H| = 2 (2.3.11) =132
When x = 5 |H| =5 (2.3.11) =330.
2ii) Find [100]-1 in Z1009. [NOV/DEC 19]
gcd(100, 1009)=1,
By Euclidean Algorithm,
1009 = 10 (100) + 9 -------------------(1)
100 = 11 (9) + 1 -------------------(2)
By (2)  1 = 100 – 11(9)
= 100 – 11 [1009 – 10(100)] (by (1))
= 100 + 110 (100) – 11(1009)
= 111(100) – 11 (1009)
= (111) (100) ( mod 1009)
 [1] = [111] [100] ( mod 1009)
 [100]-1 is [111] in Z1009.
2iii) Prove that every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Proof:

Let (G,*) be the cyclic group generated by an element a  G and let H be the subgroup of G.
Claim: H is cyclic
Case1: H is a trivial subgroup of G (i.e) H = G or H = {e}
If H = G or {e} then trivially H is cyclic.
Case2: H is a non - trivial subgroup of G
If not the elements of H are non-zero integral powers of a.
Since if ar  H, its inverse a-r  H.
Let “m” be the smallest positive integer such that am  H. → (1)
Let an be any arbitrary element of H. Let q be the quotient and r be the remainder when n is
divided by m.
Then n = qm + r where 0  r < m. → (2)
Now an = aqm + r = (am)q. ar
ar = (am)- q. an = an-mq.
Since am  H, (am)q  H by closure property, amq  H
(amq)-1  H, by existence of inverse, as H is a subgroup a-mq  H
Since an  H and a-mq  H by closure property an-mq  H  ar  H
By (1) & (2), we get r = 0,  n=mq

 
q
a n  a mq  a m .

 
q
Thus every element of a n  H is of the form a m

Hence H is a cyclic subgroup generated by a m .

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3i)  a 0  
Let A     a  R  (a) Show that A is a ring under matrix addition and
0 a 
multiplication (b) Prove that R is isomorphic to A.
b 0  c 0
 a  For any B    and C    , we have
0 b 0 c  ,
b 0   c 0  b  c 0 
BC        A and
0 b  0 c   0 b  c 
b 0   c 0   bc 0 
BC     A
0 b  0 c   0 bc 
b 0  b 0 
Also for any B    , the additiveinverse  B   0 b  exists such that
0 b  
 b 0   b 0  0 0
B  (B)       A.
 0 b   0 b   0 0
Distributive Laws:
 a 0   b 0   c 0    a 0    b  c 0 
A. B  C     .        .  
 0 a   0 b  0 c    0 a    0 b  c  
 a.(b  c) 0  ( a.b  a.c) 0 
A. B  C     
 0 a.(b  c)   0 ( a.b  a.c) 
 a.b 0   a.c 0 
  
 0 a.b   0 a.c 
 a 0  b 0   a 0   c 0 
      A.B  A.C
 0 a  0 b   0 a  0 c 
Similarly, (B+C).A=B.A+C.A
Thus Ais a ring.
(b) To prove isomorphism, consider a one-to-one and onto function f from R onto A defined
 r 0
as follows For all r  R, f : R  A where f (r)   
0 r 
i.e., for any real number we associate a 2nd order scalar matrix.
Now for any r,s  R
r  s 0   r 0  s 0
f (r  s)      f (r)  f (s)
 0 r  s  0 r  0 s 
 rs 0   r 0  s 0
f (r  s)        f (r)  f (s)
 0 rs  0 r  0 s 
Thus twooperations ,  are preserved and f is 1 1and onto.
f is an isomorphism from R to A.
3ii) Prove that every group of prime order is cyclic.
Proof:
Let O(G) = p, where p is a prime number.
Let a (≠ e) G.
Consider a subgroup generated by a.

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Let H  a
 O  H   1  H  a  a  H & also e  H  O  H   1
Since H is a subgroup of G, then by Lagrange‟s theorem,
O(H)/O(G)  O(H)/p
 O  H   1 or p  p is prime 
But O  H   1, O  H   1.
Thus O  H   p  O(G ) G  H
But H is a cyclic group,  G is a cyclic group.
4i) Let (G , ) , (H,*) be groups with respective identities eG , eH .If f :GH is a
homomorphism, then show that
(a ) f (eG )  e H
1
( b ) f ( a 1 )   f ( a )  a  G

(c ) f (a n )   f (a ) a  G and all n  Z
n

(d ) f (S) is a subgroup of H for each subgroup S of G.

Proof:
(a) eH  f (eG )  f (eG )  f (eG  eG )  f  eG   f  eG 
 eH  f  eG  , by right cancellation law
(b) Let a G , since G is a group, a 1 G
1
Since G is a group, a * a  eG
1
By homomorphism f (a * a )  f ( eG )
f (a)  f (a 1 )  eH

 
Hence f a 1 is the inverse of f  a 
1
i.e., f (a 1)   f (a)  a  G
(c) a  G and all n  Z
Case(i): if n=0 then a  a  eG
n 0

f  a0   f  eG   eH   f  a 
0

 f (a n )   f (a) 
n

Case(ii): if n is a positive integer then

a n  a  a  a  a (n times )
f  a n   f  a  a  a  a  (n times)
 f  a   f  a   f  a    f  a 
  f  a  
n

Case (iii): if n is a negative integer , then n = -r, r >0.

f  a n   f  a  r   f  a 1     f  a 1     f  a     f  a 
r r r n

 
 f (a n )   f (a)  a  G and all n  Z
n

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(d) If S is a subgroup of G, then S   , so f  S   . Let x, y  f(S).

Then x = f(a), y = f(b) for some a, bS.
Since S is a subgroup of G, it follows that
a  b  S,
f (a)  f (b)  f  a  b   f  S 
 x  y  f  S  , so f  S  is closed
1
Finally, x 1   f (a)  f [a 1]
 a  S  a 1  S & f [a 1 ]  f  S 
x 1  f  S 
 f (S)is a subgroup of H for each subgroup Sof G.
4ii) Prove that Z n is a field if and only if n is a prime.
Proof:

We have Z n  0,1,  2, n  1 
We know  Z n , ,  isa commutativering withidentity 1.
Let n be a prime, and suppose that 0 < a < n then gcd (a , n)=1
 there exists integers s, t such that as + tn = 1  sa – 1= (- t) n
 sa-1 is divisible by n
 sa  1(mod n)
 s  a   1
 s  is the multiplicative inverse of a .
Thus  a  is a unit of Z n, which is consequently a field
Conversely, let Z n be a field.
So Z n is a commutative ring with identity and without zero divisions of zero.
To prove n is a prime.
if n is not a prime, then n= n1 n2, where 1 < n1 ,n2 <n. So  n1    0 and  n 2    0 
But  n1  n 2    n1n 2    n   0
  n1  ,  n 2  are divisors of zero which contradicts the fact Zn is a field.
Hence n is a prime.
5i) Prove that the set R of numbers of the form a  b 2 , where a and b are integers, is a
ring with respect to ordinary addition and multiplication.
Proof:
1. Closure : Let x1  a1  b1 2 , x2  a2  b2 2  R where a1 , a2 , b1 , b2  Z

   
x1  x2  a1  b1 2  a2  b2 2   a1  a2    b1  b2  2  R
where  a1  a2  &  b1  b2  Z .
R is closed under +.
2. Associative: Let x1  a1  b1 2 , x2  a2  b2 2, x3  a3  b3 2  R where
a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 , b3  Z

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x 1   
 x2   x3   a1  b1 2  a2  b2 2   a3  b3 2
    

  a1  a2    b1  b2  2   a3  b3 2 
  a1  a2   a3    b1  b2   b3  2
  a1   a2  a3    b1   b2  b3   2

 
 a1  b1 2   a2  a3    b2  b3  2 

    
 a1  b1 2   a2  b2 2  a3  b3 2   x1   x2  x3 
  
3. Identity: 0  0 2  R
   
a  b 2  0  0 2  (a  0)  (b  0) 2  a  b 2
4. Inverse: a  b 2, a  b 2  R

 a  b 2    a  b 2   (a  a)  (b  b) 2 00 2
(a)  (b) 2 is the identity inverse of a  b 2
5. Commutative law:
   
x1  x2  a1  b1 2  a2  b2 2   a1  a2    b1  b2  2
  a2  a1    b2  b1  2
  
 a2  b2 2  a1  b1 2  x2  x1 
Under Multiplication
6. Closure Axioms:
  
x1 x2  a1  b1 2 . a2  b2 2   a1a2  2b1b2    a2b1  a1b2  2
a1a2  2b1b2 , a2b1  a1b2 Z ,  x1 x2  R
7. Associative:
x 1  
 x2   x3   a1  b1 2  a2  b2 2   a3  b3 2
    
  a1a2  2b1b2    a2b1  a1b2  2   a3  b3 2  
  a1a2  2b1b2  a3  2  a2b1  a1b2  b3    a1a2  2b1b2  b3   a2b1  a1b2  a3  2
 x1   x2  x3 
8. Distributive Laws :
  
x1   x2  x3   a1  b1 2   a2  b2 2  a3  b3 2 
    
 
 a1  b1 2   a2  a3    b2  b3  2 
  a1  a2  a3   2  b2  b3  b1   b1  a2  a3    b2  b3  a1  2

   
 a1  b1 2  a2  b2 2  a1  b1 2  a3  b3 2  
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 a1a2  a1a3  2b1b2  2b1b3  2a2b1  2a3b1  2a1b2  2a1b3

  a1a2  2b1b2    a1b2  a2b1  2    a1a3  2b1b3    a1b3  a3b1  2 
x1   x2  x3   x1  x2  x1  x3
x 2
 x3   x1  x2  x1  x3  x1
Hence the given set is a ring.
5ii) Prove that (Q,,  ) is a ring on the set of rational numbers under the binary operations
x  y = x + y + 7, x  y = x + y + (xy/7) for x, y  Q. [NOV/DEC 19]
Proof:
1. Closure : For x, y  Q, x  y = x + y + 7 Q
(sum of two rational numbers is always rational)
2. Associative: x,y, z Q
(x  y)  z= (x + y + 7) z = (x + y + 7)+ z+7= x + (y + z + 7) +7
= x (y + z + 7)
= x (y  z)
3. Identity: x, e  Q, x  e = x + e + 7
if e is the identity then x  e = x
x= x + e + 7  e = - 7
4. Inverse:
For x, x - 1 Q x  x - 1 = x + x - 1 + 7
If x -1 is the inverse of x then, x  x - 1 = e
 x + x - 1 + 7= e (e = - 7 )
x + x - 1 + 7= - 7  x - 1 = -x - 14
5. Commutative law:
For x, y  Q, x  y = x + y + 7 = y + x + 7= y  x
Under Multiplication
6. Closure Axioms:
For x, y  Q, x  y = x + y + (xy/7)  Q
7. Associative:
x, y, z Q ,
(x  y)  z = [x + y + (xy/7)]  z
=[x + y + (xy/7)]+ z+{[x + y + (xy/7)] z}/7
= x + y + z + (xy/7) +{[xz + yz + (xyz/7)] /7}
= x + y + z + (xy/7)+ (xz/7)+(zy/7)+ (xyz/49) ----------(1)
x  (y  z) = x  [y + z + (yz/7)]
= x +[y + z + (yz/7)] +{[y + z + (yz/7)]x}/7
= x + y + z + (yz/7) +{[y + z + (yz/7)]x}/7
= x + y + z + (xy/7)+ (xz/7)+(zy/7)+ (xyz/49) -----------(2)
From (1) and (2) , (x  y)  z = x  (y  z)
8. Distributive Laws :
x  (y  z)= x  (y + z + 7)= x +(y + z + 7) + [x (y + z + 7)]/7
= x +y + z + 7+(xy/7)+ (xz/7)+x
(x  y)  (x  z)= [x + y + (xy/7)]  [x + z + (xz/7)]
=[x + y + (xy/7)] +[x + z + (xz/7)] +7
= x +y + z + 7+(xy/7)+ (xz/7)+x
 x (y  z)= (x  y)  (x  z)

Hence the given set (Q, ,  ) is a ring.

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5iii) Show that a finite integral domain is a field

Proof:
Let {D, +,  } be a finite integral domain.
Then D has a finite number of distinct elements, say a1 , a 2 , a 3 , a n .
Let a( 0) be any element of D.
Then the elements a  a1,a  a 2 ,a  a3 ,a  a n  D, since D is closed under multiplication.
The elements a  a1,a  a 2 ,a  a3 ,a  a n are distinct, because if
 
a  a i  a  a j  D, then a  a i  a j  0.
But a 0. Hence a i  a j  0 , since D is an integral domain i.e., a i  a j , which is not true
because a1,a 2 ,a3 ,a n aredistinct elements of D.
Hence the sets a  a1, a  a 2 , a  a 3 , a  a n  and a1 , a 2 , a 3 , a n  are the same.
Since a  D is in both sets,
let a  a k  a,for some k → (1)
Then a k is the unityof D, detailed as follows:
Let a j  a  a i, a j  D → (2)
Now a j  a k  a k  a j, by commutative property
 a k   a  a i  , by(2)
  a k  a   ai
  a  a k   a i , by commutative property
 a  a i , by (1)
 a j , by(2)
Since a j is an arbitrary element of D, a k is the unityof D
Let it be denoted by 1.
Since 1  D , there exits a(0) and ai  D such that a  ai  ai  a  1
 a has an inverse.
Hence {D, +,  } be a finite integral domain.
UNIT– II FINITE FIELDS AND POLYNOMIALS
PART A
1 Define Polynomial rings.
Given a ring (R,+ , . ) an expression of the form f ( x)  a0  a1 x    an x n where
ai R,  0  i  n, is called polynomial in the indeterminant x with the coefficients from R.
Then ( R[ x], ,.) is a ring called the polynomial ring over R under the operation of addition
and multiplication given by , if f ( x)  a0  a1 x    an x n and g ( x)  b0  b1 x    bn x n
ai , bi R,  0  i  n, then polynomial addition f  g is given in terms of its values at the
points x, i.e., by ( f  g )( x) and it is given by
n
f ( x)  g ( x)   ci xi  c0  c1 x    cn x n , where ci  ai  bi , 0  i  n
i 0
and for polynomial multiplication fg , we have

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n
( fg )( x) : f ( x) g ( x)  d 0  d1 x    d n x n , where d n   ai bn i .
i 0

2. If f ( x )  3 x 4  7 x 3  5 x 2  2 x  4 and g( x )  2 x 3  8 x 2  6 x  5 are the polynomial in

Q[x], then find the value of f ( x)  g( x) and f ( x)  g( x).
Given that f ( x)  3x4  7 x3  5x2  2 x  4 and g ( x)  2 x3  8x2  6 x  5 , then
f ( x)  g ( x)  (3  0) x 4  (7  2) x3  (5  8) x 2  (2  6) x  (4  5)  3x 4  9 x3  13x 2  8 x  9
& f ( x)  g ( x)  (3  0) x 4  (7  2) x3  (5  8) x 2  (2  6) x  (4  5)  3x 4  5 x3  3x 2  8 x 1
3. If f ( x )  2 x 4  2 x 3  5 x 2 and g( x )  5 x 2  4 x  3 are the polynomial in Q[x], then find
the value of f ( x).g( x).
Given that f ( x)  2 x4  2 x3  5x2 and g ( x)  5 x 2  4 x  3 then
f ( x).g ( x)  (2 x 4  2 x3  5 x 2 ).(5 x 2  4 x  3)
 10 x 6  (8  10) x5  (6  8  25) x 4  (6  20) x3  15 x 2
 10 x 6  2 x5  23 x 4  14 x3  15 x 2
4. If f ( x)  3 x 4  5 x 3  4 x 2  6 x  3 and g ( x )  4 x 3  3 x 2  2 x  1 are the polynomial in
Z7 [ x], then find the value of f ( x)  g( x) and g( x)  f ( x).
Given that f ( x)  3x4  5x3  4 x2  6 x  3 and g ( x)  4 x3  3x2  2 x  1 , then
f ( x)  g ( x)  (3  0) x 4  (5  4) x3  (4  3) x 2  (6  2) x  (3  1)  3 x 4  9 x3  7 x 2  8 x  4
In Z 7 [ x], f ( x)  g ( x)  3x 4  2 x 3  0 x 2  x  4  3x 4  2 x 3  x  4
and f ( x)  g ( x)  (3  0) x 4  (5  4) x3  (4  3) x 2  (6  2) x  (3  1)  3x 4  x3  x 2  4 x  2.
Therefore g ( x)  f ( x)   3x 4  x3  x 2  4 x  2.
In Z 7 [ x], g ( x)  f ( x)   3x 4  x 3  x 2  4 x  2  4 x 4  6 x 3  6 x 2  3x  5.
5. If f ( x)  x 3  2 x 2  x  2 and g( x)  x 3  x 2  x  2 are the polynomial in Z3[ x], then
find the value of f ( x).g( x)
Given that f ( x)  x3  2 x2  x  2 and g ( x)  x3  x2  x  2 then
f ( x).g ( x)  ( x3  2 x 2  x  2).( x3  x 2  x  2)
 x6  (2  1) x5  (1  2  1) x 4  (2  1  2  2) x3  (4  1  2) x 2  (2  2) x  4
 x 6  x5  4 x 4  x3  7 x 2  4
In Z 7 [ x], f ( x).g( x)  x 6  x 5  4 x 4  x 3  7 x 2  4  x 6  2 x 5  2 x 4  x 3  x 2  2.
6. Find two non-zero polynomials f ( x ) and g( x) in Z12[ x] such that f ( x ). g( x )  0.
Let f ( x)  3 x 2  6 x  9, g ( x)  4 x 2  8 x  4
f ( x).g ( x)  (3 x 2  6 x  9).(4 x 2  8 x  4)  12 x 4  48 x 3  96 x 2  96 x  36
In Z12 [ x] , f ( x).g ( x)  0 x 4  0 x3  0 x 2  0 x  0  0
7. State factor theorem and find the factors of x 2  3 x  2  Z 6 [ x ]
If 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, then ( x  a) is the factor when f(x) if and only if „a ‟ is a root of
f ( x).
f ( x)  x 2  3x  2 , Z 6  {[0],[1],[2],[3],[4],[5]}
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f (0)  (0)2  3(0)  2  2

f (1)  (1)2  3(1)  2  6  0
f (2)  (2)2  3(2)  2  12  0
f (3)  (3)2  3(3)  2  20  2
f (4)  (4)2  3(4)  2  30  0
f (5)  (5)2  3(5)  2  42  0
Therefore f ( x)  x 2  3x  2 in Z6 [ x] has four roots x  1, 2, 4,5.
The factors are f ( x)  x2  3x  2  ( x  1)( x  2)( x  4)( x  5)
8. Find all the roots of f ( x )  x 2  4 x in Z12 [ x ]
Given f ( x)  x 2  4 x , Z12  {[0],[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6],[7],[8],[9],[10],[11]}
f ( x)  x 2  4 x Under Z12[ x]

f (0)  02  4(0)  0 f (0)  0

f (1)  (1)2  4(1)  5 f (1)  5

f (2)  (2)2  4(2)  12 f (2)  12(mod 12)  0

f (3)  (3)2  4(3)  21 f (3)  21(mod12)  9

f (4)  (4)2  4(4)  32 f (4)  32(mod12)  8

f (5)  (5)2  4(5)  45 f (5)  45(mod12)  9

f (6)  (6)2  4(6)  60 f (6)  60(mod12)  0

f (7)  (7)2  4(7)  77 f (7)  77(mod12)  5

f (8)  (8)2  4(8)  96 f (8)  96 (mod12)  0

f (9)  (9)2  4(9)  117 f (9)  117 (mod12)  9

f (10)  (10)2  4(10)  140 f (10)  140( mod12)  8

f (11)  (11)2  4(11)  165 f (11)  165(mod12)  9

Therefore f ( x)  x 2  4 x in Z12 [ x] has four roots x  0, 2,6,8.
10. Find all the roots of f ( x )  x 3  5 x 2  2 x  6 in Z7 [ x ] and then write f ( x ) as a product
of first-degree polynomials.
f ( x)  x3  5 x 2  2 x  6 , Z7  {[0],[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6]}
f ( x)  x3  5x2  2 x  6 Under Z7[ x]
f (0)  6 f (0)  0
f (1)  1  5  2  6  14 f (1)  0
f (2)  8  20  8  6  42 f (2)  0
f (3)  27  45  6  6  84 f (3)  0
f (4)  64  80  8  6  158 f (4)  158(mod 7)  4
f (5)  125  125  10  6  266 f (5)  266(mod 7)  0

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f (6)  216  180  12  6  404 f (6)  404(mod 7)  5

Therefore f ( x)  x3  5 x 2  2 x  6 in Z7 [ x] has four roots x  1,3,5.

The first degree polynomials are f ( x)  x3  5x2  2 x  6  ( x  1)( x  3)( x  5)
In Z7 [ x], f ( x)  x3  5 x 2  2 x  6  ( x  6)( x  4)( x  2)
11. Show that x 2  2 has no roots in Q[x]
x 2  2 has roots 2 and -2 which are irrational numbers. Thus 2 and -2Q.
Therefore x 2  2 has no roots in Q[x]
12. State Division Algorithm
Let F be a field and let f ( x) and g ( x) be two polynomials in F ( x) with g ( x)  0. Then there
exists unique polynomials q( x) and r ( x) such that f ( x)  q( x) g ( x)  r ( x) where either
r ( x)  0 (or) deg r ( x)  deg g ( x)
13. Find quotient and remainder when g( x )  x 2  5 divides f ( x )  x 5  2 x 3  3 x 2  x  1
where f ( x),g( x)  Z7[x].
x3  4 x  3

x5  0 x 4  2 x3  3 x 2  x  1
x5  0 x 4  5 x3

4 x3  3 x 2
4 x3  0 x 2  20 x
x2  5

3x 2  2 x  6
3 x 2  0 x  15

2x  5

Quotient  x3  4 x  3 and Remainder  2 x  5.

If f ( x )  2 x 4  5 x 3  7 x 2  4 x  8 and g( x )  2 x  1 are polynomials in Q[x] ,
14.
determine q( x )and r ( x) such that f ( x )  q( x) g( x)  r ( x).
x3  3 x 2  2 x  1

2 x 4  5 x3  7 x 2  4 x  8
2 x 4  x3

2x 1
6 x3  7 x 2
6 x3  3x 2


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 4x 2  4 x
 4 x2  2 x

 2x  8
 2x  1

9
Quotient  x3  3x2  2 x  1 and Remainder  9.

15. State remainder theorem and What is the remainder when

f ( x )  x 5  2 x 3  x 2  2 x  3  Z 5 [x] is divisible by ( x  1)
If 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, for any field F then f(a) is the remainder when f(x) is divided by
(x–a). By remainder theorem, remainder for given 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 5 + 2𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 + 3 is f(1).
Here 𝑓 1 = 1 5 + 2 1 3 + 1 2 + 2 1 + 3 = 9. In under 𝑍5 [x] ,𝑓 1 = 4. Hence
remainder is 4.

16. Define irreducible polynomial or prime

Let f ( x)  F[ x] , with F a field and deg f ( x)  2. Then f ( x) reducible over F if there
exists g ( x), h( x)  F[ x] where f ( x)  g ( x)h( x) and each of g ( x), h( x) has degree  1 . If
f ( x) is not reducible, then it is called irreducible polynomial or prime.

17. Determine whether x 2  x  1 is reducible over Z7 [ x]

Given that f ( x)  x 2  x  1 , Z7  {[0],[1],[2],[3],[4],[5],[6]}

f ( x)  x 2  x  1 Under Z7[ x]

f (0)  02  0  1  1 f (0)  1

f (1)  (1)2  (1)  1  3 f (1)  3

f (2)  (2)2  (2)  1  7 f (2)  7(mod 7)  0

f (3)  (3)2  (3)  1  13 f (3)  13(mod 7)  6

f (4)  (4)2  (4)  1  21 f (4)  21(mod 7)  0

f (5)  (5)2  (5)  1  31 f (5)  31(mod 7)  3

f (6)  (6)2  (6)  1  43 f (6)  43(mod 7)  1

The roots of f ( x)  x2  x  1 are 2, 4

The polynomial f ( x) is reduced to linear polynomial

f ( x)  x 2  x  1  ( x  2)( x  4)
 ( x  5)( x  3).

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18. Give an example for an irreducible & reducible polynomial in Z2[ x] [NOV/DEC 19]
Z2  {[0],[1]}.
Irreducible polynomial Reducible polynomial
2 2
f ( x)  x  x  1 g ( x)  x  x
f (0)  02  0  1  1 g (0)  02  0  0
f (1)  12  1  1  3  1 (mod 2) g (1)  12  1  2  0(mod 2)

19. Define g.c.d of f ( x ) and g( x)

If f ( x), g ( x) F[ x] , then h( x)  F[ x] is a greatest common divisor of f ( x)and g ( x)
(i) if h( x) divides each of f ( x) and g ( x)
(i) if k ( x)  F[ x] and k ( x) divides each of f ( x) and g ( x) then k ( x) divides h( x).
20. Define Characteristic of a ring with example.
Let (R, +, ) be a ring. If there is a least positive integer n such that nr = z ( the zero of R) for
all r  R, then we say that R has characteristic n and write char (R) = n.
When no such integer exists, R is said to have characteristic 0.
Examples:
 The ring (Z3 , +, ) has characteristic 3; (Z4, +, ) has characteristic 4;
In general, (Zn, +, . ) has characteristic n.
 The rings (Z, +, . ) and (Q, + , .) both have characteristic 0.
PART B
1i). If R is a ring under usual addition and multiplication, show that (R[x], +, x) is a ring of
polynomials over R.

Let f ( x), g ( x)  R[ x]. Then f ( x)  g ( x), f ( x).g ( x) are also polynomials over R.
Therefore R[ x] is close with respect to addition and multiplication of polynomials.
Now let f ( x)   ai xi  a0  a1x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  .....  am x m  ..
g ( x)   bi xi  b0  b1x  b2 x 2  b3 x3  .....  bm x m  ......
h( x)   ci xi  c0  c1x  c2 x 2  c3 x3  .....  cm x m  .....
Commutativity of Addition:
f ( x)  g ( x)  (a0  b0 )  (a1  b1) x  (a2  b2 ) x 2  ...(am  bm ) x m  .......
 (b0  a0 )  (b1  a1) x  (b2  a2 ) x 2  ...(bm  am ) x m  ....  g ( x)  f ( x)
Associative of Addition
[ f ( x)  g ( x)]  h( x)   ai xi  bi xi    ci xi
  ai xi    bi xi  ci xi   f ( x)  [ g ( x)  h( x)]
Identity element of Addition
0( x)  0  0 x  0 x 2  ...... is the additive identity element of R[ x]
Inverse Element of Addition
 f ( x)  a0  a1x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  .....  am x m  .... is the additive inverse element of R[ x]
Associativity of Multiplication

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[ f ( x).g ( x)]  (a0  a1x  a 2 x 2  ....)(b0  b1x  b2 x 2  ....)

i
 (d0  d1x  d 2 x 2  ....) , where di   ai  k bk
k 0
Now [ f ( x).g ( x)].h( x)  (d0  d1x  d 2 x  ....) (c0  c1x  c 2 x 2  ....)  (e0  e1x  e 2 x 2  ....) ,
2

where en  the coeff x n in[ f ( x).g ( x)].h( x)   d j ck  aib j ck

Similarly, we show that the coeff x n in f ( x)[ g ( x).h( x)]   aib j ck

Thus [ f ( x).g ( x)].h( x)  f ( x)[ g ( x).h( x)] , since corresponding coefficients in these two
polynomials are equal.
Distributive of multiplication on addition
We have
f ( x).[ g ( x)  h( x)]  (a0  a1x  a 2 x 2  ....)[(b0  b1x  b2 x 2  ....)  (c0  c1x  c2 x 2  ....)]
If n is the non-negative integer, the coeff x n in f ( x).[ g ( x)  h( x)]
  ai (b j  ck )  aib j   ai ck
 Coeff of xn in f ( x) g(x)  Coeff of x n in f ( x)h(x)
 Coeff of xn in [ f ( x) g(x)  f ( x)h(x)]  f ( x).g ( x)  f ( x)h( x)
Similarly, we can prove right distributive law for R[ x]
Hence R[ x] is a ring.

1ii) Find the remainder when f ( x) is divided by g ( x) .

100
(a) f ( x ), g( x )  Z 2 [ x ], f ( x )  x  x 90  x 80  x 50  1; g ( x )  x  1
8 5 4 3 2
(b) f ( x ), g( x )  Q[ x], f ( x )  x  7 x  4 x  3 x  5 x  4; g( x )  x  3

(a) Given f ( x)  x100  x90  x80  x50  1; g ( x)  x  1

x99  x98  ...  2 x89  ...  3 x80  ....  4 x50  .....4( q( x))
x100  x90  x80  x50  1
x100  x99

x99  0 x98
x99  x98

x 1
.......

4x 1
4x  4

5(  r ( x))

 Remainder  r ( x)  5. In under Z2[ x]  1 Hence remainder is 1.

Verification:
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By remainder theorem: If 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, for any field F then f(a) is the remainder
when f(x) is divided by (x–a).
 Remainder  r ( x)  (1)100  (1)90  (1)80  (1)50  1 5 .
In Z2[ x], r(x) = 1. Hence remainder is 1.
(b) Given f ( x)  x8  7 x5  4 x4  3x3  5x2  4; g ( x)  x  3
By long division
x 7  3 x 6  9 x5  34 x 4  98 x3  297 x 2  896 x  2688 (  q ( x))
x8  7 x 5  4 x 4  3 x 3  5 x 2  4
x8  3 x 7

3x7  0 x6
3x7  9 x6

9 x 6  7 x5
9 x 6  27 x5

34 x5  4 x 4
34 x5  102 x 4

x3
98 x 4  3 x3
98 x 4  294 x3

297 x3  5 x 2
297 x3  891x 2

896 x 2  0 x
896 x 2  2688 x

2688 x  4
2688 x  8064

8060  r ( x)

 Remainder  r ( x)  8060.
Verification:
By remainder theorem: If 𝑓 𝑥 ∈ 𝐹[𝑥] and 𝑎 ∈ 𝐹, for any field F then f(a) is the remainder
when f(x) is divided by (x–a).

 Remainder  r ( x)  (3)8  7(3)5  4(3)4  3(3)3  5(3)2  4

 6561  1701  324  81  45  4  8060.

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2i) Find the greatest common divisor of

(i) x10  x7  x5  x 3  x 2  1 & x8  x5  x 3  1 in the ring Q[x] [NOV/DEC 19]
(ii) x 3  3 x 2  3 x  1 & x 3  2 x  1 in Z5[ x]
(i) Given f ( x)  x10  x7  x5  x3  x2  1 & g(x)  x8  x5  x3  1
By actual division
x2

x10  x7  x5  x3  x 2  1
10 7 5 3 2
x8  x5  x3  1 x  x  x  0x  x  0

x3  1
x10  x7  x5  x3  x2  1  x2 ( x8  x5  x3  1)  ( x3  1)
x5  1

x8  x 5  x 3  1
x8  x 5
Similarly, 
x3  1  x3  1
 x3  1

0
( x8  x5  x3  1)  ( x  1) ( x  1)  0 Hence required G.C.D is ( x3  1).
3 5

(i) Given f ( x)  x3  3x2  3x  1 & g(x)  x3  2 x  1

By actual division
x

x3  3 x 2  3 x  1
3 2
x3  2 x  1 x  0 x  2 x  1

3x 2  x

 x3  3x2  3x  1  x( x3  2 x  1)  (3x 2  x)
Similarly,
2x 1

x3  0 x 2  2 x  1
x3  2 x 2  0 x

3x 2  x 3x 2  2 x  1
3x2  x  0

x 1

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 x3  2 x  1  (3x2  x)(2 x  1)  ( x  1)

Similarly,
3x

3x2  x
3
x  1 3x  3x

3x

 3x2  x  ( x  1)(3x)  (3x)

Similarly,
2x
x 1
x
3x

1

 x  1  3x(2 x) 1
Hence required G.C.D is 1.
2ii) If f ( x ) F [ x] has degree n  1 , then prove that f ( x ) has at most n roots in F
[NOV/DEC 19]
Proof:
We prove this theorem by mathematical induction on the degree f ( x) .
If f ( x) has degree 1, then f ( x)  a x  b,a, b  F ,(a  0) .
With f (a 1b)  0 , f ( x) has at least one root in F .
If c1 and c2 are both roots, then f (c1)  ac1 b  0  ac2  b  f (c2 )
By cancellation law in a ring, ac1 b  ac2  b  ac1  ac2 .
Since F is a field and a  0 , we have ac1  ac2  c1  c2
So f ( x) has only one root in F.
Now assume that the result is true for all polynomials of degree k  1 in F[ x].
Consider a polynomial f ( x) of degree k  1.
If f ( x) has no roots in F , the theorem follows.
Otherwise, let r  F , f (r )  0.
By factor theorem, f ( x)  ( x  r ) g ( x) , where g ( x) has degree k .
Consequently , by the induction hypothesis, g ( x) has at most k roots in F and f ( x) has at
most k  1 roots in F .
3i) If ( F ,  , .) is a field and Char (F) > 0, then prove that Char(F) must be prime.
Proof:
Let Char ( F )  n  0 .
If n is not prime, we write n  mk where m, k  Z  and 1  m  n, 1  k  n .
By definition of Characteristic, nu  z , the zero of F. Hence (mk )u  z. But
(mk )u  (u  u  ......u )  (u  u  u.....  u ).(u  u  u.....  u )  ( mu )( ku )
    
mk summation m summation k summation

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With F a field, (mu)(ku)  z  (mu)  z or (ku)  z .

Assume without loss of generality, (ku)  z .
Then for each r  F , kr  k (ur )  (ku)r  zr  z, contradicting the choice of n as the Char ( F )
Char ( F )  n is prime.
3ii) In Z 3 [ x ], s( x )  x 2  x  2 Show that s(x) is irreducible over Z3 and construct the field
Z3[ x]
. What is the order of the field? Also Find (i) [x+2][2x+2]+[x+1] (ii) [2 x  1]1
 s( x ) 
Here Z3  {0,1, 2}, s( x)  x 2  x  2
s (0)  2  0
s (1)  1  1  2  1(mod 3)  0
s(2)  4  2  2  8(mod3)  0
Therefore s(x) has no root in Z3 . Hence s(x) is irreducible in Z3 [x].
Z 3[ x]
Therefore is a field
 s( x) 
Since deg s(x) = 2 , this field has 9 elements.
This field consists of 9 different equivalence classes
Let f ( x)  z3[ x] then
f ( x)  q( x) ( x 2  x  2)  r ( x), where r ( x)  0 (Or) deg r ( x)  deg ( x 2  x  2)  2
deg r ( x)is 0 (O r) 1
 r ( x)  ax  b and [ f ( x)]  [r ( x)]
Each a and b can take 3 values
S. No Values of a and b r ( x)  ax  b Equivalent Classes
1 a=0 , b =0 r ( x)  0 x  0  0 [0]
2 a=0 , b =1 r ( x)  0 x  1  1 [1]
3 a=0 , b =2 r ( x)  0 x  2  2 [2]
4 a=1 , b =0 r ( x) 1x  0  x [ x]
5 a=1 , b =1 r ( x) 1x  1  x  1 [ x  1]
6 a=1 , b =2 r ( x)  1x  2  x  2 [ x  2]
7 a=2 , b =0 r ( x)  2 x  0  2 x [2 x]
8 a=2 , b =1 r ( x)  2 x  1  2 x  1 [2 x  1]
9 a=2 , b =2 r ( x)  2x  2  2x  2 [2 x  2]
Z 3 [ x]
Therefore  {  0 , 1 ,  2 ,  x  ,  x  1 ,  x  2 ,  2 x  ,  2 x  1 , 2 x  2  }
 x  x2
2

The order of the field is 9

(i) To find  x  2 2 x  2   x  1
Now  x  2  2x  2  [2 x 2  6 x  4]  [2 x 2  0 x  4]  [2 x 2  4]  [ x]
2

2 x2  4
2
x 2  x  2 2x  2 x  4

 2x  x
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Therefore  x  2  2 x  2   x  1   x    x  1   2 x  1
1
(ii) To Find [2 x  1]
Now consider  2x  1 2x   [4 x 2  4 x]  [ x 2  x]  [2]  [1]
Since 4  1(mod3), x2  x  2(mod x2  x  2) and  2  1(mod3)
 [2x  1][2x] [1] [2x  1]1 [2 x]
4. Prove that a finite field has order pt, where pis prime and t  Z  . [NOV/DEC 19]
Give that F is a finite field and Char ( F )  p , a prime , and let u denote the unity and z the
zero element.
Then S0  {u, 2u,3u,..... pu  z} is a set of p distinct element in F .
If not mu  nu for 1  m  n  p and (n  m)u  z with 0  n  m  p.
So for all x  F ,we now find that (n  m) x  (n  m)ux  [(n  m)u]x  zx  z, and this
contradicts to Char ( F )  p.
If F  S0 , then | F | p ' and the result as follows.
If not let a  F  S0 , then S1  {ma  nu / 0  m, n  p} is a sub set of F with | S1 | p 2 .
If | S1 | p 2 , then m1a  n1u  m2a  n2u, with 0  m1, m2 , n1, n2  p and at least one
m1  m2 , n2  n1  0 .
If m1  m2  0, then (m1  m2 )a  z  (n2  n1)u, with 0 | n2  n1 | p.
Consequently , for all x  F ,| n2  n1 | x  | n2  n1 | (ux)  (| n2  n1 | u) x ,  zx  z , with
0 | n2  n1 | p  char ( F ) another contradiction.
If n2  n1  0, then (m1  m2 )a  z, with 0 | m1  m2 | p.
Since F is a field and a  z , we know that a 1  F , so | m1  m2 | aa 1  za 1  z , with
0 | m1  m2 | p, which is another contradiction.
Hence neither m1  m2 nor n2  n1 is 0. Therefore (m1  m2 )a  (n2  n1)u  z.
Choose k  Z  such that 0  k  p and k (m1  m2 )  1 (mod p). Then
a  a(m1  m2 )k  k (n2  n1)u, and a  S0 , one more contradiction.
Hence | S1 | p 2 , and if F  S1 the theorem is proved.
If not, continue this process with an element b  F  S1.
Then S2  {lb  ma  nu / 0  l, m, n  p} will have order p3 . Since F is finite , we reach a
point where F  St 1 for some t  Z  , and | F || St 1 | pt .
5i) If F is a field, then prove that F[x] is an integral domain and not a field
Given that F is a filed. Therefore, F is a commutative ring.
Therefore F[ x] is a commutative ring.
Case (1) To prove F is an integral Domain
Let ab  0, a  0 in F.
a 1(ab)  a 1(0)  0
(a 1a)b  0  b  0
Therefore, F Is an integral Domain.

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Case (2) To Prove F[ x] is an integral Domain

Let f ( x)  a0  a1x  a2 x 2  a3 x3  ......  am x m , (am  0) and
g(x)  b0  b1x  b2 x 2  b3 x3  ......  bn x n , (bn  0)
Be any two non-zero elements in F[ x].
Since R is integral domain and am , bn  0 , so as ambn  0 .
The product of f ( x)g(x) of f ( x) and g ( x) will contain the term ambn x m  n
Therefore f ( x)g(x)  0.
Therefore f ( x)  0, g(x)  0  f ( x) g(x)  0.
F[x] is an integral domain.
Case (3) To Prove F[ x] is not a filed
Let f ( x)( 0)  F and deg f ( x)  1. The unit element of F is the constant polynomial „1‟.
If possible, there exists a multiplicative inverse of f ( x) exists and let it be g ( x) .
 f ( x) g ( x)  1 .................(1)
 g ( x)  0.
Suppose g ( x)  0 , then f ( x) g ( x)  1  f ( x)(0)  1 0  1 which is not possible.
Since F is an integral Domain, we have
deg( f ( x).g ( x))  deg( f ( x))  deg( g (x))  1.
 (1) is impossible because deg (1) =0
 A non-zero element in F[ x] may not have multiplicative inverse in F[ x]
 F[ x] is not field.
5ii) State and Prove Division Algorithm
Statement :
Let F be a field and let f ( x) and g ( x) be two polynomials in F ( x) with g ( x)  0. Then there
exists unique polynomials q( x) and r ( x) such that f ( x)  q( x) g ( x)  r ( x) where either
r ( x)  0 (or) deg r ( x)  deg g ( x)
Proof:
Let S  {g ( x)  t ( x) f ( x) / t(x)  F[x]}.
If 0  S , 0  g ( x).  t (x) f ( x) , for some t(x)  F[x] .
Then with q(x)  t(x) and r ( x)  0 , we have g ( x)  t ( x) f ( x)  r (x).
If 0  S , Consider the degrees of the elements of S, and let r ( x)  g (x)  q( x) f ( x) be an
element in S of minimum degree.
Since r ( x)  0, the result follows if deg(r ( x))  deg(f(x)).
If not, let
r ( x)  an x n  an 1x n 1  .......  a2 x 2  a1x  a0 , an  0
f ( x)  bm x m  bm 1x m 1  .......  b2 x 2  b1x  b0 , bm  0 with n  m.
1 n  m
Define h( x)  r ( x)  [anbm x ] f ( x)
1 1
 (an  anbm bm ) x n  (an 1  anbm bm 1) x n 1  ..
1
 ......  (an  m  anbm b0 ) x n  m  an  m 1x n  m 1  .......  a1x  a0 .
Then h( x) has degree less than n , the degree of r ( x).
More importantly,

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1 n  m
h( x)  [ g ( x)  q( x) f ( x)]  [anbm x ] f ( x)
,
1 n  m
 g(x)  [q( x)  anbm x ] f ( x)
so h( x)  S and this contradicts the choice of r ( x) as having minimum degree.
Consequently deg(r ( x))  deg( f ( x)) and we have the existence part of the theorem.
For uniqueness,
let g ( x)  q1( x) f ( x)  r1( x)  q2 ( x) f ( x)  r2 ( x)
where r1( x)  0 or deg r1( x)  deg f ( x) , and r2 ( x)  0 or deg r2 ( x)  deg f ( x).
Then [q2 ( x)  q1( x)] f ( x)  r1( x)  r2 ( x),
If [q2 ( x)  q1( x)]  0, then deg[q2 ( x)  q1( x)] f ( x)  deg ( f ( x)),
whereas [r1( x)  r2 ( x)]  0 or deg[r1( x)  r2 ( x)]  max{deg r1( x),deg r2 ( x)}  deg f (x).
Consequently r1( x)  r2 ( x) and q1( x)  q2 ( x).

UNIT-III DIVISIBILITY THEORY AND CANONICAL DECOMPOSITIONS

PART-A

1 Explain Divisibility.
Let a, b  z we say „a‟ divides b if their exist c  z such that b=ac. „a‟ is called divisor or factor
of „b‟. and „b‟ is called multiple of „a‟. So we write it as a / b (i.e.) b is divisible by a.
If a does not divide b, then we write a / b .
2 State the properties of divisibility.
(i). a / b  a / bc for all integer c
(ii). If a / b, b/ c  a / c
(iii). If a / b, a / c  a /  bx  cy   integers x & y
(iv). If a / b, b / a  a  b
3 If a/b, a/c prove that a/bx + cy for all integers x &y
since a / b  b  am - - - - - (1); a / c  c  al - - - - - (2)
(1)  x  bx  amx - - - - - (3)
(2)  y  cy  aly - - - - - (4)
(3)  (4)  bx  cy  amx  aly  a (mx  ly ) , where mx  ly is integer  a /  bx  cy 

4 Find the number of positive integers ≤ 2076 and divisible by neither 4 or 5

Let A   x  N / x  2076 and divisible by 4 ; B   x  N / x  2076 and divisible by 5
then A  B  A  B  A  B
  2076 / 4    2076 / 5   2076 / 20 
 519  415  103  831
Thus, among the first 2076 positive integers, there are 2076-831=1245 integers not divisible
by 4 or 5.
5. Find the number of positive integers ≤ 3076 and not divisible by 17. [NOV/DEC 19]
 3076 
Number of positive integers ≤ 3076 and divisible by 17 =   180
 17 
Therefore number of positive integers ≤ 3076 and not divisible by 17 = 3076 – 180 = 2896

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6. Add two more rows to the following pattern, and write conjecture formula for the n th
row:
9  9  7  88
98  9  6  888
987  9  5  8888
9876  9  4  88888
98765  9  3  888888
The next two rows of the given pattern are,
987654  9  2  8888888
9876543  9  1  88888888
The general pattern is
98765.....(10  n)  9  (8  n)  888.....88
 
( n 1) Eights

7. State the Pigenhole Principle.

If m pigeons are assigned to n pigenholes where m > n, then atleast two pigeons must occupy
the same pigenhole.
8. Explain base-b representation.
The expression ak b k  ak 1b k 1  .....  a1b  a0 is the base-b representation of theinteger N.
Accordingly, we write N   ak ak 1.....a1a0 b in base b.
9. Determine if 1601 is a prime number.
We know that if n has no prime factors ≤ n, then n is a prime consider prime nos ≤
1601  prime nos ≤ 40 (approx)
 2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23,29,31 and 37 and which are not factors of 1601
Therefore, 1601 is a prime.
10. Find the GCD of 1819 & 3587.
(3587,1819)  11819  1768
(1819,1768)  11768  51
(1768,51)  34  51  34
(51,34)  1 34  17
(34,17)  2 17  0
 gcd of 1819,3587 is 17
11 Find the GCD of a  b, a 2  b2 .
GCD  a  b, a 2  b 2   GCD  a  b,  a  b  a  b    a  b
12 Find a positive integer „a‟ , if [a, a + 1] = 132
We know that a, b 
ab
     (1)
a, b 
Since LCM of  a, a  1 132 & GCD of  a, a  1  1
a  a 1
(1) 132   a 2  a  132  0  a  12,11
1
Since a is positive integer, a = 11
13 Using (252, 360) compute [252, 360].
Since GCD of 252,360  36

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252  360
a, b  ab
 252, 360  2520
a, b  36
14 If (a, 4) = 2 & (b, 4) = 2show that ( a+b , 4) = 2
 a, 4   2  gcd of  a, 4   2  2 / a but 4 / a  a  2k , and k is odd
 b, 4   2  gcd of  b, 4   2  2 / b but 4 / b  b  2l, and l is odd
a  b  2k  2l  2  k  l   2(even)  2  2m   4m
 4 / a  b  gcd  a  b, 4   4
15 If x and y are odd integers show that x2 + y2 cannot be perfect square.
Since x and y are odd integers x 2  y 2 is even  2/x 2  y 2
To prove:
x 2  y 2 cannot be perfect square, it is enough to show that  x 2  y 2 , 4   2
Let x  2k  1, y  2l  1
x2  y 2  4  k 2  l 2  k  l   2
 
  x 2  y 2 , 4   4  k 2  l 2  k  l   2, 4   2, 4 
hence x 2  y 2 cannot be perfect square.
16 Prove that any prime of the form 3k+1 is of the form 6k+1.
Let the prime p =3k+1, then k must be even.
[if k is odd, then 3k is odd 3k+1 is even  3k+1 is not prime]
 k=2k, then p =3(2k)+1=6k+1.
Hence any prime of the form 3k+1 is of the form 6k+1.
17 Using canonical decomposition of 1050 and 2574 find their LCM. [NOV/DEC 19]
1050  2  3  52.7 2574  2  32 11.13
LCM  1050, 2574  2  32  52  7.11.13  450
18 Find the canonical decomposition of 29 - 1
29  1   23   13   23  1 26  23  1  a3  b3   a  b   a 2  ab  b 2 
3

  7  73
19 If d =  a,b  and d' is any common divisor of a and b, then d'/d.
Since d =  a, b  ,  α and β such that d   a   b.
also since d' is common divisor of a & b.  d'/ a & d'/ b
 d'/  αa+βb  ; so d'/d.

20 Prove that n2 +n is an even integer, where n is arbitrary integer.

To prove: p(n)  n2  n is an even integer
p(1)  12  1  2is an even number
We assume that the result is true for all k, k be the arbitrary number.
 p(k)  k 2  k is an even integer
consider p(k+1)   k  1   k  1
2

 k 2  2k  1  k  1   k 2  k    2k  2   Even number
hence p(n)=n 2  n is even integer  n.

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PART-B
1i) Find the number of positive integers in the range 1976 through 3776 that are divisible
by13.
Solution:
1976 
The number of positive integers  1976 that are divisible by 13    152
 13 
 3776 
The number of positive integers  3776 that are divisible by 13     290
 13 
 The number of positiveintegers1976 to3776 that are divisible by 13
 290  152  1
 139 [ 1976 is included in the list of numbers divisible by 13]
1ii) Prove that (a, a – b) = 1if and only if (a, b) = 1
Proof:
Let a, a  b   1
Then there exist integer l and m such that
la  mb  1
la  ma  mb  ma  1
(l  m)a  m(a  b)  1
(l  m)a  (  m)( a  b)  1
  a, a  b   1
Conversely, let  a, a  b   1. To prove :  a, b   1
Then there exist integer  and  such that
 a   ( a  b)  1
a   a  b  1
    a  (  )b  1   a, b   1
1iii) Obtain six consecutive integers that are composite.
Solution:
By theorem, for every integer n, there are n consecutive integers that are composite numbers.
Then the six consecutive composite numbers are
 n  1! 2,  n  1! 3,  n  1! 4,  n  1! 5,  n  1! 6,  n  1! 7
put n  6
 The six consecutive composite numbers are5042, 5043,5044,5045,5046, and 5047
2i) Apply Euclidean Algorithm and express (4076, 1024) as a linear combination of 4076,
1024.
Solution:
By successive application of division algorithm, we get:
4076  3 1024  1004
1024  1 1004  20
1004  50  20  4
20  5  4  0
Since the last nonzero remainder is  4   4076,1024   4

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 4076,1024   4  1004  50  20
1004  50 1024  11004 
 511004  50 1024
 51 4076  3 1024   50 1024
 51 4076   203 1024
2ii) Prove that there are infinitely many primes. [NOV/DEC 19]
Proof:
We prove by contradiction method.
Assume that there are only n primes p1 , p2 ,..., pn where n is prime.

Now consider the integer m  p1  p2  p3 ..., pn

Since m  1, by theorm, every integer n  2 has a prime factor. m has a prime factor p.
But none of the primes p1 , p2 , p3 ,..., pn divide m
For,if pi / m and since pi / p1  p2  p 3 ..., pn
we get pi / m  p1  p2  p3 ..., pn  pi /1, which is not true and hence a contradiction.
 pi / m
So, we have a prime p which is not in the list of n primes.
Thus, we have n+1 primes p1 , p2 , p3 ,..., pn , pn 1
which contradicts the assumption there are only n primes.
So, our assumption of finiteness is wrong.
Hence the number of primes is infinite.
3i) Prove that the GCD of the positive integers a and b is linear combination of a and b.
[NOV/DEC 19]
Proof:
Let S be the set of positive linear combination of a and b; that is
S  ma  nb / ma  nb  0, m, n  Z 
To show that S has a least element:
Since a  0, a  1  a  0  b S , So S is non empty.
So, by the well-ordering principle, S has a least positive element d.
To show that d   a, b  :
Since d belongs to S, d   a   b for some integer  and  .
1.First we will show that d / a and d / b :
By the division algorithm,
there exist integers q and r such that a  dq  r , where 0  r  d .
r  a  dq
 a   a   b  q substituting for d.
 1   q  a     q  b \
This shows r is a linear combination of a and b.
If r  0, then r  S . Since r  d , r is less than the smallest element in S.
Which is a contrdiction . So r  0; thus, a  dq, so d / a.
Similarly, d/b. Thus d is common divisor of a and b.

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2.To show that any positive common divisior d ' of a and b is  d :

Since d '/ a, and d '/ b  d '/  a   b 
that is d '/ d . So d '  d .
Thus, by parts (1) and (2), d   a, b 
3ii) Show that for any integer n, n 2 - n is divisible by 2 and n 5 - n is divisible by 30.
Solution:
n 2 - n  n (n -1) , product of two consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by2
To Prove : n 5 - n is divisible by 6
n 5 - n  n (n4  1)  n (n2  1)(n2  1)  n(n  1)(n  1)(n 2  1)  (n  1)n(n  1)(n 2  1)
Now, as we know that product of 3 consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by3 and
that of 2 consecutive natural numbers is always divisible by2 so this expression is always
divisible by6.
Now to prove divisibility by 5, First we write the factorization as under

n (n  1) (n  1) (n 2  1)  n (n  1) (n  1)  n 2  4   5 
 n (n  1) (n  1)   n  2  n  2   5 
 (n  2)(n  1)n(n  1)(n  2)  5 n (n  1) (n  1)
We see that second term is divisible by 5 and first term is also divisible by 5 as it is product of
5 consecutive natural numbers. Hence the given expression is divisible by 5×6=30.
Hence the proof.
4i) Using recursion, evaluate (18, 30, 60, 75, 132).
Solution.:
18,30, 60, 75,132    18,30, 60, 75 ,132 
 18,30, 60 , 75 ,132
    18,30  , 60  , 75  ,132 

    6, 60  , 75  ,132 
   6, 75  ,132    3,132   3
4ii) Find the number of positive integers ≤ 3000 and divisible by 3, 5, or 7.
Solution:
Let A,B,C be the set of numbers ≤ 3000 and divisible by 3, 5,7 respectively.
Required A  B C
By inclusion and exclusion principle, we get
A  B C  S1  S 2  S3
Now
 3000 
A    1000  1000
 3 
 3000 
B     600  600
 5 
 3000 
C     428.57   428
 7 
S1  A  B  C  1000  600  428  2028

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 3000 
AB      200  200
 3 5 
 3000 
A C    142.85  142
 3  7 
 3000 
B C    85.71  85
 5  7 
S2  A  B  A  C  B  C  200  142  85  427
 3000 
Now S3  A  B  C      28.57   28
 3 5 7 
A  B C  S1  S2  S3  2028  427  28  1629
4iii) Show that product of k consecutive integers is divisible by k!
Proof:
Let  n  1 ,  n  2  , ,  n  k  be the 'k' consecutive integer.
Product of 'k' consecutive integer =  n  1 n  2    n  k 
n!
  n  1 n  2    n  k 
n!


 n  k !
n!
k! n  k !
Product of 'k' consecutive integer=  k! n  rCr  Integer
k! n !
Hence the product of k consecutive integers is divisible by k!
5i) State and prove fundamental theorem of arithmetic.
Statement:
Every integer n  2 either is a prime or can be expressed as a product of primes. The
factorization into primes is unique except for the order of the factors.
Proof:
First, we will show by strong induction that n either is a prime or can be expressed as a product
of primes. Then we will establish the uniqueness of such a factorization.
Let P(n) denote the statement that n is a prime or can be expressed as a product of primes.
To show that P  n  is true for every integer n  2 :
since 2 is a prime, clearly P(2) is true.
Now assume P(2), P(3),…..P(k) are true; that is every integer 2 through k either is a prime or
can be expressed as a product of primes.
If k+1 is a prime, then P(k+1) is true. So suppose k+1 is composite. Then k+1 = ab for some
integers a and b, where 1 < a, b < k+1. By the inductive hypothesis, a and b either are primes or
can be expressed as products of primes; in any event, k+1=ab can be expressed as products of
primes. Thus, P(k+1) is also true.
Thus by strong induction, the result holds for every integer n  2
To Establish the Uniqueness of the Factorization:
Let n be a composite number with two factorization into primes; n  p1 p2  pr  q1q2  qs

we will show that r = s and every pi equals some j ,where 1  i, j  r; that is, the primes
q

q1 , q2 ,.....qs are a permutation of the primes p1 p2  pr

Assume, for convenience that r  s. since
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p1 p2  pr  q1q2  qs , p1 / q1q2  qs ,  p1  qi for some i.

Dividing both sides p1 , we get: p2 ..... pr  q1q2 ...qi 1q i qi 1...qs
Now, p2 divides the RHS , so p2  q j for some j. cancel p2 form both sides :
p3 .....p r  q1q2 ...qi 1q i qi 1...q j 1q j q j 1qs
Since r  s, continuing like this, we can cancel pt with some qk . This yields a 1 on the LHS at
the end. Then the RHS cannot be left with any primes, since a product of primes can never
yield a 1; thus, we must have exhausted all qk ' s by now. therefore, r = s and hence the primes
q1 , q2 ,.....qs are the same as the primes p1 p2  pr in some order. Thus, the factorization on n is
unique, except for the order in which the primes as written.
5ii) Prove that the product of gcd and lcm of any two positive integers a and b is equal to
their products. [NOV/DEC 19]
Proof:
Let a  p1a1 p2a2 .....pnan , b=p1b1 pb22 .....pbnn be the canonical decomposition of a and b. Then

 a, b   p p maxa1 ,b1
1
maxa2 ,b2 
2
.....p max an ,bn 
n

 a, b   p p mina1 ,b1
1
mina2 ,b2 
2
.....p minan ,bn 
n

  a, b   a, b   p maxa1 ,b1  mina1 ,b1

1
p maxa2 ,b2   min a2 ,b2 
2
.....p maxan ,bn   minan ,bn 
n

p a1  b1
1
p a2  b2
2
.....p an  bn
n

  p1a1 p 2a2 .....p nan  p1b1 pb22 .....pbnn 

 ab
ab
Hence a,b 
 a,b 
UNIT - IV DIOPHANTINE EQUATIONS AND CONGRUENCES
PART- A
1 Define congruence modulo m.
If an integer m ( 0) divides the difference a  b , we say that a is congruent to b modulo m.
(i.e) a  b(mod m).
2 Define linear congruence.
A congruence of the form ax  b(mod m) is called a linear congruence. An integer x1 is said to
be a solution or root of this congruence, if ax1  b(mod m) (i.e) m | ax1  b .
3 Solve the congruence 4x  5(mod 6)
4 x  5(mod 6)
Here a  4, b  5, m  6
(a, m)  (4, 6)  2  2 / 5 (i.e) ( a, m) / b
 The congruence has no solution.
4 What is digital root of a positive integer? What are the digital roots of square numbers?
Is 16151613924 a square?
Let N = (anan-1...a1a0)ten and d be its digital root, then d  (an +an-1+....+a1+a0 ) (mod9).
(i.e) the digital root of N is the remainder when N is divided by 9 with one exception: it is 9 if

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the remainder is 0.
The digital roots of square numbers are 1, 4, 7, or 9.
1+6+1+5+1+6+1+3+9+2+4=39  remainder is 3 when divided by 9
Therefore digital root of 16151613924 is 3.
Hence 16151613924 is not a square.
5 Solve x7 + 1  0(mod 7)
The complete residuesystem(CRS ) is {0,1, 2,3, 4,5,6}
But 4  3 (mod 7)
5   2 (mod 7)
6   1 (mod 7)
The CRS is {0, 1, 2, 3}
The CRS does not satisfy the congruence x 2  1  0 (mod 7)
 The given congruence has no solution.
6 State Chinese remainder theorem.
Let m1 , m2 ,...., mr denote r positive integers that are relatively prime in pairs and let
a1 , a2 ,...., ar be any r integers. Then the congruence x  ai (mod mi ), i  1, 2,...., r have
common solution.
7 Determine whether the LDEs 12x + 18y = 30, 2x + 3y = 4, and 6x + 8y = 25 are
solvable .
(12,18)  6 and 6 | 30, so the LDE 12 x  18 y  30 has a solution.
(2,3)  1, so the LDE has a solution.
(6,8)  2, but 2 / 5, so the LDE 6 x  8 y  25 is not solvable.
8 Prove that a  b(mod m) if and only if a = b + km for some integer k
Suppose a  b (mod m).
Then m / (a - b), so a  b  km for some integer k .
(i.e) a  b  km.
Conversely, suppose a  b  km.
Then a  b  km, so m / (a  b) and consequently, a  b(mod m).
9 Find the remainder when 1! 2! ......  100! is divided by 15.
Notice that when k  5, k !  0 (mod 15)
1! 2! .....  100!  1! 2! 3! 4! 0  .....  0(mod 15)
1  2  6  24 (mod15)
1  2  0 ( mod15)
 3(mod15)
Thus, when the given sum is divided by 15, the remainder is 3.
10 Let a  b(mod m) and c  d(mod m) then prove that a + c  b+ d(mod m)
Since a  b (mod m) and c  d (mod m),
a  b  lm and c  d  km for some inegers l and m.
Then a  c  (b  lm)  (d  km)
 (b  d )  (l  k )m
 b  d (mod m)
11 Let a  b(mod m) and c  d(mod m) then prove that ac  b d(mod m)
Since a  b (mod m) and c  d (mod m),

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a  b  lm and c  d  km for some inegers l and m.

Then ac  bd  (ac  bc)  (bc  bd )
 c ( a  b )  b (c  d )
 clm  bkm
 (cl  bk )m
So ac  bd (mod m)
12 Find the remainder when 1653 is divided by 7
First reduce the base to its least residue
16  2(mod 7).
We know that If a  b (mod m), then a n  bn (mod m) for any positiveinteger n
1653  253 (mod 7).
Now express a suitable power of 2 congruent mod ulo 7 to a number less than 7,
23  1 (mod 7)
 253  23(17)  2
 (23 )17 .22
 117.4(mod 7)
 4(mod 7)
So16  4 (mod 7), by the transitive property.
53

Thus, when1653 is divided by 7, the remainder is 4.

13 Find the remainder when 331 is divided by 7. [NOV/DEC 19]
32  2 (mod 7)
(32 )3  23 (mod 7)  1(mod 7)  36  1(mod 7)
 331  (36 )5 .3 15.3 (mod 7)
 3(mod 7) Thus the remainder is 3.
14 Determine whether the LDE 2x + 3y + 4z = 5 is solvable? [NOV/DEC 19]
Thegcd (2,3, 4)  1 i.e.,(2,3, 4)  1 and 1/ 5  The given LDE is Solvable.
15 Define 2X2 linear system
A 2  2 linear system is a system of linear congruences of the form,
ax  by  e( mod m); cx  dy  f ( mod m)
Asolution of the linear system is a pair x  x0 (mod m), y  y0 (mod m) that satisfies both congruences.

16 Show that x  12(mod 13)and y  2(mod13) is a solution of the 2  2 linear system

2 x  3 y  4(mod13)
3 x  4 y  5(mod13).
When x  12(mod13)and y  2(mod13),
2 x  3 y  2(12)  3(2)  4(mod13)
3 x  4 y  3(12)  4(2)  5(mod13)
Therefore, every pair x  12(mod13), y  2(mod13)is a solution of the system.
17 Verify that the linear system 2x+3y4(mod13) and 3x +4y 5 (mod 13) has a unique
solution modulo 13.
We know that the system has a unique solution modulo m if and only if (, m)  1

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23
  ad  bc   1  12(mod 13).
34
Since (12,13)=1 Therefore the system has a unique solution modulo 13.
18 Prove that no prime of the form 4n + 3 can be expressed as the sum of two squares.
Let N be a prime of the form 4n + 3.
Then N  3(mod 4).
Suppose N  A2  B 2 for some integers A and B.
Since N is odd, one of the squares
(say A2 ) must be odd and hence B2 must be even.
Then A must be odd and B even.
Let A  2a  1 and B  2b for some integers a and b .
Then N  (2a  1) 2  (2b) 2
 4(a 2  b 2  a )  1
 1(mod 4)
which is a contradiction,since N  3(mod 4)
19 Show that a palindrome with an even number of digits is divisible by 11.
Let be n  n2k 1n2 k 2 ......n1n0 palindrome with an even number of digits
n  (n0  n 2  .....  n 2 k  2 )  ( n1  n 3  .....  n 2 k 1 )(mod11)
 0 (mod11)
because n is palindrome with an even number of digits
Thus, 11| n.
20 Define complete residue system.
A set x1 , x2 ,...., xm is a complete residue system mod m if for integer y , there is one and only one
x j such that y  x j (mod m) .
PART B
1i) Show that n + n  0(mod 2) for any positive integer n.
2

Proof:
a  b (mod k )  a  b  km, m  z
a  b is divisible by k
n  even  2m
n 2  n  (2m) 2  (2m)  4m 2  2m  2(2m 2  m)
n2  n is divisible by 2
n  odd  2m  1
n 2  n  (2m  1) 2  (2m  1)
 4m 2  4m  1  2m  1
 4m 2  6m  2
 2(2m 2  3m  1)
n2  n is divisible by 2  n2  n  0(mod 2)
1ii) Prove that p is a prime iff (p – 1)! +1  0(mod p).
Proof:
Suppose p is not a prime then p  p1 p2 where 1  p1 , p2  p 1
since 1  p1  p  1, we find p1 is a factor of ( p  1)!
(ie) p1 ( p  1)! Also p1 p
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we are given ( p  1)! 1  0 (mod p)

 p ( p  1)!  1
 p1 ( p  1)!  1
Thus p1 ( p  1)!  1 & p1 ( p  1)!  p1 ( p  1)! 1  ( p  1)!
 p1 1 which is not possible  p1  1
Hence p must be prime.
2 State and prove Chinese remainder theorem. Using it find the least positive integer that
leaves the remainder 1 when divided by 3, 2 when divided by 4 and 3 when divided by 5.
[NOV/DEC 19]
Statement:
Let m1 , m2 ,...., mr denote r positive integers that are relatively prime in pairs and let
a1 , a2 ,...., ar be any r integers. Then the congruence x  ai (mod mi ), i  1, 2,...., r have
common solution.
Proof:
Part1: Existence of the solution
n
Let n  m1. m2 .m3. ...mk & ni  , i  1, 2,3,...., k .
mi
Since m1. m2 .m3. ...mk are pairwise relatively prime ( ni , mi )  1, i  1, 2,3,...., k
Also ni  0 (mod m j ), i  j
Since (ni , mi )  1, the congruence ni yi  1(mod mi ) has a unique solution yi , i  1, 2,3,...., k
Let x  a1 n1 y1  a2 n2 y2  .......  ak nk yk
Now, we will show that x is a solution of the system of congrunces.
Since ni  0 (mod mk ) for i  k , all terms except the k th term in this are
congruent to 0 modulo mk
Since nk yk  1(mod mk ), we see that x  ak nk yk  ak (mod mk ),for k  1, 2,3,..., n
Thus x satisfies every congruence in the system.
Hence x is a solution of the linear system.
Part 2 : Uniquness of the solution
Solution is unique in modulo n  m1.m2 .....mk .
Let x1 , x2 be two solutions of the system
To prove x1  x2 (mod n)
Since x1  a j (mod m j ) and x2  a j (mod m j ), j  1, 2,3,...., k
we have x1  x2  0 (mod m j )  m j | x1  x2 for every j
Since m1 , m2 ,..., mk are pairwise ralatively prime,
LCM [ m1 , m2 ,..., mk ]  m1 , m2 ,..., mk | x1  x2
 n | x1  x2  x1  x2 (mod n)
Hence the solution is unique mod m1m2 ...mk .
Given system is x  1(mod 3); x  2(mod 4); x  3(mod 5)
Here a1  1, a2  2, a3  3; m1  3, m2  4, m3  5
We find m1 , m2 , m3 are pairwiserelatively prime
Let n  m1m2 m3  3.4.5  60

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n 3.4.5 n 3.4.5 n 3.4.5

and n1    20 ; n2    15 ; n3    12
m1 3 m2 4 m3 5
1.Wefind y1 , y2 , y3 from the congrunces
n1 y1  1(mod m1 )
n2 y2  1(mod m2 )
n3 y3  1(mod m3 )
We have n1 y1  1(mod m1 ),
20 y1 1(mod 3),
Since 20.2  40  1(mod 3), we see y1  2 is a solution
We have n2 y2  1(mod m2 ),
15 y2 1(mod 4),
Since 15.3  45  1(mod 4) , we see y2  3 is a solution
We have n3 y3  1(mod m3 ),
12 y3 1(mod 5),
Since 12.3  36  1(mod 5), we see y3  3 is a solution
2. Then solution is x  a1n1 y1  a2 n2 y2  a3 n3 y3 (mod n)
 x  1.20.2  2.15.3  3.12.3 (mod 60)
 x  40  90  72 (mod 60)
 x  238(mod 60)
 x  58(mod 60)
 58is the unique solution (mod 60)
 the solution of the system is x  58(mod 60) and it is the uniquesolution.
3i) Solve the congruence x  1(mod4), x  0(mod 3), x  5(mod7).
Solution:
Here a1  1, a2  0, a3  5; m1  4, m2  3, m3  7
m  m1 . m2 . m3  4.8.7  84
m 84 m 84 m 84
  21;   28;   12
m1 4 m2 3 m3 7
m  m  m 
 , m1   (21, 4)  1 ;  , m2   (28,3)  1 ;  , m3   (12, 7)  1
 m1   m2   m3 
m
we know that   b j 1(mod m j )
m 
 j
m
For m1    b1 1(mod m1 )
 m1 
(21)b1  1(mod 4)  4 / 21b1  1
 21b1  1  4k , k is an integer
21b1  1  4k
1  4k
b1 
21

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put k  5, b1  1
m
For m2    b2 1(mod m2 )
 m2 
(28)b2  1(mod 3)  3 / 28b2  1
 28b2  1  3k , k is an integer
28b 2  1  3k
1  3k
b2 
28
put k  9, b2  1
m
For m3    b3 1(mod m3 )
 m3 
(12)b3  1(mod 7)  7 /12b3  1
 12b3  1  7k2 , k2 is an integer
12b3  1  7k2
1  7 k2
b3 
12
put k2  5, b3  3
By chinese remainder theorem,
3
m
x    ai bi (mod m)
i 1  mi 

m m m 
  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3  (mod m)
 m1 m2 m3 
  (2111)  (28  0 1)  (12  5  3)  (mod 84)
 (21  180) (mod 84)
 201(mod 84)
3ii) Determine whether the system x  3(mod10); x  8(mod15); x  5(mod84)
has a solution and findthemall if it exists .
Solution:
The first congruence x  3(mod10) is equivalent to the simultaneous congruences
x  3(mod 2) -------(1)
x  3(mod 5) --------(2)
The congruence x  8(mod15)is equivalent to,
x  8(mod 3)      (3)
x  8(mod 5)      (4)
The congruence x  5(mod 84) is equivalent to,
x  5(mod 3)      (5)
x  5(mod 4)      (6)
x  5(mod 7)      (7)

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The congruence (1) & (6)

x  3(mod 2)
x  5(mod 4) reduces to x 1(mod 4)      (8)
The congruence (3) & (5)
x  8(mod 3)
x  5(mod 3) reduces to x  2 (mod 3)      (9)
The congruence (2) & (4)
x  3(mod 5)
x  8(mod 5) reduces to x  3(mod 5)      (10)
From (7)  x  2 (mod 7)      (11)
we have solve thecongruence of (8),(9),(10)&(11)
Here a1  1, a2  2, a3  3, a4  5; m1  4, m2  3, m3  5, m4  7
m  m1 . m2 . m3 . m4  4.3.5.7  420
m m m m
 105,  140,  84,  60
m1 m2 m3 m4
m
we know that   b j 1(mod m j )
m 
 j
m
For m1    b1 1(mod m1 )
 m1 
(105)b1  1(mod 4)  4 /105b1  1
 105b1  1  4k1 , k1 is an integer
105b1  1  4k1
1  4k1
b1 
105
put k1  26, b1  1
m
For m2    b2 1(mod m2 )
 m2 
(140)b2  1(mod 3)  3 /140b2  1
 140b2  1  3k2 , k2 is an integer
140b 2  1  3k2
1  3k2
b2 
140
put k2  93, b2  2
m
For m3    b3 1(mod m3 )
 m3 
(84)b3  1(mod 5)  5 / 84b3  1
 84b3  1  5k3 , k3 is an integer
84b3  1  5k3
1  5k3
b3 
84
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m
For m4    b4 1(mod m4 )
 m4 
(60)b4  1(mod 7)  7 / 60b4  1
 60b4  1  7k4 , k4 is an integer
84b 4  1  7k4
1  7 k4
b4 
84
put k4  17, b3  2
By chinese remainder theorem,
4
m
x    ai bi (mod m)
i 1  mi 

m m m m 
  a1b1  a2b2  a3b3  a4b4  (mod m)
 m1 m2 m3 m4 
  (105 11)  (140  2  2)  (84  3  4)  (60  5  2)  (mod 420)
 (105  560  1008  600) (mod 420)
 2273(mod 420)  173(mod 420)

4i) Prove that 42n + 10n  1(mod 25).

42 n  10n  1(mod 25)
proof by mathematicalinduction
n  0
(40  0)  1  1  1  0
 0 is divisible by 25
statement is true for n  0.
n  1, (42  10)  1  25
 25 is divisible by 25
statement is true for n  1.
Assume that the statement is true for n  k
(ie), 42 k  10k  1  25l
Consider 42 k  2  10(k  1)  1
 42 k .16  10k  10  1
 16 (25l  10k  1)  10k  9
 16(25l )  160k  16  10k  9
 16(25l )  150k  25
 25(16l  6k  1)
 25( y)
4  10(k  1)  1 is divisible by 25
2k 2

Statement is true for n  k  1

By principle of mathematical induction,
Statement is true for all n.
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4ii) Find the remainder when (n2  n  41)2 is divisible by 12.

Solution:
First notice that product of four consecutive integers is divisible by12,
(ie), (n  1)n(n  1)(n  2)  0 (mod12)
(n 2  n  41) 2  (n 2  n  5) 2 (mod12)
 (n 4  2n3  11n 2  10n  25) (mod12)
 n(n3  2n 2  n  2)  1 (mod12)
 n  n 2 (n  2)  (n  2)   1 (mod12)
 n((n  2)(n2  1)  1 (mod12)
 (n  1)n(n  1)(n  2)  1 (mod12)
 1 (mod12)
Thus when (n 2  n  41) 2 is divided by12, the remainder is 1.
5i) Find the general solution of the LDE 6x + 8y + 12z = 10
Solution:
Given the LDE is 6 x  8 y  12 z  10      (1)
Here a1  6, a2  8, a3  12, c  10
 (a1 .a2 , a3 )  (6,8,12)  2 and c  10
 d  (a1 .a2 , a3 )  2
Since 2 |10, d | c
So, the given LDE is solvable.
Since 8 y  12 z is a linear combination of 8and 12, it must bea multiple of (8,12)  4
 8 y  12z  4u        (2)
 (1)  6x  4u  10        (3)
First we solve the LDE (3) in two variables x and u
Here a  6, b  4, c  10
(a, b)  (6, 4)  2
d  (a, b)  2 and c  10
Since 2 |10, d | c
So, the given LDE (3) is solvable.
We find x0  1, u0  1 is a solution of (3) is
b a
x  x0  t and u  u0  t , t  Z
d d
4 6
x  1 t and u  1  t , t  Z
2 2
x  1  2t and u  1  3t , t  Z
Substituting for u in (2), we get
 8 y  12 z  4(1  3t )
a b 
Since d=    4 and 4  2.8  (1).12 is a linear combination of 8 and 12.
 8, 12 
Multiplying by (1  3t ), we get
4(1  3t )  2(1  3t ).8  (1)(1  3t ).12
 (2  6t ).8  (1  3t ).12
 a solution of (2) is
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y0  2  6t and z0  1  3t , t  Z
So, the generalsolution of (2) is
b a
y  y0  t ' and z  z0  t ', t '  Z
d d
12 8
y  2  6t  t ' and z  1  3t  t ', t '  Z
4 4
y  2  6t  3t ' and z  1  3t  2t ', t '  Z
Thus the general solution of (1) is
x  1  2t , y  2  6t  3t ', z  1  3t  2t ', t '  Z
5ii) Find the general solution of the LDE 15x + 21y = 39 [NOV/DEC 19]
Solution:
15 x  21 y  39  a  15, b  21, c  39.
d  (15, 21) and d / 39  d  3
So, the given LDE is solvable.
15 x  21y  39  5 x  7 y  13        (1)
then (5, 7)  d  1  d /13
a  5, b  7, d  1
We find x0  3, y0  4 is a solution of (1) is
b a
x  x0  t and y  y0  t , t  Z
d d
7 5
x  3  t and y  4  t , t  Z
1 1
x  3  7t and y  4  5t , t  Z
6i) Solve the linear system [NOV/DEC 19]
5 x  6 y  10(mod13)
6 x  7 y  2(mod13).
Solution:
5 x  6 y  10 (mod13)
6 x  7 y  2 (mod13)
 a  5, b  6, c  6, d  7, e  10, f  2.
m  13,   ad  bc  35  36  71(mod13)  7(mod13)
(, m)  (13,1)  1.
Hence unique solution .
10 6
x0   1 (mod13)        (1)
2 7
5 10
y0   1 (mod13)        (2)
6 2
 1  1(mod13)
7 1  1(mod13)   1  2(mod13)
(1)  x0  1 (70 12)(mod13)  2(70 12)(mod13)  8(mod13)  5(mod13)

(2)  y0  1 (10  60)(mod13)  2(50)(mod13)  2.2(mod13)  4(mod13)

 x  5(mod13); y  4(mod13).
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6ii) Compute the remainder when 3247 is divisible by 25.

Solution:
We have to find the remainder when 3247 is divisible by 25.
We have 32  9(mod 25)
34  92  81  6 (mod 25)
38  62  36  11 (mod 25)
316  112  121  21 (mod 25)
332  212  16 (mod 25)
364  162  6 (mod 25)
3128  62  11 (mod 25)
3247  3128643216421
 3128.364 .332 .316.34 .32 .3
3247  11.6.16.21.6.9.3 (mod 25)
 11 (96) (21) (54)3 (mod 25)
 11 (4) (4) (4) 3 (mod 25)
 44.48 (mod 25)
 (6) (2) (mod 25)
12 (mod 25)
 the remainder is 12 when 3247 is divisible by 25.
UNIT – V CLASSICAL THEOREMS AND MULTIPLICATIVE FUNCTIONS
PART A
1 State Wilson‟s Theorem.
If p is prime , then  p  1 !  1 mod p 
2 State Fermat‟s Little Theorem. [NOV/DEC 19]
Let p be a prime and „a‟ any integer such that p  a , then a p1  1 mod p 
3 State Euler‟s Theorem.
Let m be a positive integer and a be any integer with (a, m)=1 then a (m)  1 mod m 
4 Define Multiplicative function
A number-theoretic function f is multiplicative if f(mn) = f(m) f(n) whenever m and n are
relatively prime.
5 State Fundamental theorem for multiplicative function
Let f be a multiplicative function and n a positive integer with canonical decompositions
n  p1e1 p2e2 ...pk ek then f (n)  f (p1e1 ) f (p2e2 )...f (pk ek )
6 Find (8) , (81) and (15625)
We know that
(pe )  pe  pe1 , p be prime and e be any positive int eger
(8)  (23 )  23  22  8  4  4
(81)  (34 )  34  33  81  27  54
(15625)  (56 )  56  55  12500
7 Find (221)
(221)  (13.17)  (13). (17)  the function  is multiplicative

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= 12. 16  A positive integer p is prime iff (p)  p  1

= 192
8 n
𝑰𝒇 𝒏 = 𝟐𝒌 , then show that the value of Euler‟s phi function (n)  [NOV/DEC 19]
2
We know that (pe )  pe  pe1 , p be prime and e be any positive int eger
k
 1 2 n
Given 𝑛 = 2𝑘 , (n)  (2k )  2k  2k 1  2k 1    
 2 2 2
9 Verify that  (d)  18
d /18
The positive divisors of 18 are 1,2,3,6,9,18
 (d)  (1)  (2)  (3)  (6)  (9)  (18) = 1+1+2+2+6+6=18
d/18
10 Define Tau function
Let n be a positive integer then
(n) denotes the number of positive factors of n that is (n)  1
d/n
11 Define sigma function.
Let n be a positive integer then(n) denotes the sum of the positive factors of n that is
(n)   d
d/n
12 Evaluate (18) and (23)
The positive divisors of 18 are 1,2,3,6,9,18 so that  (18) = 6
23 being a prime , has exactly two positive divisors so  (23) = 2
13 Evaluate (12) and (28)
The positive divisors of 12 are 1,2,3,4,6,12 so that (12)  1  2  3  4  6  12  28
The positive divisors of 28 are 1,2,4,7,14,28 so that (28)  1  2  4  7  14  28  56
14 Find the remainder when 100! Is divide by 101.
We know that, By Wilson theorem “If p is prime , then  p  1 !  1 mod p  ”
p = 101 is a prime, by Wilson‟s theorem, (101-1)! -1 (mod 101).
Therefore, Reminder when 100! Is divided by 101 is 101-1=100
15 Find the number of divisors and the sum of the divisors of 600.
Decomposition of 600 in canonical form
600  23  3 52 where p1  2, p2  3, p3  5, 1  3, 2  1, 3  2
If decomposition of N by canonical form = p11 p22 , p33 .....
Number of divisor  1  1 2  1 3  1 .....  n  1   3  11  1 2  1  24
 p11 1  1  p2 2 1  1   24  1  32  1  53  1 
Sum of divisor     .....       1860
 p1  1  p 2  1   2  1  3  1  5  1 
16 What is the remainder when 100! is divided by  97  2 ?
100! mod 972 = 97*(100*99*98*96! mod 97)
97 is prime. So, 96!( mod 97) = 96
 100*99*98*96!( mod 97) = 3*2*1*96(mod 97) = 3*2*1*(-1) = -6 = 91
So, required remainder = 91*97 = 8827
17 Define Euler phi function or totient function or Indicator function.
Euler phi function represent as   n  gives for a number „n‟ the number of co-primes in the
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[1,2,…,n] , in other words, the quantity number in the range [1,2,…,n] whose greatest common
divisor with n is the unity.
18 Using Fermat‟s theorem, find the last digit of 3100 when divided by 10.
We know that
32  9  1 mod 10 
3    1  mod 10 
2n n

3
250 
  1  mod 10 
50

Therefore last digit = 1

19 Find all positive integers n such that ϕ(n)=6.
We know that ϕ(7)=6, ϕ(32)=6, and ϕ(2)=1 and ϕ is multiplicative
Therefore, the numbers should be 7, 7⋅2=14, 32=9, and 32⋅2=18
20 What is the remainder when 109 divides 17325?
By Fermat‟s theorem,
remainder when 109 divides 17(109-1) is 1 as109 is prime & 109 does not divide 17.
remainder when 109 divides 173(109-1) is 1
remainder when 109 divides [173(108) ]x17 is 1 x17
remainder when 109 divides 17(324+1) is 17
PART-B
1i) State and prove Wilson‟s Theorem [NOV/DEC 19]
Statement:
If p is prime, then (p  1)! ≡ 1 (mod p).
Proof :
We have to prove (p  1)! ≡ 1 (mod p)
When p = 2, (p 1)! = (2 1)! = 1 ≡l (mod 2).
So, the theorem is true when p = 2.
Now let p > 2 and let a be a positive integer such that 1 ≤ a ≤ p  1.
Since p is a prime and a < p, (a, p) = 1.
Then the congruence ax ≡ 1 (mod p) has a solution a' congruence modulo p.
.∙. aa' ≡ l(mod p), where 1 ≤ a' <p  1
.∙. a, a' are inverses of each other modulo p.
If a' = a, then a .a ≡ 1 (mod p)
 a2  1 ≡ 0∙(mod p)
.∙. .p ∣ a  l  p ∣ (a  1) (a+ 1)
2

 p ∣ a  l or p ∣ a + 1
Since a < p, if p ∣ a +1 then a=p  1.
If p ∣ a  1, then a  1 = 0 => a = 1∙
 a =1 or p-1 if a = a'
i.e., 1 and p  1 are their own inverses.
If a' ≠ a, excluding 1 and p  1, the remaining p  3 residues 2, 3, 4, ..., (p  3), (p  2) can be
grouped into p  3 pairs of the type a, a' such that aa' ≡ 1 (mod p)
2
Multiplying all these pairs together we get, 2∙3∙4...(p3)(p2)≡l (mod p )
 1.2 ∙ 3 ∙ 4 ... (p2) (p1)≡ p  1mod p )
(p1) ! ≡  1 (mod p ) ( Since p - 1 ≡-1 (mod p))
Hence the theorem.
This can be rewritten as (p  1)! + 1 ≡ 0 (mod p)
 p ∣ (p  l)! + l,
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which is the result suggested by Wilson.

 np  !
  1   mod p 
n
1ii) Let p be a prime and n any positive integer. Prove that n
n !p
Proof:
First, we can make an observation. Let a be any positive integer congruent to 1 modulo p.
Then by Wilson‟s theorem , a(a  1)...(a  (p  2))  (p 1)!  1(mod p)
In other words, the product of the p-1 integers between any two consecutive multiples of p is
congruent to -1 mod p.
(np)! (np)!
Then n

n!p p.2p.3p...(np)
n
   r  1 p  1 ...  r  1 p  (p  1) 
r 1
n
  (p  1)!(mod p)
r 1
n
  (1)(mod p)  (1) n (mod p)
r 1
2i) State and prove Fermat‟s little theorem.
Statement:
If p is a prime and a is any integer not divisible by p, then a  1(mod p)
p 1

Proof:
Given p is a prime and a is any integer not divisible by p
When an integer is divided by p, the set of possible remainders are 0, 1, 2, 3, ...,p  1
Consider the set of integers 1 a, 2  a,3  a,....( p  1)  a --------------(1)
Suppose ia ≡ 0(mod p), then p  ia.
But p  a .∙. p  i, which is impossible, since i < p.
ia  0(mod p) for i = 1, 2, ...,p  1.
So, no term of (1) is zero.
Next we prove they are all distinct
Suppose ia ≡ ja(mod p), where 1≤ i,j≤ p1.
Then (i  j)a ≡ 0(mod p)  p  (i  j) a
Since pa, pij and i, j < p i  j  < p.
 i - j = 0  i ≡ j(mod p)
.∙. i≠ j  ia ≠ ja.
This means, no two of the integers in (1) are congruent modulo p.
.∙. The least residues (or remainders) of the integers a, 2a, 3a, ...,(p  l)a modulo p are the
same as the integers 1, 2, 3, ...,p  1 in some order.
So, their products are congruent modulo p.
a . 2 a ∙ 3 a ... (p  l) a ≡ 1 ∙2 ∙ 3 ... (p  1) (mod p)
 l∙2∙3...(p  l)∙ a P-1 ≡ (p  l)!(mod p)
 (p  l)! aP-1 ≡ (p-l)!(mod p)
 a P-1 ≡l(mod p) (since p (p-l))
The result ap-1 ≡ l(mod p) is equivalent to a p ≡ a (mod p).
2ii) 1947
Find the remainder when 24 is divided by 17
Solution.
We have to find the remainder when 241947 is divided by 17.
Here a = 24, p = 17
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We know 17 is a prime & 17∣24

.∙. By Fermat‟s theorem, 24l7-1 ≡ 1(mod 17)
 2416 ≡1(mod 17)
.∙. (2416)121 ≡1121(mod 17)
 241936 ≡ 1(mod 17)
Now
241947 = 241936+11= 241936 .2411
242 = 576≡ -2(mod 17)
.∙. (242)2 ≡ (2)2(mod 17)
 244 ≡4(mod 17)
(244)2 ≡42(mod 17)
8
 24 ≡ 16(mod 17)
≡l(mod 17)
2411 = 248.242.24 ≡ (l)( 2). 7(mod 17)
≡ 14(mod 17)
.∙. 241947 ≡ 14(mod 17)
≡ 14(mod 17)
.∙. the remainder is 14 when 241947 is divided by 17.
3i) State and prove Euler‟s theorem.
Statement:
Let m be a positive integer and a be any integer such that (a, m) = 1. Then a Φ (m) ≡ 1(mod m).
Proof :
Given m is a positive integer and a is any integer such that (a, m) = 1.
Let r1, r2, ...,r Φ(m) be all the positive integers < m and relatively prime to m.
Since ri  rj < m, clearly ri ≠ rj (mod m) if i ≠ j
Consider the products ar1, ar2, ...,ar Φ(m)
Since (a, m) = 1,ari ≠ arj (mod m) if i ≠ j
we find ar1, ar2, ...,ar Φ(m) mod m are distinct.
We now prove (ari, m) = 1
For, suppose (ari, m)> 1, then let p be a prime factor of (ari, m) = d.
.∙. p  ari and p m
 p  a or p  ri and p m.
If p  ri and p  m then, (ri,m) ≠ 1, a contradiction.
If p a and p  m, then p  (a, m)  (a,m)  1, which is again a contradiction.
.∙. (ari∙,m) = l, i = 1,2,3, ...,Φ(m)
.∙. Φ(m) least residues ar1, ar2, ...,ar Φ(m) modulo m are distinct and relatively prime to m.
So, they are the same as integers r1, r2, ...,r Φ(m), in some order modulo m.
.∙. their product ar1 ar2 ... ar Φ(m)  r1 r2 ... r Φ(m) (mod m)
 a Φ(m) r1 . r2,, rΦ(m) ≡ r1r2.. r Φ(m) (mod m)
Since each ri is relatively prime to m, (r1r2.. r Φ(m), m) = 1
We get a Φ(m) ≡ 1(mod m)
3ii) Using Euler‟s theorem, find the remainder when2451040 is divided by 18. [NOV/DEC 19]
Solution.
We have to find the remainder when 2451040 is divided by 18.
Here a = 245 = 5 ∙ 72 and m = 18 = 32 ∙ 2 , (a, m) = 1
Hence by Euler‟s theorem,
a (m) ≡ 1(mod m) 245 (m) ≡ 1(mod m)
2
 1
But  (18)   (3 .2)   (3 ). (2)  3 1   .1  6
2 2

 3
 245  1(mod18)
6

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 (2456 )173  1173 (mod18)

2451038  1(mod18)
2451040  2451038 2  2451038 2452
But 245  11(mod18)
2452 ≡ 112 (mod 18)
≡121 (mod 18)
≡ 13 (mod 18)
l040
245 ≡ 1 ∙ 13 (mod 18)
≡ 13 (mod 18)
.∙. the remainder is 13 when 2451040 is divided by 18.
4i) If n  p1e1 p2e2 ...pk ek is the canonical decomposition of a positive integer n then derive the
formula for the phi function   n  and use it to find  (6860) [NOV/DEC 19]
Proof:
To prove : If p is prime and e any positive integer then  ( p e )  p e  p e 1  p e (1  1p )
 ( pe )  number of positive integers  pe and relatively prime to it
= {number of positive integers  pe }-{ number of positive integers  pe
and not relatively prime to it}

The number of positive integers  pe is pe (because they are 1, 2, 3, ..., pe )

The number of positive integers  pe and not prime to it are the various multiples of p.
They are p, 2 p, 3 p, .....,( pe1 ) p
The number of such numbers  pe1
Hence  ( p e )  p e  p e 1  p e (1  1p )
Since  ( p e )  p e  p e 1  p e (1  1p ) is a multiplicative function,
 (n)   ( p1e p2e ... pke )   ( p1e ) ( p2e )... ( pke )
 p1e (1  p11 ) p2e (1  p12 )... pke (1  1
pk )
 p1e p2e ... pke (1  p11 )(1  p12 )...(1  1
pk )
 n(1  p11 )(1  p12 )...(1  1
pk )
To find  (6860) :
 1  1
 (6860)   (22 ). (5). (73 )  2 2 1   4.7 3 1    252
  2   7
4ii) Define Euler phi function and prove that it is multiplicative.
Euler phi function:
Let  : N  N be a function defined by
(1)= 1 and
for n>1 (n)=the number of positive integer ≤ n and relative prime to n.
To prove that it is multiplicative:
Let m and n be positive integers such that (m, n) = 1.
To prove (mn) = (m) (n)
Arrange the mn integers 1, 2, 3, ..., mn in m rows of n numbers each.

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1 m 1 2m  1 3m  1 ... (n  1)m  1
2 m  2 2m  2 3m  2 ... (n  1)m  2
3 m  3 2m  3 3m  3 ... (n  1)m  3
: : : : : :
: : : : : :
r row r m  r 2m  r 3m  r ... (n  1)m  r
th

: : : : : :
: : : : : :
m 2m 3m 4m ... nm
Let r be a positive integer ≤ m such that (r, m) > 1.
We will now show that no element of the rth row in the array is relatively prime to mn.
Let d = (r, m). Then d  r and d  m d km + r for any integer k
This means d is a factor of every element in the rth row.
Thus, no element in the rth row is relatively prime to m and hence to mn if (r, m ) > 1.
In other words,
the elements in the array relatively prime to mn come from the rth row only if (r, m) = 1.
Since r < m and relatively prime to m, we find there are φ(m) such integers r and have φ(m)
such rows.
Now let us consider the rth row where (r, m) = 1.
The elements in the rth row are r, m + r, 2m + r, ..., (n-1)m + r.
When they are divided by n, the remainders are 0, 1, 2, ..., n - 1 in some order of which φ(n)
arerelatively prime to n.
Therefore, exactly φ(n) elements in the rth row are relatively prime to n and hence to mn.
Thus there are φ(m) rows containing positive integers relatively prime to mn and each row
contain φ(n) elements relatively prime to it.
Hence the array contains φ(m) φ(n) positive integers ≤ mn and relatively prime to mn.
That is φ(mn) = φ(m) φ(n).
Hence φ is multiplicative function.

5i)  
If p is prime and e any positive integer then prove that  pe  pe  pe1 . Also show that
n
 n  when n  2k
2
Proof:
 ( pe )  number of positive integers  pe and relatively prime to it
= {number of positive integers  pe }-{ number of positive integers  pe
and not relatively prime to it}

The number of positive integers  pe is pe (because they are 1, 2, 3, ..., pe )

The number of positive integers  pe and not prime to it are the various multiples of p.
They are p, 2 p, 3 p, .....,( pe1 ) p
The number of such numbers  pe1
 
Hence  pe  pe  pe1
n
To prove that   n   when n  2k
2
Given n  2 k
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 1 1 n
  (n)   (2k )  2k 1    2k . 
 2 2 2
2p 1  1
5ii) Find the primes p for which is a square.
p
Solution:
2 p 1  1 2
Suppose  n for some positive integer n. Then 2 p1 1 p n2
p
Clearly both p and n must be odd.
Let p=2k+1 for some positive integer k.
Then 22k 1 p n2  (2k 1)(2k  1)  pn2
Suppose (2k 1) is a perfect square, (2k 1)  r 2  2k  r 2  1
 
2
2 p 1  22k  (2k )2  r 2  1
Since r≥1 and is odd, r = 2i + 1 for some integer i ≥ 0.
Then r2 = (2i + 1)2 has to be an odd number.
But r2 + 1= 2k  r2 + 1 has to divide 2.
 r2 + 1 = 1 or 2.
 r =0 or 1
p 1
r  0, 2  (02  1)2  1  p=0 which is not possible
r  1, 2 p1  (12  1)2  4  p=3
Suppose (2k  1) is a perfect square
(2k  1)  s 2  2k  s 2 1
2 p 1   s  1  s  1
2 2

Then both s -1 and s+1 both must be the factors of 2

s 1  1 or 2, & s  1  1 or 2  s  0, 1, 2 or 3
If s  0; 2 p 1   0  1  0  1  1  p  1 which is not possible
2 2

If s  1; 2 p 1  1  1 1  1  0 which is not possible

2 2

If s  2; 2 p 1   2  1  2  1  9 which is not possible

2 2

If s  3; 2 p 1   3  1  3  1  26  p  7 . Thus p must be 3 or 7
2 2

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